The Translation Studies Reader b1at

l,/ee刀

Daˇ /s

31

N iGO丨 as Perrot D′ Ab|ancOurt

PREFACEs TO TACITUS AND LUCIAN T〃 a刀

3

s/ared b,Law叼 nce

Ve刀〃t`

JOhn Dryden

38

FROM THE PREFACE T0 0yfD′

4

s EPJSTLfs

Friedrich sCh|eiermacher

43

0N THE DIFFERENT METHODS 0F TRANsLATING T'al,s/a芒

5

ed b,/st|sa″ Ber冖 o朽 ky

Johann VVo|fgang vOn GOethe TRANsLATIONS T'an5/a芒 ed by sl,aro冖

Sòa刀

64

Viii 6

cONTENTS 67

Friedrich Nietzsche TRANsLATIONs T'ans/a芒 eC/by Na/芒 er l【 auf/,ia冖刀

1900s-1930s

69

7 Wa|ter Benjamin

75

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRANSLATION OF BAUDELAIRE′ S T∠ BLEAuX PAR∫ s∫ f″ s THE TAsK OF THE TRANSLATOR∶ Trans切芒 ed匆 ″a'/y zo内冖

8

steven RendaHÀ note on Harry Zohn′ s trans ation

83

Ezra Pound

86

GUID0′ s RELATIONS

9

Jorge Luis BOrges THE TRANSLATORS OF T〃 E T'a刀 s∫ a古 ed oy fsfller^〃

94 OⅣ E T″ OUs⒕ rtlD AⅣ D εⅣf ⅣJuˉ ● /Ts

el,

109

I940s-1950s 10 V|adimir NabOkOv PROBLEMs OF TRANsLATION∶ 11

l15 εlJ

fG∫

Ⅳ IN ENGLIsH

128

Jeanˉ Pau| Vinay and Jean Darbe丨 net

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANsLATION T'a刀 s切 fed oy J〃 a″

12

C sage'a冖 dr/lJ″ arie/

ROman JakObson

138

0N LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

I960s-I970s

145

13

153

Eugene Nida PRINCIPLEs OF CORRESPONDENCE

14

Katharina Reiss TYPE` KIND AND INDIVIDUALITY OF TEXT∶ MAKING IN TRANSLATION T〃 a冖 5/a芒 ed

15

168 DECIsION

by sl/sa冖 K`f'ol,

James s. HO|mes

18o

THE NAME AND NATURE OF TRANsLATION STUDIEs

16

GeOrge steiner

193

THE HERMENEUTIC MOTION

17

Itamar Even-zOhar THE POsITION OF TRANsLATED LITERATURE THE LITERARY POLYSYSTEM

199 Ⅵ冫ITHIN

CONTENTs 18

GideOn TOury

iX

205

THE NATURE AND ROLE OF NORMS IN TRANsLATION

⒒980s

2】 9

19

227

Hans J.Vermeer sKOPOs AND COMMIssION IN TRANSLATIONAL ACTION Tl・

20

a冖 s扫

fed b,/^刀 d仰 ll C冖 esre'田 a刀

Andr爸 Lefevere

239

MOTHER COURAGE′ s CUCUMBERS∶ TEXT` sYsTEM AND REFRACTION IN A THEORY OF LITERATURE 21

Ph"ip E。 Lewis THE MEASURE OF TRANsLATION EFFECTS

256

22 AntOine Berman

276

TRANSLATION AND THE TRIALs OF THE FOREIGN T'a刀 sà芒 ed bJ Law'e刀 Ce yel,u芒 ∫

23

shOshana B|um-Kulka

290

sHIFTs OF COHEsION AND COHERENCE IN TRANSLATION

24

Lori Chamber|ain

306

GENDER AND THE METAPHORICs OF TRANsLATION

1990s and heyond 25

323

Annie Brisset

337

THE SEARCH FOR A NATIVE LANGUAGE∶ AND CULTURAL IDENTITY Tl・

26

al,s∫

TRANsLATION

ared by Rosˉ a″ /nd G〃 ∫a冖 d Roge〃 Ga刀 n0刀

Gayatri ChakravOrty Spivak

369

THE POLITICs OF TRANSLATION

27

Kwame AnthOny Appiah

389

THICK TRANSLATION

28

Keith Harvey

402

TRANsLATING CAM P TALK∶ TRANSFER

29

GAY IDENTITIES AND CULTURAL

Jacques Derrida ,/VHAT IS A′ RELEVANT″

423 TRANsLATION?

T'a刀 s/ared by LaNxe冖 ce ye刀〃r′

30 AbO Mark NOrnes FOR AN ABUsIVE sUBTITLING

447

X

31

CONTENTS

Ian RllasOn TEXT PARAMETERS IN TRANSLATION∶ INSTITUTIONAL CULTUREs

32 Lawrence Venuti

470 TRANSITIVITY AN D

482

TRANsLATION` COMMUNlTY` UTOPIA B`b″o9raρ 幻y r/,cy(Px

503 527

AcknOwIedgments

I am gmtcftllto t11c忆 llowhg coPyHght holdcrs br allowing me to usC d1c matc1・ lals that c° mprisc this bo° k:

Kwamc Anthony APPiah,“

Thick TIˉ anslati° n,”

C口 fJdJ° o 16∶

vell, Rri11ted by Pcr∏ 1993by Charlcs H, R° 、

JohnS HoPkns uniⅤ

1iSsi° n

808-19, CoPyright C of thc author and thc

crs⒒ y Prcss

ions,CoPyright Walter Be?jamin,“ The Task ofthe Translator” (1923)⒏ om J`ùr,,in口 ε ⑥ 1955 by SuhrkamP Verlag, Frankfurt a M, Enghsh transIatlon by Harry Z。 hn, coPyright ◎ 1968 and rcne、 ˉ cd 1996 by Harcourt, Inc, reprintcd by pcrmissi° 11° f Harc。 u⒒ ,Inc and by thc publisher f1・ °m11杨 min; `rc,Bci,/口 926cditcd by Marcus Bullock and Michael sc丿 ecr纟 d Ⅱ lirinfs I。 ′ 1Jr,,e∫ , J9丿 3一丿

Jenni11gs,Cambridgc,Mass:Thc BclknaP Prcss of Harvard u11i、 crsity Prcss, copyright c 1998by thc Prcsident and Fcllovvs of HarVard College “ La Traducti° n c。 n11ue oPrcuvC dC r。 trangcr,” 丁召xr召 (1985)∶ “ 67-81 Translauon and the Trials of tllc Forcign” :Translad。 nc° Pyright(D 2000by LaⅥ /rcncc、厂 cnuti Pubhshcd by PcrlniSsi。n of Isabelle Berman ‘ sh° shana Blum~Kulka,‘ ShiRs° fC。 hcsi。 n and C° hcrcncc in Translati° n,” In Juhanc House and Shoshana Blum-Kulka(cds),JnreIFinJu口 F夕 nd fnrcr口 frt`r￠ f Communi )ist/rsc dnd Cρ Jnir】 ° cdrion∶ ￡ n i,, rr口 ns`Jrion cznd s召 c° nd Ι 口,lJu口 Jc ・ 1c呷 tlisirion

Antoinc Bcrn1an,

srudjes, TtIbingcn; Narr, 1986 (T0biI1gcr Bcitragc zur Linguistik 272), pP 17-35 Rrintcd by Pern1ission of thc auth° r and the pubhshcr J。 rge Luis BoIˉ gcs,“ Thc Translators of丁 h召 TJ,ous@nd饣 nd Onc Nifhrs,” trans Esthcr Allcn, ⒒°m scJccr召 d Non-F1cFions l,y JorgC Luis Borgcs, cdited by Eliot

Wcinbcrgcr CoPyright

⑥ 1999 by Maria K。 dama; translati° n copyright

Inc 11sed by Pcrn1iSsion of Viking Pcnguin, a n° f Pcnguin Putnalll Inc

◎ 1999 by Penguin Putnan△ divisi。

XH

ACKN0Ⅵ

/LEDGMENTs

“ Annic B1・ lssct, ThC scarch f° r a Nativc Languagc: Translatl。 n and Cukural ” Idmu” chaPter4in Amic BHssct,△ 、 0oc” riquc ol Tr‘ nsFdrionj「f,召 drre￠ nd Ⅰ n @cbε c, F96s~`9d8, trans Rosalind Gill and R° ger Gannon,

H`tcri9・

T° r。 nt。 :uniⅤ crsity of Tor。 nt°

by Rosahnd Gill and R。

gc1ˉ

Prcss, 1996,PP 162^94 Copyright(D1996

Gannon Uscd by Pcrrnission of thc auth°

r and

thc translat。 rs

’

Lori Chambcrlain,“ Gcndcr and thc NIetaphorics of Translation,’ s丿 Jns13∶ 454-72 CoPyright O1988by Thc UniⅤ Crsity of Chicago RrintCd by pcnuis蚯 on of thc auth° r and the PubhshCr, VhatIs a‘ RclcⅤ ant’ TranslationP” trans,Lawrcncc Vcnuti,Cr氵 cd` JacquCs DCrrida,“ 、 F氵

⑥ 2001 by Thc University of Chicago RePrintcd l)y pcrn1ission of the author and thc PubhshCr ‘ ‘ Itamar EⅤ cn-Zohar, Thc Posidon of Translatcd Litcrature 、・ ithin thc LitcrarⅤ fnquirΓ

27: 174-200. CoPyright

Polysystcm,”

Po召 Fics

Γ°ddΓ 11 (1990》 45-51 Rrintcd by Pcrl111ssion of thc

author and Dukc IJniⅤ crsitⅤ Prcss, Joharln W。 l兔 ang∞ n GoCtlle,“

Tral△

shd。 ns” (1819),trtans Sharon Ⅲ°an Ill R加 ncr

schultc and John"gucnct(cds)ˉrJlc。 rics刂 om Dildε n J⒈

F°

Dc'” d',Chicago∶

TI・

dnsfd历

on∴ 4n.4n‘ ho幻眇:∝ ￡ss哕 s

university oF Chicago Prcss,1992,PP 60^3

C。 Pyright o1992by Thc Univcrsity of Chicago Rhntcd by Pcrrnission of thc Pubhshcr

Kcith HarⅤ cy,“ Translating Can1P Talk∶ Gay Identltics and Cukural T1・ ans托 r,” TI・

口ns`￠ rσ +l2):295-3’

O CoPyⅡ 吵 t◎ 1998” st JCromc Pubh山

Rrintcd by Pcr∏ 1ission of thc auth° r and thc PubliShcr, JamcS s・ H。 lmcs,“ Thc Namc and Naturc of Translation studics” H° llncs, Tr口 ns`czFcd/P口 Pcrs° n cditi。 n,

Tllc

℃

,

From Jamcs s,

Ιi‘ cr口 rl Γr口 ns`dε 1° n口 ntJ丁 r￠ ns`召 Fi。 n sFud氵召s,scCond

Arnsterdam and Atlanta: Edidons Rod° pi, 1994. RrintCd by

pcrmission of tlac estatc of James s Holmes and thc publishcr R° man Jakobson,“ On Lin8uistic AsPec“ °f Translatlon” Replˉ lntcd by Pcrrnission °f thc Publishcr分 om On rrdnsf虿 rion by Rcuben Br。 xl:er(ed),Cambri(lgc,

Mass: Harvard Univcrsky Prcss, Copyright c 1959by thc Prcsidcnt and Fell° ws。 f Harvard Collcgc, me,“ Letter to Pammachius” Translation c° Pˇ ight◎ 2004by Kathleen Das∴ Jσ ° Pubhshcd l,y PcrΠ 1ission of thc translat。 r,

is

Andr苔 Lc灸 vcrc,“ Mother Courage’ s Cucumbers:Tcxt,sy哎 cm and RC犴 acu。 nin a The。 ry of Literature,” Jrodcrn LdnJudJ召 srudi召 s12∶ 4(1982)∶ 3-20,Rrintcd

by Per∏ 1ission of thc N。 rthcast M° dcrn Languagc Associadon and Ria

Vanderauwcra,

Ph师

E Ltx、vis,“ Tk M∞ 比 re J Tlˉ tlnshdon E佼 cts,” In D护 ″nce m TIdzls`口 r,on, ed Josh Graham,Pp.31^62・ CoPyHght◎ 1985by Corndl uniⅤ crsity

Prcss uscd by Pcrn1ission of thc author and thc pubhshcr, Ian Mas° n,“ Tcxt Paramctcrs in Translati° n:TransitivitⅤ and Institutional Culturcs”

In Eva H。 ⅡcoⅤ a, Pctcr sgall, Zuzanna Jettmar。 Ⅴa, Anncly Rothkegd, Dorothcc RothhB~Bastian,and Hcidrun Gcrzymisch-Arb° gast(cds)】 xFoF叼 und lldnsF￠ on lJahrbuch jbcrsctzcn und Dolmctschen4/2),T讧 bingCn:Narr,

i召

F立

2003。 Reprintcd by pcr∏ 1ission of thc auth° r and thc pubhshcr, Vladin吐 r Nab。 k° Ⅴ,“ Pr° blems° f Translation:On昭 in in English,” PdrFisdn R召

ìew22

(1955):496-512 RhntC(ll)y Pcrmission ofthc Estatc of Vladin山 r Nab° k。 Ⅴ .

ACKN0Ⅵ /LEDGMENTs Xiii Eugcnc Nida,“ PrinciPlcs。 fC° rrcsPondcncc” ∝

TJ・

口nsfdrinJ,LCi(lCn∶

Fr。 m

Eugcne Nida, T° ⒒'czrd

d sCjcncc

E J Bhll,1964,PP15671・ Rrintcd by pcrmission

of the auth。 r and thc PubhShCr

Fhcdhd1卜 σ ictzsche,“ Translation” Fronl Fricdrich Nictzschc,F/,召 G口「suIcnc召 ,trans ˉ 、 Valtc】 Kaufmann、 Nc、 Yo1ˉ k∶ Vintage, 1974, pp 136-8 RhntCd by pcr∏ 1ission

Ab怠

of thc PubhshCr and thc cstatc of Waltcr Kaufmann, Malk N。 mcs,“ For an Abusivc subutling,” Flfm QΙ tlrrσ 夕 52(3)∶ 1⒎ -34

Copyri吵 tO1999by tl△ c Rcgcl△ ts of tllc U山 Ⅴcr“ ty of Cahfor血 a RePrintcd by Pern1ission of thc auth。 r and thc LInivcrsity of Cahfornia Press ‘ Ezra Pound, ‘ CJuido’ s Rclations” From ∠ ircrdr Γ￡ss9‘ by Ezra Pound. C° Pyright 1918, 1920, 1935 by E'ra P。 und 1Ised by Pcrl11ission of Nc、 , E)irecti° ns Pubhshing Corporation and Fabcr and Faber Ltd “

TyPc, Kind and In(li、 iduality of Text: Dc0si。 n Mahng in Translation,” trans susan K止 ron,PocrⅠ cs丁 odd「 2∶ 4(1981)∶ 121-31 RrintCd

Kat11a1・

ina Reiss,

by Pcr∏ 1ission of thc auth° r and IDukc IJnivcrsity Prcss stc、

cn Rcndall,“ Z° hn’

AN。 te

on Harry Zohn’ s Translation” An extract f1・。m“ Notcs on ‘ Dic Au屯 al)C dCS tlbcrsetzcrs’ ,” Γ「R

s translation °f Bclllamin’ s

rr口 ducrⅠ 。n,rc,rmin。

(1997)∶

i6RJddcrⅠ

@n∶

Erud召 s sur fc rcxrc召 rs召 s rrα nJormdⅡ 。ns1⒐ 2

`昭 191-206 Rrintcd by Pcrn1ission ofthc aud1or and Pr。

fcss° r

Al`nick

ChaPdelaine,cditor° f TrR. Fricdrich schlcicrmachcr,

“

On thc L)iffcrcnt A/1cth° ds of Translating/’ Translation

coPyright/c 2004by susan Bcrno虫 ky, Pubhshcd by Pcr∏ 1ission of thc trans~ lator

GayatIi Chakrav。 r9sPi、 ak,“ The Pohtics of T1ˉ ansla吐。n,” In GayatH sPivak,O1Iε in thc r。,口 chin召 JnIc为 iJ,c,London

5氵

dc

and NcⅥ 厂York:R° udcd8c, 1993・ RrintCd

by Per∏1ission of thc author and thc PubhshCr,

Gcorgc sttinσ ,“ Thc Hcrmencudc Motion” h Gcclrge⒏ t,lnσ ,=艺仔σ Bcl・ c丿 ;爿 Ψ∝rs Gol Ι ￠IaJudJ召 dnd71dnsFdrion,Ox忆 r(l∶ Ox忆 tl u血 vclslty Pκ ss,1975,Pp 296-303 CoPyriε 11t Ⅱ O1975by Georgc stcincr ReP1・ lntcd by PcrmiSsion of 1ˉ

thc I)ubhshcr

GidcOn Toury,“ Thcàturc an(l Rolc of N° rms in Translati° n” In GidcOn T° ury, D召 scriPF丿 Γ εTrdnsfdrj@n sε 11di召 s ~ dnJ B⒐ °nd, Arnstcrdam and PhiladclPhia:

Bcnjamins,1995,pp 5⒊ 69 CoPyright◎ 1995by John BC丬 amhs B V Rrintcd by pcrn1ission° f thc auth。 r and the Pubhshcr,

Hans J ⅤCrmccr,“ skopos and C。 mmissi° n Trdn5`drjon 丁hcoH,

in Translati° n The° ry” In RcddinJ5in

cd and tlâns Andrc、 ˉChcstcrn1an 〈 Helsink⒈ Ov Finn

Lcctura(Db,1989),PP 173-87 LIscd by pcrrllission of thc auth。 lator,and thc PubhShCr

r,thc trans~

Jcan-Paul Vinay and Jea11Darbclnct,“ A Mcthod° l° gy for Translati。 n” In Jcan-Paul 、1nay

and Jean Darbclnct,ComP夕 r口 riΓ e s⒐ ′isrics olˉ 召nch dnd￡ IaJhsh;H J∫ crl,odoòj少 r Trdns/cI冖 °n,trarls and eds,Juan c sagσ and M J,HamCl, /。 f,・

`ˇ

Amstcrdam and P11iladclPhia∶ :C11jamins,1995,pl) 31」 +2C。 P)right C∵ 1995

by John Bc11jalni11s B V RhntCd by Perrnission ofthc PubhshCr

XlV

ACKNOV/LEDGMENTs

I aⅡ1indcbted

t°

Richard sicburth and Elena Reevcs f° r thcir incisivc and uscful

commcnts on my translation。

f`、 nt。 inc

Bcrman’ s essaⅤ

,

My cssay,“ Tnnslation,Commu血 ” ,ut。 pia,” bcnc6tc,di° m rca山 n箩 by JCan

Boasc~Bcicr,Tcrry Halc,and susan、、/clls,as、 vcll as qucstions and comluents from

aPPrCciatiⅤ c audicnccs、vhcrc I dchvcrcd itin Ⅴarious stagcs of completion For thcsc

°PP° rtunitics to spcak in lccturc scrics, scn1inars and confcrcnccs, I thank ˇ1。 halllmcd Abdcl Aatty and thc or8ani犭 ng comnnktec of thc Fifth Intcrnadonal

Symposium on ComParativc Litcraturc at C缸 ro uniⅤ ersity,Da"d Bcll。 s(Princeton univcrsity),PctCr Bush(BrkiSh CCntrc f° r Litcrary Translati° n,Univcrsity of East Angha,and dlc Inst让 utc of Translati。 n and IntcrPrcdng),Maria Gonz莒 lcz DaⅤ ics

ey Harris (Eur。 PCan stu(lics Rescarch InstRute, of salford),Michacl Henry Heim and KathcⅡ nc King(univcrsity of

(UniⅤ Crsitat dc Vic), GCoff1・ uniⅤ crsity

California at Los Angclcs),SCrcna Jin and Chan sin Wai(Thc Chincsc Univcrsity

of Hong Kong),AlbCrto Alvarcz Lugr兔 and A/1aria Teresa Cancda(univcr蛀 dad dc Ⅴ唿o),Milli∝ llt Marcus(u血 vcrsi” 。f PCn“ uva血 al,M茳 ta Mateo Mart“ ez~ Ba⒒ ol。 mo(umⅤ crsidad dc O"cdo),susan Matthias(New Y° rk u血 vcrsity),Ram。 n Rib造 (univcrsidad dc Barccl° na),and Nich° las R° und(univcrsky of Shefseld) Louisa Scn11ycn,rny cditor at Routledgc,gaⅤ c hcr unΠ inching cncouragcmcnt and hclPft】 l adⅤ icc thr° ughout dlis Pr叻 ect(and PatiCntly wakcd亿 r its dclivcry). Katharinc JacobSOn,Jody Ball and,in its carly stagcs,Nhranda Filbcc、

vcrc suPcrbly

cf6cicnt in gctting a Ⅴcry comPhcated b。 °k int。 Pr。 duction Hannah Hya∏ 1copyˉ cditcd thc print~out、 vith hcr customary prccision and Susan Dunsluorc Proofrcad thc gallcys、 vith carc,

The Italian vcrsc in thc dcdicauon is drawn△ macstro” in J仍

°∏1Mil° De Angchs’ s Pocm“ un

∶Einaudi, 1983).

`Fiiz,cFri(Torin。 I must ackn。、 vlcdgc,ε nally,thc forcbcarancc and inspiration° f Lindsay DaⅤ

ics,

Gcmma Leigh Venuti,and Julius DaⅤ id Vcnuti,who cndurcd my abscnccs during manⅤ months。 f work and wcrc most hdPftllin dis饣 acting me i° m it F° r thc scc。 nd editi°

n,I rchcd on thc assistancc of a numbcr° f PcoPlc The nc、 v

translations vvcrc eXpertly vcttcd by ˇΙ argarct Dcvinncy (Susan Bern° 佧ky’ s klll0σ macher),Janct Marth(Kathlccn Da、 /is’ sJ∝ omC),an(l⒏ CⅤ en Rcndall(my D’

Ablanc。 urt).Richard sicburth gaⅤ c my vcrsion of Jacques Dcrrida’ s cssay a

Painstakingly closc rcading that lcd to many imProvements Patricia Crouch and Miriam Fried hclPfuⅡ y sPottcd tyPograPhical err° rs in thc⒔ rst cditi° n Louisa Scn11Ⅴ cn not。 nlⅤ savv the need f° rd△ is reⅤ ision, but bchcvcd in thc Ⅴalue °f thc f° rm I wantcd to givc it. Christy KirkPatrick grcatly %cilitatcd an oncrous Production Pr° cess. Katc Parkcr ef⒔ cicntly took carc of Pcrn1isSion

paymcnts For、vorkng conditions that、 vcrc csscntial to my ti1ncly complction °f this pr叻 Cd-ˉ ap汀 t△ om bt・ lng gcneral-c句 oyable一 I rcm“ n gratchl t。 Martlla

Tcnncnt

LV Ncw Y° rk

CitⅤ

StCmbcr2003

INTRODUCTION

TransIatiOn studies:an emergi"g disCi卩 Ⅱne

i乱 i找 Γ 弘 : ∷ r括甘W∷ n11∶ 瞿 FsT∶ present。 It ConCentrates on approaches that have been deve|oped during the t、

T∶ J。￡ f∶ ∶∵

品 d∶ 兢旒

^/en-

during thls periOd tieth century`focusing ρartiCu|ar|y On the past thirty years。 It llvas `‖ that trans|atiOn studies emerged as a neⅥ /acadenη ic ne|dàt once internationa|and

interdiscip"nary, The need for a reader is thus part|y institutiona|` created by the /th of the discip"ne` especia"y as evidenced by the pro"feratiOn Of transrapid gro、、 |ator training ρrograms Ⅵ/or丨 dⅥ/ide。 Recent surveys indicate mOre than250òffering a variety of certincates and degrees` undergraduate and graduate`training not on|y

professiona| trans|atOrs` but a|so scho|ar-teachers of trans丨

ation and Of foreign

|anguages and "teratures (Canη inade and Pym 1995/ periodicaHy updated at www。 fut。 es/~apym丿

H arr丨

s1997)。

This groⅥ /th has been accompanied by diverse forms Of trans|ation research and

commentary` some oriented toⅥ /ard pedagogy` yet most faHing、 ^/ithin-or crossing _traditiona|acadenη ic discip"nes`such as|inguistics` |iterary criticisΠ η and anthropo|ogy. The principa丨 tia| se丨

`ph"osOphy`

aim of the reader is tO bring together a substan-

ection from th丨 s∨ aried mass of NA/riting`but in the form of a historiCa| survey

that invites sustained examination of key theoretica| deve|opments of course` edited vo|umes a xvays xA/ork tO denne a吊

e|d` a body of knoⅥ /|edge`

a teXtbook market` and sO they create as much as satisfy institutiona| needs` especiaHy in the case of emergent discip"nes,In trans|ation studies`the broad spectrum

of theories and research methodo|ogies nη ay doom any assessment of its current

INTRODUCTION state to partia| representation` superflcia| synthesis` optirnistic canonization, This reader is intended` nonethe|ess` to be an introduction to the ne|d recognizab|e to the scho|ars who work with丨

n it。

But recognition must nOt be construed as mirror reneCti。

n。

The intention 丨 s

a|so to cha"enge any discip"nary cOmp|acency`tO produce a conso"dation that interrogates the xA/ays in、

-even

^/hich trans|ation is current|y researched and taught by revea"ng 丨 f imp"c it|y_the "nη itatiOns of scho|ar丨 y knolv edge and pedagogica| prac-

tices` to sholv what trans|ation studies have been and to suggest what they might be. Perhaρ s the most effective、 perspectiVe, \、

^/ay to issue this cha"enge is to enab|e a historica| Ⅵ/rote the French

A trans|ator Ⅵ/ithout a historica| cOnsciousness`〃

trans|ator and trans|ation theorist Antoine Berman/ remains \、

a prisOner to h丨 s Or

her representation of trans|ating and to those representations that Convey the、 socia| ′ discourses′ of the rnoment′ (Berman1995∶ 61`my trans ation),In assemb"ng this

reader/ I am suggesting that scho|ars of trans|ation` as Ⅵ/eH as trans|ators` can signi吊

cant|y advance their kA/ork by taking into the historica| contexts in

Ⅵ/hich translation has been practiced and stud丨 ed,

The readings are organized

ntO siX Chrono|ogica| sections丿丨

the date of pub"-

catiOn for each reading aρ pears at the foot of its币 rst page,The docunη ents gathered in the品 rst section` a" predating the tv√ entieth century`have exel'ted such a p0、

^/erfu| 、 foundationa|〃

innuence on|ater practices and cOnη mentary as to、

^/arrant the term、 The next five sect丨 ons are divided into decades of the tlventieth century。

ˇ ∨hether a

decade stands on its OxAln or is Combined vvlith others depends` in the 6rst instance`

on the vo|ume of trans|ation connmentary pubhshed\∧ /ith"η quantity (cf。

it` sheer b丨

b"ographica|

the bib"ographies in N1organ 1959` steiner 1975` Schu|te and

Biguenet 1992). But there is a|so a qua"tative standard∶

as the readings n1ove

towards the ρresent` the |eve| of soph丨 st丨 cation and 丨 nventiveness does in fact rise` and new concepts`methods/and research pr0ects are deve|oped`justifying separate sections for the 1980s and the 199Os and beyond, The sections are each prefaced by introduCtory essays xlvhich describe |η ain trends in trans|atiOn studies/ estab"shing a context for cOnc丨 se eXpOsitions of the

readin9s and caH"η g attention to the XlVork of innuentia| vAyriters` theorists` and scho|ars lArho are not represented by a reading.The section introduCtions are histor-

ica|

ca| advances and

narratives that refer to theoretica| and methodo|Og丨

occasionaHy offer critica| eva|uations, Yet the stories they te" avOid any evO|utionary Iη ode| of progress` as weH as any systematiC critique。 hoⅥ /ever

I 、 Ⅳanted to out"ne`

rapid|y` the history of the present moment in trans|at丨 on studies, And to

some degree this meant asking questions of the past raised by the |atest tendencies in theory and research, The map Of trans|ation studies drawn here` its centers and peripheries` iss丨

Ons and exc|usions` renects the current fraglmentation of the

雨e|d 丨 nto sub-

specia ties` some empiricaHy oriented` some hermeneutic and "terary` and some 丨 nnuenced by various forms of "nguistics and cu|tura| studies \∧ 丨 n produCtive syntheses, The effort to cast a areas of trans|ation research`

/hich have resu|ted

Ⅵ/ide net has not encOmed certain

、、 /hOse Vo|ume and degree Of specia"zation demand

INTRODUCTION g. inter-

separate cOverage regard|ess of their importance to trans|ation studies (e。 preting and lmachine trans|atiOn)。

And breadth of coVerage has "mited depth of

representation for particu|ar theories and approaChes。

The section introductions

airn` in brief space`to supp|y some omissions and tO sketch a histOrica|sett丨

ng。

And

the bibⅡ ography not on|y identines parenthet|ca| references made thrOughout the

bOok` but|ists additiona| pub"cat|ons by particu|ar|y inΠ uentia|or pro"nc authOrs. It

Ⅵ/iH be C|ear that I have tried to cover much_for some` no doubt`too muCh-

in an effort tO suggest the variety of trans|ation studies.

The irnage Of the ne|d fashioned by this reader re佴 ects the contemporary scene

a||the mOre c}Ose|y because it has been produced in consu|tation with many|eading XA/riters and trans|atOrs`theorists and scho丨 ars,They cOmmented on various versions

of the tab|e of contents` responded to questions about particu|ar trans|ation traditions and for|η s of research` suggested speci币

c texts` made "sts of names` and

CritiCized my rationa|e and princip|es Of se|ection and organization.Any authOr or

text that received a re|ative|y |arge number of recOmmendations earned some sort

of representation here. In some cases` my cOnsu|tants encouraged me tO cOHect research that feH Outside their speGia|ty,And sOme he|ped s"mp|y`but rη

ost tangib|y/

by a"owing their wOrk tO be reprinted、 Λ /ithout Gharge. Their names and|ocatiOns∶ Kwame AnthOny Appiah(USA)`ROsemary ArrOjo (∪

sA)` IsabeHe Ber|man ()` Annie Brisset (Canada)` Peter Bush (Spa丨

AndrexA/Chesterman(Fin|and)` Kath|een Davis(∪

n)`

sA)` Dirk De|abastita(Be|gium)`

Jacques Derrida(FranGe)Ìtamar Even-Zohar(IsraeD` Peter FaⅥ /cett(∪ K)` Peter (UK)/ Sean GO|den (Spain)/ Jean-Rllarc Gouanvic (Canada)` BasH Hatim (∪ nited Arab Enη irates)` hllichae| Henry Heim (∪ sA)` Ju"ane H Ouse ()` David Katan(Ita|y)`suzanne Ji" Levine(∪ SA)` PhHip E LeWis(USA)Ìan NqasOn (UK)`Rache|R/lay(USA)Èugene Nida(Be|gium〉 `Christiane NOrd()Àb(ˉ

sA)À|exis NOuss(Canada)Ànthony Pynη (Spain)` E|ena Reeves (USA)` |
Harish Trivedi (India)` pˇ 1aria Tymoczko (UsA)` V argher|ta U|rych (Ita丨 y)` H ans

∨ermeer()`Luise von F|otoⅥ/(Canada)ànd Patr丨 ck Zaba|beascOa(Spain).

Those who eva uated the ρroject fOr ROut edge a|sO came frOm the internatiOna| colmmunity of trans|ation scho|ars∶ for the nrst edition` Neus CarboneH (Sρ ain)`

M ichae Cronin(Ire|and)`|<eith Harvey(UK)`TheO Hermans(∪ (∪

K)Èfrain Krista|

sA)`Caro| Ma丨 er(USA)`Kirsten Ma|mkjaer(UK)`Mark Shutt|ewOrth(UK)`

and pˇ 1artha

Tennent (Spain)丿 for the second edition` susan Bernofsky (∪

SA)`

Stefan Herbretcher(Ul<)` Lars O|e Sauerberg(Denmark)`Corinne Scheiner(USA)` Dan丨 e| Simeoni (Canada)ànd Carnnen∨ a|ero-Garces(Spain). The nrst edit丨 on v￠ as decisive|y shaped by my Advisory Editor` N1ona Baker (∪ |<)`Ⅵ /ho

eva|uated every decision I madeèvery document I vA/rote, She丨 Ⅵ/as trained as a "nguist and

|ation scho|ar、 ^/ho

s a trans-

Ⅵ/hOse ne|d 。f research is cOrpus

"nguistics` Computerized ana|ysis of teXt co"ections氵

my

Ⅵ/ork has fa"en

Ⅵ/ithin

"terary critiCism and cu|tura| studies,meth0d0|Ogica1 lA/e began xvith some sharedlA/hat、 ideas` but /ith }arge differences_theoretica1 pedagogica}, Ⅵ Ⅳe a|so had in

INTRODUCTION common、

^/as a set of basic assumptions∶

gent academic discip"ne丿

that trans|ation studies constitutes an emer-

that research and cOmmentary on trans丨 atiOn frOm other

discip"nes might be usefu}to trans|ation studies` but does not neCessarHy faH

Ⅵ/ithin

/entieth century` it氵 that many cu|tures have strong trans|ation traditions in the tⅥ but that tO be innuentia丨 internationaHy` Ⅵ/rit丨 ng about trans|ation needs to be XA/ritten in or trans丨

ated 丨 nto an internationa"zed |anguage such as Eng"sh (cf.the

rich traditions Of trans|ation cOnη

mentary in Russian`Chinese` Braz"ian POrtuguese`

and Cata anàmong many other anguages`malor and minor).These assumptions did not make any easier the difncu|t pr。 cess of se|ecting texts。 On the cOntrary` they|ed to an effort to |imit the inevitab|e drift toⅥ /ard Eng"sh-丨 anguage traditions

by cOnsidering various untrans|ated materia|s` by gathering previous|y pub"shed trans|ationsànd by presenting ne\∧

/and improved trans|ations of c|assic documents。

/rote re|atiVe|y "tt|e In the end` this reader shoⅥ /s that native speakers of Eng"sh、、

∨estern trans|atiOn theory that has proved innuentia| during the tlVentieth of the ˇ century and certain|y before it,

The differenCes between me and my advisOry editor were equaHyìf not more`

Gant because they resu|ted in many debates over the range of current approaches to trans|ation. These differences and debates reneGted the institutiona| 、 /ing that divisions of acadenaic |abor`testing the notion of interdiscip"narity by sho、 many interdiscip"nes are pOssib|e in trans|ation studiesànd that even if disciρ

do nOt share cOnceptua| paradigms and research methods` they might nOnethe|ess"nes be ed together to advance a ρrOjeCt on trans|ation,The nrst edition of the reader Ⅵ/as the fruit of such a co"aboration` a|though its 6na| form remained |η y so|e responsib"ity, FOr the second edition` I have\^òrked a|one.

What is a translation theOry? The increasing|y interdiscip"nary nature of trans|ation studies has mu|ti p"ed theories of trans|ation。

nterest in a topic` however/ is no guarantee that A shared 丨

Ⅵ/hat is acceptab|e as a theory in one ne|d 0r approach \^/"| satisfy the conceptua| requirements of a theory in others。

In the West` fronn antiquity to the |ate nine~

teenth century/theoretica|statements about trans|ation fe"into traditiona"y de吊 areas of thinking about|anguage and cu|ture∶

ned

rhetoric` |iterary theory` ph"osophy.

And the most frequent|y cited theOrists Comprised a fair|y "mited group. One such cata|ogue might inC ude∶

Cicero`H Orace`Quinti|ian`JeromeÀugustine`Dryden`

Goethe` sch|eiermacher` Arno|d` N ietzsche, Tl/ventieth-century trans ation theOry

revea|s a much expanded range of f讠 e|ds and apprOaches renecting the differentiatiOn Of modern cu|ture∶ not on|y Varieties of "nguistics` "terary criticism` ph"osOphica| specu|atiOnànd Gu|tura|theOry` but experirη

enta|studies and anthro-

po|Ogica{ ne|dⅥ/ork` as xA/e" as trans|ator training and trans|ation practice. Any

of theoretica| cOncepts and trends must acknoⅥ/edge the disCip"nary sites At the same time` in、 ^/hich they emerged in order to understand and eva|uate them。 it is possib|e to |Ocate recurrent themes and ce|ebrated topoi` if not broad areas

of agreement.

INTRODUCTION LOuis l〈 e"y

\cOmp|ete〃 theory of trans|ation \、 has three has argued that a 、

cOmpOnents∶ specincation of funGt丨 on and goa|丿 description and ana丨 ysis of opera/een goa| and Operations〃 (丨 <e"y tions氵 and critica| comment on re|ationsh|ps betⅥ 1979∶ 1), |<eHy is carefu| to obserVe that throughout history theorists haVe tended

to emphasize one of these comρ Onents at the exρ ense of Others。 The cOmpOnent that receives the 9reatest ennphasis` I

、 ⅣOu|d add` often devo|ves intO a recommendat丨

on

or prescription for gOod trans|ating。

The ROman poet HOrace asserted in his ^rs POe古

1o Bc) that the poet

`Ca (C。 Ⅵ/ho resOrts to trans|ation shou|d avOid a certain operation-name|y`、

^/ord-for-wOrd rendering _ in Order to、 Ⅳrite d|stinctive ρoetry. Here the function of trans|at丨 ng is to construct poetic authorship/and the inamediate goa| is a good ρoem in HOratian \On the Different N1ethods of Trans|ating〃 or ROman , In a 丨 ecture entit|ed ′

(1813)`the German phHOsOpher and theO|Ogian Friedrich Sch|eiermaCher advOcated Ⅵ/ord-for-Ⅵ /ord "tera"sm in |anguage that、 an effect of foreignness in the trans|ation∶

、 departs frOnη the quotidian″ to ρroduce 、、 for the more precise|y the trans|ation

adheres to the turns and ngures Of the origina`the more foreign it、

、 /"| seem to its

reader〃 (Sch|eiernnacher` this vo|ume). FOr sch|eiermacher` textua| operations

produce cOgnitive effects and serve cu|tura| and po"tica| functions。

These opera-

tions` effeGts and functions are described and judged accOrding to va|ues that are "terary and nationa"st` accOrd丨

ng tO whether the trans|ation he|ρ s to buⅡ d a

German |anguage and "terature during the Napo|eonic apprOaches that are based on "nguist丨

Ⅵ/ars. EVen wk/ith modern

cs and tend to assume a scientinc Or va|ue-

free treatment of |anguage/ the emphas丨 s on One theoretica| component might be "nked to prescription, During the 1960s 1970s` |ingu|stics-oriented theorists emphasized the description and ana|ysis of and trans|ation operations`producing typo|ogies of equiva|ence that act as normative princip|es to guide trans|atOr training. The surveys Of theoret|ca| trends in the section intrOductiOns have both bene币ted from and revised l<e"y′ s usefu|scheme。 TO nny mind`hoⅥ /ever`the key categOry

in any trans|ation research and cOmmentary is what I sha" caH the re|ative autOnomy of trans丨 ation`the textua|features and operations or strategies that dist丨 nguish it from the foreign text and fronη

teXts initiaHy xvritten in the trans|ating |anguage.

These comp"cated features and strategies are、

^/hat prevent trans|ating from being unmed丨 ated or transparent communication氵 they both enab|e and set up obstac|es to Cross-cu|tura| understanding by Ⅵ/orking over the foreign text. They substantiate the arguments for the impossibHity Of trans|ation that reCur thrOughout the tⅥ

/en-

tieth century, Yet xA/ithout solme sense of distinctive features and strateg丨

es`

trans ation never emerges as an object of study in its oWn right。 The history of trans|ation theory Gan in fact be irnagined as a set of changing re|ationships betⅥ /een the re|ative autonomy of the translated text` or the trans|atOr′ s

actions` and tⅥ/o other categories∶

equiva丨

ence and function Equiva|ence

、、 has been understood as\、 accuracy`〃 correctness`″ Correspondence`″ 、、、 nde"ty`〃 or、 identity〃氵it is a Variab|e notion of hoⅥ /the trans|ation is connected \\adequacy`″

\、

to the foreign text。 Function has been understood as the potentia"ty of the trans-

|ated text to re|ease d丨 verse effects` beginn|ng with the GOmmunication of

lNTRODUCTION information and the production of a response comparab|e tO the one produced by the foreign text in its oⅥ /n cu|ture,Yet the effeCts of trans|ation are a|so sOcia|ànd they

have been harnessed tO cu|tura丨

` eConomic` and po"tica| agendas∶

evange"ca| pro-

grams`commerc丨 a|venturesànd co onia|projectsàs we|as the deve|opment of |anguages` nationa| |iteratures` and aVant-garde "terary movements。

Function is a

variab|e notion of hoXA/the trans|ated text is connected to the receiving|anguage and

cu|ture In some periods`suGh as the1960s and1970s`the autonomy Of trans|ation

is |irnited by the dominance of thinking about equiVa|ence` and functiona"sm becOmes a so|ution to a theoretica| inae`the

丨 mpossib"ity of fxing re|at丨

equiva|ence for every teXt type and every trans{ation situation。

ons of

In other periods`such

as the 198os and 1990s` autonomy is |imited by the donη inance of functiona"sms` and equiva|ence is rethought to embrace what、 deviations frOm the foreign text.

The changing

^/ere previous|y treated as shifts or

丨 nnportance Of a particu|ar theoretica| category`

autonomyèq uiva丨 ence or function` may be deternlined by various factors`

Ⅵ/hether 丨 inguistiC

and "terary` cu tura| and sOcia|. Yet the mOst decisive deternη ination is a partiCu-

|ar theory of |anguage or textua"ty. George Steiner has argued that a trans|ation theory、

\presumes a systellnatic theory of|anguage、 ∧ /ith XAlhich it over|aρ s cOmp|ete|y

or frolm x/vhich it derives as a specia|case aGcording to demonstrab|e ru|es of deduGtion and app"cation″ of |an9uage ex丨

sted。

(Steiner1975∶ 280-1), He dOubted xlvhether any such theory ′ 、 But he neverthe|ess prOceeded to out"ne his oⅥ /n cOnViCtion〃

before offerin9 his re旧 ections On trans|ation。

A trans|ation theory ah∧ /ays rests on partiCu|ar assumptions about |anguage

use` eVen if they are no nnore than fragmentary hypotheses that remain imphcit or unacknollkl edged, FOr centuries the assumptions seenl to have fa"en into tⅥ /o |arge categories∶

instrumenta{ and hermeneutic (cf, |<e"y 1979∶ chap, 1), Some transmunication`

丨 ation theories have assunned an instrumenta|cOncept of|anguage as conη

expressive of thOught and meanin9`lVhere lmeanings are either based on reference to an empirica| rea"ty or derived from a context that is prlmar"y |inguistic` but lmay a|sO encom a pragrnatic s丨 tuation。 Other theories haVe assumed a hermeneutic cOncept of |anguage as interpretation` cOnstitutiVe of thought and meaning` xtlhere meanings shape rea"ty and are inscr丨

bed accOrding to Changing cu|tura| and sOcia|

situations, An instrumenta| conCept of |anguage |eads to trans|ation theOries that

privi ege the communication of ObjeCtive informatiOn and formu|ate typo ogies of equiva丨 ence` minirη

izing and sOmetimes exc|uding a|together any question of func-

tion beyond communication。 '\hermeneutic conCeptva|ues of|anguage|eads trans|atiOn theories that privi丨 ege the interpretation of creative and thereforetodescr丨 be the target-|anguage inscription in the fore丨

gn text` often eXp|aining it on the basis of

sOcia| functiOns and effects.

These concepts Of|anguage and trans|ation are obv丨 tions。

Before they can cOntribute to any exp|anation or

ous|y no more than abstrac丨 nterrOgation of trans|ation

theories and practices` they require ana|ysis in specinc historica| contexts。

In the

section introductions they have been used as heuristiC deVices to describe and dist丨

nguish among different theoretica| texts and trends.

INTRODUCTION εrassr口 o″,a卩卩″caf'o″ s The pr丨 mary audience imagined for this reader is acadenlic∶ instructors and students

in adVanced undergraduate or graduate cOurses in trans丨 atiOn theory` as llve" as theorists and scho|ars of trans|ation and practitioners Ⅵ/ith a theoretica| 丨 nc"natiOn,

The 丨 nstitutiona| sites of such cOurses vary xtlide|y today`

丨 nc|uding not on|y trans-

|ator training programs` but Various other departments and progralms` such as "nguistics` forei9n Ⅵ |anguages` cOmparative ph"Osophy` andtocu|tura| studies, Instructors /H| of cOurse haVe their"terature` oⅥ /n ideas about hoxlv use a book they decide to require or recOmllnend In se|ecting and muHing over the texts that compOse the reader` I thought often about potentia| uses in the c|assroo m, Here are a feⅥ /suggestions.

Read幻

o厂庀a/ly `s古

The chrono|ogica| organization encOurages historica| surveys of theoretiGa| trends by focusing on ρarticu}ar traditions`discip"nesòr cOnceptua|discourses se|ections spanning decades xvithin the tⅥ /entieth century can be grouped to show the irnportant 丨 mpact of the German trans ation tradition(Benjamin`steiner`Berman)`Czech and

Russian fOrma"sm(JakobsOn` Even-Zohar`TOury` Lefevere)`senη iOtics(Jakobson` Lewis)` |inguistics (B|um丬
Theoretica| trends can be constructed according to different` even oρ posing ear"er theor-

narratives of deve|opment, The narratives might be prob|em-so|Ving∶

丨 sts pose prob|ems that are reformu|ated more precise|y and pOssib|y so|ved by|ater 、、 theoretica丨 advances (Nida′ s dynamic equiva|ence〃 is recast in practica| by ∨ermeer′ s emphasis on the trans|ator′ s goa| and conη naission)氵 or theOretica|

approaches based on seeming y incOmpatib|e assumptions are ed in an innOvatiVe synthesis (LeⅥ /is co|mb丨 nes co|η parative discOurse ana|ysis and deconstruction),

The emρ hasis on continuity and progress in such historica|narratives can be rep|aced by an emphasis on discontinuity and present insuf沉

ciencies, Thus` a |ater theorist

Π1ight be seen as posing a ρrob|em for\^/hich ear"er theories proVide a viab|e so|u-

tion (POund recommends that the trans|ator cOnstruGt a sty"stic ana|ogue xtlith ng cu|ture to compensate for the very |oss of foreign "terary texts ln the receiv丨 teXtua|features that Nabokov|aments), 0r a theoretica| advance

丨 n one ne|d might

be treated as a|illlitation in another(Grice′ s conversationa|\\maxirns″

enab|eB|um-

s discOurse ana|ysis but undergO Appiah′ s ph"osophica| critique)。 groupings are most productive` in other \^/ords` 、 l〈

uH

aⅥ/areness

H istorica|

^/hen they are accOmpanied by an

of the different narratives that might struCture the critica| reading of the

se|ections.

Read晌 elI,afta/ly The chrono|ogica| organization can a|so

be set aside in favor of tracing specinc

thelales in trans|ation studies。 se|ect丨 ons can be grOuped to exp|ore assumpt丨 ons

INTRODUCTION about|anguage use(instrumenta| ∨s hermeneutic)`theoretiCa| concepts(trans|atab"ity and re|ative autonomy` equ丨 va|ence and shifts` reception and function)` trans|ation strategies (free vs. |itera` sense-for-sense vs。

Ⅵ/ord-for-Ⅵ /ord` domesti-

cating vs。 fOreignizing)` particu|ar genres or text types (humanistic` pragmatic)`

and various cu|tura丨 and po"tica| issues(identity and ideo|ogy`poⅥ

/er and minority`

discip"nes and institutions)

A ρarticu|ar theme Ⅵ/"| bring together a spectrum of differing approaches。 The

n`POundànd 9enre of poetry`for examp eìs at the center of the texts by Benjam丨 Nabokov/but a|so those by Dryden and Goethe,Sch|eiernη acher` LexA/isànd Derrida address the trans|ation of ph"osophy A theme can a|so provide a Cross-seCtion of 、、 /ork in a speci币 c period. Po"tica|agendas for trans|ation are described and theor-

ized in the 199os frOm different perspectives and situations (Brisset` spivak` Appiah` H arvey` N Ornes). se|ections can be made contrapunta"y`bringing together diverging treatments. BOth D′ Ab|ancourt′ s practices and ∨inay and Darbe|net′

s

methodo|ogy raise ethica| questions when juxtaposed tO Berman丿 Chamber|ain inG丨 udes a fennin丨 st critique of steiner氵 Rll ason′ s eXamination of European ∪nion documents suggests that Vermeer′ s functiOna"sm becomesideo|ogica"y cOmp"cated in pO"tica| 丨 nstitutions。

t/se st//9/’ /emel,古

a-/read`rTgs

Any approach to this reader xvi|| be strengthened by a fu"er historica| or theoretica| cOntext, H istor丨 es of trans|atiOn theory and practice noⅥ / exist for lmany

BaHard1992`Cope|and1991/cronin1996` Pym 2000` star|<e 1999` TymOczkO 1999` van Hoof 1991` ∨ermeer 1992),

|anguages`traditions and periods(e。

g。

Theoretica| texts in particu|ar trans|ation traditions have a|so been co"ected (e,g.

st0rig 1963` H Orgue"n 1981` BaCardf` FOntcuberta and Parcerisas 1998)。 Reference xAlorks` such as Baker′ s encyC|opedia (1998) and Shutt|eⅥ /orth and Cowie′ s dictionary (1997)` can be usefu丨

in situating particu|ar texts in the disci-

p"ne Of trans|ation studies∶ they ρrovide deta"ed entries on theoretica丨

concepts and

research methodo丨 ogies and inc|ude h丨 storica| surveys of trans|ation trad丨

tions "η

Various "nguistic communities An instructor might create more |anguage-specinc /ith such reference kt/orks as FranGe′ s guide(2000)to |iterary trans|ating contexts、、 in Eng"sh` and Chan and Po"ard′ s encyc|opedia (1995) of theories and praGtices fOcusing on trans|ation betⅥ /een Chinese and Eng"sh Supp|ementary read丨 ngs can be strategic in deepening the representation of a

tradition`Conceptòr theme.The ph"OsOphiGa| debates on trans|atab"ity are represented in the reader by Appiah and Derr丨

da。

They might be deVe|oped further xvith

teXts by Quine (1960)` DavidsOn (1984)` and NlacIntyre (1988)。 Nlleschonnic′ s hermeneutic Orientation(1973)is important for understanding Bermanànd Brown and Levinson′ s pO"teness theory (1987) for Harvey。 Spivak′ s pOstco|onia| renections can be extended thrOugh the histOrica|and theoretica| |inks betwkleen trans|ation

and co|onia| discOurse estab"shed by N丨

ranjana (1992) and Bhabha (1994). And

/ho are not represented of cOurse an instruCtor |η ight assign in伺 uentia| theorists、、 here by a text` but nonethe|ess discussed

丨 n the section introduCtiOns, Sperber and

1NTRODUCTION W"son′ s reVe|ance theory (1986) infor|η s the approach to trans|ation in Gutt (1991)`、 Ⅳhich might be prOductive|y studied

丨 n re|ation tO Derrida′ s notion of re|e-

vant trans|ation。 The |ists of、

\Further reading〃 that conc|ude each introductiOn can be usefu| in

ng c|assroom debates, These very se|ective |ists refer tO critica|cOnη mentary on theoretica| trends and concepts and on the work of speci币 c theorists. initiat丨

Antho ogies are a|ways judged by what they exc|ude as we丨 given its space|imitations and se|ection criteria`Ⅵ

|as inc|ude.This reader`

/i|| prove no exception, I am keen`

therefore`tO hear from instruCtOrs Who have adopted it for c|assroom use`whether successfu"y or lAyith frustration, InformatIon conCerning actua| reading assignments` the he|pfu|ness of the introductory materia1 and the usefu|ness of

articu|ar ρ

texts

xA/iH be inva|uab|e in cOnsidering revisions for subsequent editions, P|ease direct any

comments to me care Of Rout丨

edge。

sluθ Ⅱθ unoJ l口 ls Iuuo!l口卩

■

￠ ∶⒊ 虽 :t∶ :置 1∶ :∶ t:‖ ∶{丨 l兰 e∶ f∶

p}::罗 tl∶ ∶ ;∶ :It扌】 lⅠ另;t刂 :∶ ∶∶d犭 not exist in c|assica| antiquity. XlVhen commentary about trans|ation nrst appears I■

t∶ i⒎

in the∨ ∨estìt tends to take the form of 丨 ng remarks`not systemat丨

c ar9uments`

and it is s|tuated in the academic discip"ne of rhetoric, Indeed`the flrst innuentia|

commentators_C|cero`P|iny the YOunger`Quinti ian_are aH distinguished ROman orators NVhO cOnsider trans|ation as a pedagogica| exercise for aspirants tO their profession In De oρ fimo9e/,eè orarc,rL//,9(46 Bc)` C|cero desCribes how` in order to、

、 be

usefu| tO students`〃 he cornposed Latin versiOns Of speeches by the Greek oratOrs` 、 I did not trans|ate them as an Aeschines and Demosthenes (C丨 cero 1949∶ 365) ′

εrpres]/〃 he lA/rites`

interpreter EJ,ec co/,ye'‘ `tJr `/,亡

but as an orator` keeping the same ideas and the formsòr as one might say` the \\ngures〃

n |anguage whiCh cOnforms to our of thought` but 丨

usage, And in so do丨 ng I did not ho丨 d it necessary to render

Ⅵ/ord for

Ⅵ/ord` but I preserved the genera| sty|e and force of the |anguage. (Ibid。

Here trans丨 ation serves the study and imitat丨

on of rhetorica| rnode|s` it

)

丨 s a spring-

/ and better speeches` and this function requires a board for the invention of ne、、 discurs丨

text、

ve strategy that is free` paraphrastic`focused on the meaning Of the foreign

^/h"e adhering tO Latin norms, s remarks point to another discip"ne in Ⅵ/hiCh trans|ation is praCticed

C|cero′

at this tirne∶

′ gramrnar, The granη marian Or\、 interpreter′ |ikewise uses trans|ation

14

FOuNDATIONAL sTATEMENTs

to serve an acade|mic function`

、 ^/hich in this case is "nlited to Hnguistic ana|ys丨

s

and textua| exposition. ROman education is b"ing ua` students are taught Greek as Λ 、 /eH as Latin` and trans|at丨 on exerc丨 ses are routine|y innp|emented in |anguage |earning and "terary study, Because of such uses` the grallnnnarian favors a rather

different disGursiVe strategy` interpreting the foreign text much more c|ose|y` renderin9 it、、

^/ord for、

、 /ord.〃

In ancient ROme` the sparse cOmments about trans|ation renect the pecu"ar institutiona| status of this、、 /rit丨 ng practice. It is subordinated to the procedures and

educationa| aims of tNlvo academic discip"nes` rhetoric and grammar。

Yet it is a|so

irnprinted by their riva|ry for cu|tura| authority In distinguishing his use of trans-

|ation from that of the grammarian` Cicero suggests that grannmatica| trans|ation is not usefu|to the orator。 It is rhetoric` mOreover`that achieves dominance` main|y because Of its caρ aCity to dep|oy various kinds of knoⅥ/edge for socia|and po"tica|

purpOses, Orators argue |ega| cases and occupy 9oVernment Ofnce氵

grammarians

Ⅵ/ork in a strict|y academic capacity The use that Cicero assigns to trans|ation |makes c|ear that it enacts another`

more emu|ative riva|ry betlveen ROman and Greek cu|ture。

In the Repub"c and

ear|y Empire` ROman authors sought to capita"ze on the cu|tura|prestige of Greece by submitting G reek texts tO various forms Of trans|atiOn and adaρ tation。 Thus they imp"cit|y eXpressed the丨 r adlmiration for those teXts

Ⅵ/hi|e aggressive|y rektlr|ting

them to create a distinctiVe|y Latin "terature H Orace′ s ^`s POer`ca not on|y assumes the d丨 scip"nary riva|ry that informed ROman trans|ation(he sides with the orators)` but a|so indicates how the free trans|ation of Greek texts might a丨 d poetic cOmposition∶ It is difncu丨 t to treat Common|matter in a xlvay that is particu|ar to you氵

and you、

^/ou|d do better to turn a sOng of Troy into dramatic acts than

to bring forth for the nrst t me something unknown and unsung Pub"C

materia{ w"| be priVate property if you do not |inger over the connmon

and open Ⅵ/ay` and if you do not render llvord for erF,res彐 trans丨 ator E`刀古

Ⅵ/ord "ke a faithfu}

。 (Trans, in COpe|and 1991∶

29)

Horace adVocates a rhetorica| imitation of the foreign teXt Ⅵ/hereby the HOmeric eρ ics (、

、 a song of Troy〃 ) beCome sites of invention fOr the Latin poet` the

、、 pub"c

materia〃 frolm、、 /hiCh \、 private〃 poems are produced` pOssib|y through a change in genre, These poems are not sO much \\neⅥ ′as different in a、 /′

^/ay that exhibits the

s individua|ta|ent,

poet′

The cu|tura|functions of ROman trans|ation stress the re|ative autononny of the trans|ated text` minirη izing the importance of equiva丨

enCe by de吊

n丨

ng it as a genera|

semantic and sty"stiC cOrrespondenCe In|ate antiquity`hoⅥ /ever`patristiC Commentary mOves equiva|ence to the center of thinking abOut trans|ation because the foreign texts at issue are often key re"gious documents/ notab|y the Bib|e. In De doC古 r∫ J,a C/l``sfà刀 a (428 AD)` Augustine argues for the authoritative accuracy of the septuagint`the Greek version of the HebreⅥ

/scriptures prepared in the third

FOUNDATIONAL sTATEMENTS

15

Vs、、 /orking indecentury Bc. He rehearses the |egend of ho、 ^/seventy H e"en|stic Je、、、 pendent|y` separated in various Ce"s`″ nonethe丨 ess Ⅵ/rote the eXact same

trans|ations(Aug ustine1958∶ 49).\\In a"the more|earned churches/′ Augustine observes` \、 it is nokt/ said that this trans|ation

Ⅵ/as so inspired by the Ho丨 y Sρ

irit

that many spoke as if Ⅵ/ith the mouth of one`〃 |eading hina to Conc|ude that、、 even though something is found in Hebrew vers|ons different fronq Ⅵ/hat they haVe set do、、 /n` (ibid。

I think kAle shou|d cede to the divine dispensation by

、 ∧ /hich they wOrked〃

) Augustine′ s standard of accuracy is nOt so much c|ose adherence to the

fOreign text as an institutiona| Va"dat丨 on that the trans|ation is divine|y inspired regard|ess of its deviations.

Ear|y Christian cOmmentators take up the paraphrastic trans|ation typica| of their ROman predecessors`but it is detaChed fronη the discip"nary and cu|tura|riva|Trans|ating that

ries that deterllnined its va|ue for orators` poets` and p|aykvrights。

focuses on the sense Of the foreign teXt` Ⅵ/hen that text is the Bib|e` inevitab|y assumes a re"gious signi吊 Cance∶ the resu|ting trans|ation is seen as a transparent representation of divine|η eaning,、 /ord-for-Ⅵ /ord renderings GOnne to be stigrnatized /、

not s丨

rnp|y because they cOntain infe"cit丨

es` given the |eXica| and syntactica| differ-

ences betxtleen |anguages` but because they interfere xAlith the transmission of God′

s

Ⅵ/ord NOnethe|ess`the Christian appropriation of the ROman tradition mystifes the extent to、 Λ /hiCh |η eaning-oriented trans|ation actua"y revises foreign texts.

This mystifcat|on can be g"mρ sed 丨 n the 币rst reading that appears beloⅥ JerOme′ B丨

s丨

ndignant|y defensive Le‘

/`

His treatment of

fer fc, F’ an9l/,ac/l`tls(395AD)。

b|e trans|ation turns cOntradictory in丨 ts attempt tO synthesize pagan and Christian \sense for sense〃 versiOn of a papa| |etter` he eVinces his

sources, In justifying his、

respect for the ROman cOmmentators Whi|e reservinq a、

、 word for Word′ ′method

for Scripture becauseàs he states` \\the very order of the lA/ords is a mystery/′

he a|so re"es on the authority of the Gospe|s`

Yet

、

`/hiCh are shOlA/n tO cOntain various

free renderings of the Hebrelv Bib|e that differ from the septuagint, U tirnate|y he 、 \in scripture one must consider nOt the、 Λ asserts that /ords` but the sense,″

Behind this contradiction "es the c|ose connectiOn betxlt/een sense-for-sense trans|ation and Bib"ca| exegesis. Jerome′ s eXamp}es from the Gospe|s inc|ude renderings of the O|d Testament that do not mere|y express the′ nx it by imposing a Christian interpretation.Thus N1attheⅥ the B0ok of HOsea— 〃

/′

、 sense〃

s vers丨

but rather

0n of a sentence

0ut of EgyptI have caHed my son″ _inscribes a prophetic meaning that refers to the Ho|y Fanη i|y′ s night from Herod` l/vhereas the Hebrew

fron冂

text reads quite d丨 fferent|y∶

I ca"ed my son〃

、、 ∨ ∨hen Israe|Ⅵ/as a ch"dI |oved hinη

Jeronae′ s Latin version of the Bib|e` the

ànd Out of Egypt

∨u|gate` sirnHar|y

Christianizes Judaic themes (|<e"y 1975∶ 162)。 It fna"y rep|aces the Septuagint and becOmes the trans|ation authorized by the Catho"c ChurCh。 ∨ ∨ith fellv exceptions` commentators foHolA/ Jerome′ s va"dation of sense-for-

sense trans|ation through the M idd|e Ages and into the Renaissance` so that when the trans|ating |anguage is no |onger c|assiCa| but vernacu|ar` his preceρ ts are st"| echoed. His innuence extends even to heretica| sects

Ⅵ/hO GhaHenge the authority of

the ∨u|gate。 The pro丨 ogue to the V∨ yc"fnte Bib|e (c。 1395) asserts that \\the beste trans|ating丨 sòut of Latyn intO En9"sh`to trans丨 ate aftir the sentence and not one"

16 aft丨

FOuNDATIONAL sTATEMENTS r the vvOrdis` so that the sentence be as Opin either openere in Eng"sh as in

Latyn〃 (H udson1978∶

68) The emphasis on inte"igib"ityòn making the|anguage than Jerome′ s Latin` shows that the avoid-

of the trans|ation even more \\opin″

/ord-fOr-Ⅵ /ord trans|ation is a prOse|ytizing move designed to increase access ance of Ⅵ

to the sacred text。

N门

artin Luther′ s Version of the Bib|e (1522` 1534) sOught to

disp|aCe the \/u|gate by re|ying on High German` a dia|ect that is spoken by \、

the

mother in the home`the chi dren on the street`the common man in the marketp|ace″

(Luther 196o∶ 189), Yet he app"es Jerome′ s sense-for-sense strategy and

inscribes Protestant theo|ogy through subt|e revisions. In his 1530 |etter on trans|ating`for examp|e` Luther its that he inserted a

Ⅵ/ord(a//e`″

a|one〃

`meaning\、 \on|y〃 or ′ ) in Jerome′ s version of a Pau"ne epist|e` arguing that the addition 、 \ConVeys the sense of the text″

∶188).In effect`hoxA/ever`the apost|e is trans-

(ibid。

formed into an advOcate of the Lutheran doctrine Of justincation by faith a|one.

The spread of humanist curriCu|a ensures that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the c|assica{ GO m|η

entators Ⅵ/iH dOminate the discussion and

Occasiona"y citing Cicero and HOrace as their

practice of "terary trans|ation。

mode|s` pOets produce free versiOns that are not a|Ⅵ /ays distin9uished fro丨 η origina丨

cOmpOsitions and Ⅵ/ou丨 d today faH into the category of adaptations, This deve|opment derives part|y fronη

a preva|ent COnception of authorship as imitation (G reene

1982), Hence the versions of Petrarch′ s sonnets Ⅵ/ritten by Tudor courtiers|ike s丨

r

Thomas∨ ∨yatt and Henry Ho、

^/ardèar of surreyàre nOt identined as trans ations when they initia"y circu|ate in manuscript or nnaHy see print in Richard TOtte|′

s

n/``sce//a/,y (1557), M eankl/hHe trans|at丨 on is regarded as a practice that can be

usefu| in the construction Of a nationa| cu|ture, E"zabethan trans|atOrs suCh as sir

Thomas HOby and Ph"emOn Ho"and disp|ay a deep nationa"st inVestment in their wOrk∶ by mak丨 ng ava"ab|e c|assica| and contemporary texts such as Castig"one′ T沟 e

Co‘

s A/a古 LJra/

〃

s

o-y (1601)` they see then,se丨 Ves as

`rrèr(1561) and P|iny′ perfOrming the pub"c service of educating their`s∠ countrymen (E be丨

1969)。

The funGtiona"sm that accompanies sense-for-sense trans|ation since antiquity is noⅥ /rede⒖ ned

to nt different cu tura| and sOcia| rea"ties, Trans|ators are forth-

|ht in stating that their freedOms are intended not mere|y to imitate features of 氵 ∶ iterary text in its oⅥ the foreign texts` but to aHoⅥ /the trans丨 atiOn tO wOrk as a 丨 ri{∶

/n

right/eXert丨 ng its force within native traditiOns.As a resu|t`trans|ation is strong|y

domesticating` assimi|ating foreign "teratures tO the |inguistic and cu|tura| Va|ues

of the receivin9 situation, The FrenCh trans|ator NiGo|as PerrOt d'Ab|anGOurt is exemp|ary in e|evating acceρ tabHity in the trans|ating cu丨 ture Over adequacy to the foreign text。

In the prefaces that are inc|uded in this vo|ume` D′ Ab|ancourt rationa"zes his substantia| revis丨

ons Of TaCitus (1640) and Lucian (1654) by appea"ng to the

canOns of French |iterary taste that his trans|ations he丨

he argues`

、、 require not on|y different

resu|ts in trans丨

p to form. \\Diverse t″ nes`〃

Ⅵ/ords` but different thoughts.〃 This vieⅥ /

ations that are c|earer and more sty"stica"y fe"citous than the

foreign texts` but a|so bowd|erized。

D′ Ab|ancourt

te"s his reader that he xA/ishes to

\offending the de"cacy of our Language〃 avoid both 、

and causing mora| offense。

He is Very lmuch aware that his discursive strategies nOut conventiona| notions Of

FOUNDATIONAL sTATEMENTs

17

equiva|ence, Yet he makes c|ear that |η is domesticating choices are not arbitrary` but based On an interpretation that disp|ays an acute sense of historiGa| difference. He just does not fee|that this d丨

fference is worth preserving in it5e f and certain|y

not at the cOst of departing from an e{egant sty|e as he cOnGeives it, D′

Ab|ancOurt initiates a trans|ation traditiOn、Ⅳhose prOducts are soon |abeHed

\\|es beHes infdO|es`〃

beautifu| but unfaithfu|, H丨 s ideas gain prestige from his hip in the Acad首 mie Franqaiseànd thrOughout the eighteenth century they are given diverse formu|ations and app"catiOns` sOme more extreme than Others.

AntOine HOudar de |a №notte prefaces his version of the describing his |η any revisions in accOrdance、

tO ensure cOntinuity of character`〃

he 、

∫″acy(1714) by frank|y 、、 I have tried

^/ith 、、neoC|assica| va|ues。

sinCe it is this point _ lA/hich has

^/rites`

become so、 Λ /eH estab"shed in our time_tO lA/hich the reader is most sensitiVe` and that a sO makes him the sternest judge′ ′(Lefevere1992a∶ 3o).Pierre e TOurneur

sim"ar|y introduces his Version of Edward YOung′ s A/∫ 9/l古 T幻 ougPlrs (1769) by 、 stating his 、 intention to dist"| from the Eng"sh ˇoung a French one to be read vho xAlou|d not have to ask themse|ves 、、 /hether the book they lA/ere read丨 ng、、 /as a Copy Or an origina′ ′(ibid,∶ 39), XA/ith p|easure and interest by FrenGh readersˇ

Le TOurneur′ s nOt dist丨 nguish bet、

co|η

ment is remarkab|e for its conceptua|s|eight of hand.It does

Λ /een a trans|atiOn that produces an effect equiva|ent tO that of

the foreign text and a trans|atiOn that produces the iHusion of origina"ty by effacing its trans|ated status The tradition of /es be//es `刀 o0/es repeated|y cO"apses this /ˉ

distinction` asserting a correspondence to the foreign author′ essentia{nneaning of the foreign text、

s intention or to the

h"e perfo丫 nη ing reVisions that ansxA/er to `√

is inte"igib|e and interesting in French cu|ture. The sheer fam丨

|丨

Ⅵ/hat

arity of the trans-

|ation` of its |anguage and sty|e` enab|es it to seem transparent and thereby for the origina|。

Eng|ish commentary during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is decisive|y innuenced by French deve|opments. POets such as Abraham CoⅥ /ey`sir John Denham` and sir Richard Fanshawe mOst |ike|y encounter D′ Ab|ancOurt′ s wOrk in `Ⅵ /here they foHolArthe eX"ed court of Char|es I after the Civ"VVar, Denham′

s

preface tO The DesFrtlcrò刀 of Troy(1656)` his version of the seGOnd book of the /le刀 e`￠

announces his a|egiance to a sense-for-sense strategy that avoids|itera

、 renderings` 、 the vu|gar error〃 of\、 being 厂

fe‘ ρ res/′

/and instead rewrites the

`dl/sJ刀 foreign text in Eng"sh cu|tura|(Denham1656∶

A2v).\、 If /`r9〃 must needs 、 speak Eng"sh/′ Denham asserts` 、 it xA/ere nt he sh0u|d speak not on|y as a man of this Nation` but as a man of this age〃 (ibid.∶ A3r). Denhanη makes good his pronouncement by casting the unrhymed Latin verse in the heroic coup|ets that are

beginning to dominate Eng|ish poetry`whi e"kening Trojan architecture to the rOya|

bu"dings in En9|and. After the Restoration` John Dryden revises the c|assica丨 distinction between rhetorica| and grammatica|trans|ation to take 丨 nto the practices emp丨 oyed by his Eng"sh predecessors。 his antho|ogy oˇ

E/,/s古

The eXtract reprinted here` draⅥ /n from the preface to /es (168o)` shoⅥ /s him tracing an Eng"sh tradition of

`d‘ lA/hiCh stretches back to the start of the seventeenth century, notab|e poet-trans|ators

Dryden situates h丨 mse|f in this tradition` a|thOugh he is carefu| to dec|are his

18

FOuNDATIONAL sTATEM ENTs

preference for a moderate|y free strategy/ \\Paraphrase` or Trans|ation with Latitude`〃 which seeks to render meanings。

He rejects not on|y wOrd for word

Versions as |acking nuency or easy readab"ity (、、 either perspicuity Or graCefu|ness 、、 /H| frequent|y be、 Λ Inη itations〃 that adapt the foreign teXt so Ⅵ /ant|ng〃 )` but a|so as to serve the trans|ator′ s oⅥ /n "terary ambit丨 ons. |the sa|η e` Dryden underestirnates the extent to vvhich paraphrase faHs short

A丨

of maintaining a semantic corresρ

ondenCe and is actuaHy transformative, He

suggests that xA/hen structura| differences between |anguages comp"cate the trans|ator′ s

task` the goa| shou丨 d be \\to vary but the dress/ not to a丨

substance″ -as if a change in the means of exρ

ress丨

ter or destroy the

on did not change the substance

expressed` especia"y xAl丨 th "terary genres such as poetry. The c|othing metaphor

assumes an instrumenta|concept of|anguage、

Ⅳhereby communication is untroub|ed

by "nguistic and cu|tura| differences, It is precise|y this assumption that under"es A|exander Fraser Tyt|er′

s Essay

o/,f/,e Pr`刀 C忉 /eS Of Tra/,s/a古

ò/,(1791)`the nrst because systematic treatise in Eng"sh.FOr he re"es on the En"ghtenTyt|er` intercu|tura| communication is ρossib|e ment notion of an essentia| human nature endoⅥ /ed Ⅵ/ith reason. Thus he de吊 nes 、、 g0od〃 trans|ation as producing an equiva|ent effect that transcends the differences betxA/een |angua9es and cu|tu res∶

the merit of the origina| Ⅵ/ork is sO cOmp|ete|y transfused into another |anguage` as to be as distinct|y apprehended` and as strong|y fe|t` by a native of the cOuntry to\∧/hich that |anguage be|ongs/ as it is by those 、、 /ho speak the |anguage of the origina|

、 /ork。、

(Tyt|er1978∶ 15) TO achieve this effect/Tyt|er recommends paraphrastic trans{ation that ilmitates the \ease of origina| GOmpo\\ideas〃 and \、 sty|e〃 of the foreign text and possesses the、 or such nuenGy as tO see|η untrans|ated (ibid,)。、 ′ Yet the、 merit′ of the foreign text is judged`not according to uniVersa|reasOn`

sition`〃

but according to the standards Of the receiving cu|ture` pre-empting any equiva|ent

effect, Tyter app|auds A|exander POpe′ s trans|ations of the HOmeric epiGs (1715_1726) for de丨 eting ages that \\offend/ by introduCing |oⅥ / images and puer"e a"usions″

(ibid。

∶79). Tyt er′ s standards are not s丨 mp|y British氵 they a|so e"te of Ⅵ/hich he is a member。 He urges the trans-

renect the taste of the cu|tura丨

\preVent that ease Eof origina| composition彐 |ator to 、

fronn degenerating into

by refusing to render classica| |iterature into popu|ar dia|ects and "Centiousness〃 discourses∶

If we are just|y offended at hearing∨ irgi|speak in the sty e of the EVening POst Or the Da"y r`、 Ⅳhat must xA/e think of the trans|ator`、

^/ho makes the sO|emn and sententious Tacitus express himse f in

/aiters of a tavern。 the |ol/v cant of the streets/ or in the dia|ect of the、、 (ibid。

∶l19)

FOUNDATIONAL sTATEMENTs Tyt|er′ s \\prinCip|es〃

enta" the inscription of the foreign text

cu|tura|va}ues that prevaH in the receiving situation`starting、

ard dia|ect of the trans|ating |anguage,

19

Ⅵ/ith "nguistic and ^/ith the current stand-

During the eighteenth centuryà groⅥ /ing body of German cOmmentary ρresents

In 1766` JOhann

a str"
GOttfried Herder comρ |ains that、 \the French`who are much toO proud of their oksln

taste` adapt a" things to it` rather than try to adapt themse|ves to the taste of another time〃 (Lefevere 1992a∶ 74) Language is cOnceived` not as expressing thought and meaning transparent|y` but as shaping them accord|ng to "ngu丨 stic

structures and cu|tura| traditions \^/hich are in turn shaρ ed by |anguage use. Consequent|y`trans|ation is viel/ved|ess as communicating the foreign teXt than as offer丨

n9 an interpretatiOn that can take diverse forms accOrding tO the trans|ator′

s

airns` the genre` and the cu|tura| and sOcia| situation in which the trans|ating |s done。

Among the German writers who adopt this view`the function that is mOst Often assigned to trans|ating is the improvement ofthe German|anguage。

Johann Heinrich

∨oss′ s Versions of the Oc/yssey(1781) and the J″ ad(1793) are frequent y cited as exemp|ary∶ they are the雨 rst in German to reCreate the hexameter.ˇ

∨

"he lan von Humbo|dt inc|udes an homage to∨ oss in the preface to his oⅥ /n version of Aeschy|us′

\lr/hat strides has the Ger|man |anguage not |made`〃虍9al,,en,J,o刀 (1816), 、 Ⅵ/rites 、 \since it began tO inη Humbo|dt` itate the meters of Greek` and what deve|opments

have not taken p ace in the nation` not just among the|earned`but a|so among the masses` even doⅥ /n toX/Vomen and ch"dren` since the Greeks reaHy did become the nation′ s reading matter in their true and unadu|terated shape?〃

(Lefevere

1992a∶ 137)。

The fu|est theoretica| statement in this German trend is Friedrich sch{eiermacher′ s1813|eCture to the Ber|in Academy of Sciences(inc|uded here), FOr sch}eiermacher`the idea|trans|ation creates an \\image〃

that incorporates the

knoⅥ /|edge and taste of\\an amateur and cOnnoisseurà lanan kl/ho is

Ⅵ/eH aCquainted

Ⅵ/ith the foreign丨 anguage`yet to Ⅵ/hom it relanains nonethe|ess foreign.″ In asg

irnportance to a sense Of foreignness` Sch|eiermacher exc|udes not on|y commercia| and ρragmatic uses of trans|ation` but the sorts of paraphrase and irnitat丨

on that|ong preVa"ed in trans|ation practice and cOmmentary. He|η ost va|ues humanistic genres and discip"nes` espec丨 aHy "terature and ph"osOphy. And he at once revives and rehabHitates "tera"zing strategies。

There can be no doubt that he

speaks for an e"te cu|tura|taste and aims to set it up as a standard for trans|ators and readers of trans|ations, L"<e Humbo|dt` he illlagines foreignizing trans|ation

as a nationa"st practice that can bu"d a German |anguage and "terature and overcOme the cu|tura| and po"tica| donnination that eXercises over Germanspeak|ng |ands,

In the age from the l//es古 -EasFe`ly D`ya刀 (1819) that appears be丨 ow` JOhann VVO丨 fgang von GOethe surveys the emerging German tradition by d丨 stinguishing betVlJJeen three different |(inds of trans|ation, Goethe describes them not in

s strategies adhere to the form and meaning of the foreign text` as Dryden had done` but rather in of hoxA/ lmuch the

of holAv c|ose|y the trans|ator′

20

FOuNDATIONAL STATEMENTS

trans|ation preserVes the "nguistic and cu|tura| differences that constitute the foreignness of that text。 /\though he observes that the three kinds rnay Occur in the

same period`his treatment is both historica|and progressiVe∶

he moves from Luther

to∨ oss and beyond`sO that forei9nizing trans|ation becomes、

、 the nna|and highest〃

of the three\、 epOchs,〃

transcendence in

FOr Goethe`this|
Ⅵ/hich the trans|ator |oses his nationa| se|f through a strong

identincati。 n lA/ith a cu|tura| other。

In the history of vv/estern trans|ation theory` the German tradition marks an important VA/atershed, It abandons the cOnceptua| categor|es that xA/ere repeated}y used since ant丨 quity and deVe|oρ s others that are not on|y "nguistic and "terary` but cu|tura| and po"tica|。

Given Friedrich Nietzsche′ s incisive Critique of Ⅵ/estern

thinking` it is not surprising that he too shou|d disp|ay an acute aⅥ /areness of hoⅥ

/

trans|ators might efface the differences of foreign teXts, The pithy re旧 ections from T/le G彐 y Scè刀 Ce

(1882) that cOnc|ude this section return to ancient ROme`

describin9 hoⅥ / poets "ke HOraCe and Propertius apprOpriated their Greek pre-

decessOrs and "nking their rhetOrica| use of trans|ation tO Rornan innperia"sm,

、、 What was past and a"en was an embarrassment for them/′

writes N ietzsche`、

\and

being ROmans`they saⅥ / it as an incentive for a ROman GOnquest,〃 Yet Nietzsche might have |eveHed a sinn"ar critiCism at the German tradition as weH。 FOr a though German theor丨 sts and practitioners bring an increased se|fal/vareness to trans|ation` treating it as a decisive enCounter

Ⅵ/ith the foreign` they

trans|ate to appropriate` en"sting foreign teXts in German cu|tura| and po"tica| agendas, The sOcia| functions they assign to their Ⅵ/ork revea| the "mperia"stic impu se that may we|be indissOciab e from trans ation.

Further reading Amos1920` Berlman 1985and 1992` Cope|and 1991` DanieH 2003` |<e"y 1979` Lefevere 1977` N Orton 1984` Rener 1989` RobinsOn 1991 and 1992` Steiner 1975a`∨ enuti1995`Zuber1968

Chapter 1

Jerome

LETTER TO PAMMACHIUS Tra/ls/a芒 ed b)/`(a芒

⒈

T祟

e爹 Ji旦 i∶

ately rej° iced, sure

/,/eel,Day芯

J:J1gR牡

℃ 氵壮

t$扌

l垠』【1、:⒘lc∶ ￡

°f、 ictory for his causc; and he l冫 cgan l9y saying,

嘿 T ‘ ‘ I consider

myself ft)rtu11ate today,O King Ag"pPa,bccausc I am to make my de【 k:nse ag西 nst the accusations of thc JewS bC忆 rc y。 u who are especially familiar with Hcbrcw ’ custon△ s and contr。 vcrsics’ IActs 26:2-3⒈ surely hc had rcad thc saying in Ecdesiasticus~“ h1tunatc is hc who sPcaks t° attcntivc cars” [ECdCsia艾 icus2⒌ 9] - f° r he kne、 v that the、 v° rds lect of tl△ cjudgc

can Pc“

CiⅤ

of an orator can succecd onlⅤ

s。

much as the intel-

C Hcncc Itoo,Pamm昶 hius,consider myself忆

rtunatc

in this arair,sincc your cducated cars、 vill hear n△ y ansⅥ 厂 cr to a foohsh tonguc that shngs allcgations of ignorance or deceit at me,Claiming that cithcr I、 vas unablc Or I κhscd t0订 alislattˉ [inFcIPr召 rdhll a lctter accuratt,圩 △om Grcck,Now of tllcsc, thc⒔ rst is an crror, the scc。 nd a cri1nc! S° , taking no chancc that my accuscr~ thr° ugh a shckncss。 f tonguc that excccds all b° unds and an imPunity that usurps

all h∝ nsc_might

Ⅴ ilⅡ 、me

bcfore you,ju哎 as hc h淤 accⅡ c(l Popc EuPha血 “ of

crin1c, I scnd this lctter in° rdcr that Ⅴ°u,and thr° ugh you othcrs、 vh。 dcen△ 1ne 、 vorthy of their l° vc,may kno、 Ⅴh。、 v thc situation can△ e about2

ycars ago Popc Epiphanius scnt a lcttcr to BishoP John 。f JCrusalcm,rcbuklng him about ceⅡ aln PⅡ n0Ples of d° ctHnc and aRcrwards mildly urging hilll to rePent CoPiCs° f this lctter vcerc cagcrly snatchcd uP thr° ughout II Ab。 ut

t、 vo

Palcstinc,cithcr because° f the merit。 f its author or thc clcgancc of its c° mposi tion Thcrc vvas in our monasterⅤ a man l)y no mcans undistinguished among his 。、 vn PeoPle, Euscbius of Crcm。 na,、 vho,、 vhen this lctter Ⅴ vas on cvcry° nc’ s liPs, 395

22 JEROME adn1ircd by thc lcarncd and unlcarned ahkc f。

r its d。 ctrinc and na、 vlcss stylc,bcgan ardcntly to besccch1nc to turn it into Latin for hirn and,for easc of undcrstanding, t°

CxPlain it clcarly and sirnply,sincc hc、 vas cntirely ignorant ofthc Grcck language

I dd just as hc askcd:summoning a scⅡ tating in thc luargins of thc pa8cd・

bc I dictatcd swiRly an(l hastily,l)ricfly anno

C scnsc、vjthin Cach main scction No、 v,hcrc is

thc casc: hc had earnestly rcqucstcd that I makc thc c。 askcd in rcturn that he keeP it at homc and n。

Py only R)r hilnsclf, and I t、 ilhngly ll,akc it Pubhc Eightccn

m° nths ed thus bc忆 rc thc订 anshd° n IinFerPrcrd冖 ° l~by s。 mc n。 Ⅴel migratcd fl° m his dcsk t。 JcIvsalem A cert汪

thck~

n iau(lulcnt monk,cither允 r a bribc

(aS thc CⅤ klcncc suggcsts)or out。 f gratuitous rnahcc(as his corruPtor strugglcs in vain to arguc),Pr。 Ⅴ cd hilnsclf anothcr Judas by Plundering and scizing Euscbius’ s

PaPers, thus aff° rding my adversarics a chancc t° ho、 Ⅴl against n1c, An1。 ng the uncducatcd cr。、 vd thcy(lcclarc lnc falsc,clain1ing that I did not translatc、 v。 rd for

’ 、 v° rd,but、vr° tc“ dcarcst。 nc” for“ h。 n。 rablc。 nc,’ and that— —rn° nstrous to say~ throu8h a rnahcious intcrprctati° n I chosc n° t to carry oⅤ cr thc titlc α1δ ε σ1I1(otα toⅣ :ialidcs。 f this s。 lt,de my crimes ercn(幻 r Bisll。 hn Thcsc,and tH、忆 lmost rcⅤ PJ。 IⅡ

But丘 rst,bcf° rc I addrcss thC issuc of translati。 n,I“ ish

to qucsti。 n th。 sc

/hcrc(lid you gct a coPy of thc lcttcrP Who suPPhcd 、 vh。 call PrudCncc malicc 、、 it?By、 Ⅴhat affrontcry do you Pubhsh、 Ⅴhat y。 u haⅤ C Purchased thr° ugh cri1nc7VVhat hcn、 vc cannot kc sccrcts CⅤ cn within our oⅥ fn、 valls an△ ong mcn、 vill bc safc,、・ and desks?If I、 vcrc to PrcSs thesc chargcs a8ainst you bef° rc a tribunal, I、 vould ・ rmers inⅤ okc thc civil la、 s that,cⅤ cn in Hnancial cases,decrec punishmcnt for inf° ˉ Ⅴhilc thcy acct thc bctrayal, condcn△ n the betrayer Γhe gain obⅤ iously and, 、 Pleases,but the intent dis8usts Not long ago the consul Hcsychius,against、 Ⅴhom thc Patriarch Gamahcl n1aintained a m° st graⅤ c hostility,、 vas condemned t° dcath by the EmPer。 r Theod° sius,l)ccausc by corruPting a sccrctary hc had c。 n⒔ scated docu1nents In thc ancicnt hist。 rics、vc rcad ab。 ut thc(loublc~dcahng teachcr xx,ho

bctraycd the Fahscan childrcn,and~bccausc thc Ro1nan pcoPlc、 shamcR】 lly

uld not accePt b。 ught victory一、 vas b° und and(lchⅤ crcd l)ack t。 his PuPils,returncd :。

to thosc、 vh。 m hc had betraycd Whcn Pyrrus,King of Epirus,、 vas in camP l’ Cing

hcalcd。 f

his、Ⅴ ounds,his

oⅥ =n doct° r trcachcr。 usly。 ffcrcd t。 murdcr hirn;but his

cncmy Fabricius Prefcrred to rcturn thc doctor in chains to his mastcr,rathcr than sanction such a hcin。 us crimc,cⅤ cn in an cncn1y.This PrinciPle,、 vhich Pubhc lavvs

and cncn1ics prcscrⅤ c, vvhich is sacrcd cvcn in thc Π1idst° f、var,has becn uPheld among thc lll。 nks and PriCSts of Christ,And(l° cs any ofthcn1n° Ⅵ广darc,、 vith raiscd

vS and a snap of the sngcrs, to belch and say, CyCbr。、

‘ ‘

so、 vhat if hc chd bribc Or

cxtort'Hc did what scrvcd his intercst” 、 Vhat an ama犭 ng dcfcnsc of wickcdncss! As if bandits and thicvcs and Piratcs(lo not〈 ]o、vhat Pro丘 tS thCn1 Certainly Annas and CaiPhas,in seducing the、 vrctchcd Judas,judged it uscful to thcmsclvcs IV I、 Ⅴish t。 writc tri∏ cs in my notcbook as I PlcaSc,to CommCnt uPon scriPturc, to strikc back at thosc、 vh° insult mc, t。 scttlC my irc, to cxcrCise my writing stylc in rhet° rical comm。 nPlaces,and to sto1ˉ c arrows as if Polishcd fc,r

as long as I do not PubhSh my thoughts they are1nereIy abusive,not crilllinal; indccd, something ncⅤ cr aircd in Public cann° t CⅤ cn bc abusivc You may corruPt scrvants,harass c。 mpanions and,as、 Ⅴc rcad in fables,raPe Danae disguised ver of g° ld E)issiluulating your actions you dcclarc mc falsc, but do y。 u as a sh° 、 not at thc samc tiInc confcss y° ursclf guilty of morc scrious cri1ncs than th° sc

battlc∶

LETTER TO PAMlvlACHIUs 23 you charge against meP Onc man accuscs you °f hCresy, anothcr of PcrvCrting dogma: you are silcnt; not daring to ans、 lat。 r[jnr召 c° mPlete

iP″ rdrcml t°

ver thc chargc itsclf, you tear thc trans~

Picccs,dePrccaung meκ

s丿 lablCs,and

decm your de炙 nse

if y° u drag do、 vn° ne、 vho rcmains silcnt supPosc I haⅤ c crrcd or on1ittcd

solucthing in translating∶ this is thc hingc、 Ⅴhcrc° n your cntirc casc turns,this your dcft,nse!On tht△ t acc。 unt arc you n。 t a hcrctic ifI am a Po。 r“ anslat。 r IinrcΨ rcsl?

Iam n° t reviving thc charge of heresy against you— ˉhc、 vh。 made thc accusation kn。、 Ⅴs、 Ⅴhat hc、

vrotc~but、 vhen

anothcr and,your body gaPing、

accused by onc lnan it is lYlost f°

vith、 vounds,to

scck comf。

。hsh t° chargc onc、 Ⅴho

rt in、 vounding

slcs pcaccfuⅡ y,

Ⅴ uPt。

n。 w

I havc sP° kCn as if I did c11angc thc lcttcr s°

mCwhat,arguing

that a si1nPlC translati° n can havc lnistakcs、 vith° ut being cri1nina1, But truly,sincc

thc lcttcr shoⅥ 广 s thC Scnsc has n。 t bccn changCd in thc lcast, nor anything added

scCking to undcrstand, undcrstand nothing” [△ ndritI, prologucl and, `Ⅴ ishing to ProⅤ C anothcr’ s ignorancc,cxpose thcir。、 Ⅴn,Indccd,In。 t only adn1it,but frecly ProclaiFn that in translatlon[jnr呷 ″Fdrjoncj仔 om thc Grcck~cxcePt in the casc° f sacrcd scⅡ Pturc, whcrc thc、 cry ordcr。 fthc wor(ls is a mystcry I rcnder not word允 r word,l)ut that c。 untcrs Orthodox cloctrinc,llly accuscrs,as Tcrcncc says,“

scnsc for scnsc,In this Inattcr I havc thc guidance。 f Cicero,、 vh° translatcd Plato’

s

and Xcn。 phon’ s l,ccon。 m1cus and thc t、 v° m。 st beautiful °rati。 ns that Acschincs and Dcn△ °sthcncs (lchⅤ Crcd against each other Ho、 v much hc omitted, h° 、:n)uch hc addcd,and ho、 /rnuch he changcd in ordcr t。 (lisPlay thC ProPertiCs 。f an。 thcr languagc through the l)roPerticS° f his0、 vn,therc is not enough tirne t° Ⅴho、Ⅴritcs in his Say, It suf⒔ ccs f° r mc to quotc thc auth° rity of this translat。 r, 、 Pr° rc孑 or‘ zs

Pr° loguc:

I havc judgcd it right to undcrtake a labor uscful tO studcnts,alth° ccrtainly n。 t ncccssary for mysclf That is, I havc conⅤ

ugh

Crtcd thc mOst

。°f thc lu° st cloqucnt Attic orators,ACsChincs cclcbratcd° rations of tⅥ ・ ⅤhiCh thcy dchⅤ ercd in dcbatc against each othcr, and Dem° sthenes, 、 not rccasting thclla as a translator[i,arcrPres⒈ but as an()rator, keing

thc samc n1canings but with their凡 nlls~thcir⒔ gurcs,so to sPcak~ in、 vords adaPtcd to° ur idio1n, I havc not thought it ncccssary to Pay out one、 Ⅴord for anothcr in this pr。 ccss,but haⅤ c c。 nscrvcd thc charactcr and thc f° rce° fthc languagc Nor haⅤ c I th。 ughtit Htting to count thcm out t° the reader,but t。、 veigh thcm。 ut Thcn again in his c° nclusi。 n hc、 vritcs; If,as I hoPc,I Succccd in cxPrCsSing thcse sPeechCs by rctaining aⅡ thcir

Ⅴirtucs~that is,thcir rneanings and their⒔ gurcs and thc ordcr。 f° llo、 ving

ft° Pics,

thc、 v。 rding° nly so long asit docs n。 t conⅡ ict、vith our idi。

m

- if all arc not litcrally fr°

n1the Grcck, I haⅤ c at lcast cndcavorcd to n△ atch then1acc。 rding to tyPe ctc. And thcn thcrc is⒈ Ioracc,a、・ isc and lcarncd man,、 vh° translator IinrerPrcrdri]in hiS

“ Ⅱrs P° c芒 iC￠ ∶ Do not striⅤ c

likc、 visc adⅤ iscs thc skillcd

to render word忆 r word hkc

24 JEROME a faithhl t1ˉ anslat【 ,r Iinre?r召

s1.”

Tcrcnce has translatcd Mcnan(lcr,and Plautus and

Caccdius havc translatcd thc ancient con1ic PoctS∶ novv,d。艾 hey shuply chng to the

、 Ⅴ°rds。 r rad1cr c。 nscrvc thc grcater bcauty and ele思阝)u “

call trut11rill11css in仔

ovcrzcalousncss,”

anslati。 n【 jnFcr`,ycrd↓

j° n氵

T、 venty ycars ago, ha、 in思

′ ancc in their translations?、、 hat

sl,the educatcd call况 (姒 oζ llλ Lttv or

been cducatcd in d1is tradition

。f

ovcrzcalousncss and likc、 visc dcccivcd l)y its crror, and ccrtainly not anticiPaung your accusations against me, I turncd thc CJ,r°

nicFc of Euscbius 。f Cacsarea into

Latin Evcn thcn I urgcd in my Prcfacc∶ It is difncult, 、 vhen foll。、 vin8 thC hncs

°f anothcr, n° t to ove1ˉ shoot sOmc、 vhere and ardu。 us, 、 vhen solncthing is wcll Put in anothcr languagc,to PrcsCrⅤ e this samc beauty in translation T。 a dcgrcc signi~ n is 。nc 、 vith thc vcry ProPcrt) ofa

Ⅵ′ ord: I d。 not havc a in mylanguagc`\ith、 vhich t。 cxPress it,and in sccking to qtads、 the mca血 n8,I hkC along way alound to covcr ba】 ˉ ely d1c sPacc Fcati。

c。 mParablc、 v。 rd

fa kw、 °

:。

rds J0ncd to d1is dimculty arc thc twists of11)l,c1ˉ

bat° n,

Ⅴarictics of rhetorical §gures vhat I n1ight call the Pecuhar natiⅤc character of thc and, hnally, 、

thc differenccs in grammatical cascs, thc langua8c∶ if I订 anslatc[Ⅰ

nFc,IP招

F°

丬

word by w。

rcl,it sounds absurd;if

out()f ncccssity I altcr something in the° rdcr or dicti° n,I、 vill haⅤ c

abandoncd thc task。 f a translator丨

scclll t°

inFcrPrcFis⒈

ARer discuss"、 g111uch elsc that、 vould bc tedi。 us t°

follov￠

hcre, I addcd∶

If tl11yone does not think that translation IinrcrFrJ虿 Fione]altc1ˉ Sd1e

of a languagc,let him brcc Holncr wor(l忆 rw° rd

Charm

Latin Bcttcr nslate1nFcrP,ertzr1Jrl Homcr into PrⅡ e Hc will sec that yt,t,let hm t跎 thc syntax bcc。 mcs ridiculous, and the m。 st cloquent Poct barcly int°

artic111ate

VI N。 Ⅵˉ ,thcrc may be httlc auth。 rity in my words~by this cxaml)lc I wished only to ProⅤ C that f1・ om adolcsccncc I l、 avc transfcrrcd not thc Ⅵ・。rds, but thc

mcaning -yct as an cxamPlC ofthc samc tyPc rcad and c°

nsidcr this short Prcfacc

to a hk。 fSt AI1tho11Ⅴ ∶ A translauon exPrCssCd w°

m。 ne languagc into anothcr

rd for lx.ord f1・。

conccals thc scnse just as an oⅤ erabundant Pasturc stramglcs the croPs,

sincc sPccch° bSCrⅤ cs cascs and⒔ gurcs, this lncthod takcs a10ng`vay around to coⅤ cr barcly thc space of a 、w Ⅵ:ords, Thcrcf° rc, I havc shunncd this mcth° d in translating, at y。 ur rcqucst, thc hfc of st Anthony,sO that nothing is l。 st from thc scnsc、 vhcn l havc had t。 chanε c

thc Ⅵ'ords Lct others chasc aRcr syllables and lcttcrs, you seek thc

mcanlng Till,c、 vill run。 utifI rcat d1C tcsti】 t°

ηony

of all th。 sc、 vh。 haⅤ c translatcd acc。 rding

the sensc It suf6ccs f° r the Prcsent t° citc Hilary thC C。 nfcssOr,、 Ⅴ h° in turning

qome homilics。 nJ° b and many commcnttnries on thc Psalms△ 。m Grcckinto Lath,

LETTER TO PAMMACHIUs

25

did n。 t attcnd to the dr0、vsy lCttcr nor contort hin△ self by translating IinrerPr召 Fd^

iDnc)the b。 orish ε

stylc° f rustics, l)ut by right of vict°

ry carriCd thc scnse CaPtiⅤ e

into his o、 vn lan思 uagc,

VH Nor shoul(l it sccn1surprising that sccular and ccclesiastical、 vritcrs translatc[inFerPrε Fcsl in this、 Ⅴ ay,`Ⅴ hcn

thc sevcnty Translators,the Evangchsts,and thc

APoSdcs di(l likcxx∶ isc、 vith thc Sacrcd B° oks3ⅣVc rcad in Mark that thc L。 rd said,

“

r‘ l氵

irhd cu刀 ,i,” an(l in】 lucdiatcly

woman,l say to you,arise”

[Ma1・

dcccit in adding“ Isay t。 you,”

addcd

“ 、`hich

k54凵

is translatcd [氵

P2r￠

Ι 卩rcrcIr1Ι r⒈ young

Thc EⅤ angclist m唿 ht bc dcn。

t】 l、

cc
、 Ⅴhcn thc HebreⅥ /had rncrcly“ youn思、 voman,arise.”

Yct to makc it surfα t1%由 tε Qov[mo1・ C CmPhaticl and t。 exPrcss the sense oF calhng ‘ ancl con1mandh1g,hc addcd‘ I say to)・ ou” /\gain in λ1atthc、 v,、 Vhen thc thirty Picccs s Hcld l)° ught、 vkh ° fsⅡ vcr arc rcturned by Judas and the pottcr’ “ Thcn was hlHllcd as writtcn what had bccn spoken by thc Pr°

thcn1,it is、 titten: phct Jeremiah∶ and

thcy t° 。k thc thi〗 ˉ ty Picccs of silⅤ cr,thc Pricc。 f hirn° n sx`hon)al)ricc had l)ccn sct b〉 the s。 ns c)f Isracl,and thcy ga、 ethcm R)r thc Potter’ S HCld,as thc Lord(hrccted

mc” [Mattl.ew2⒎ 9-10】 N。、 v tl△ h is not ttD be忆 und in JeⅡ miah,bt】t h Zccharlah, in far diffcrcnt Ⅰ Λ・ ords and in an entircly cliffcrcnt。 rder Indccd,the Grcck° f thc Stua8int has“ And I、 Ⅴill say to then⒈ ifin your hcart it sccms good to you,giⅤ c ˉ 、isC,rcfusc thenn, And tlacy、 veig11cd out n1y、・ a思 cs as thi】 ty od】 c1・、

mc111) 、、agcs;

PiCcCS° f Sdvcr,And the L。 rd said t。

111c∶

Cast thcn1int。 thc furnacc,and consi(lcr

ifit has bccn tricd as I、 vas tI1cd by thcn1 And I took the thirty ljicccs of SilⅤ

thrcw thcm int° thc hrnacc in thc bousc of d1c Lord” it is ccrtainly evi(lcnt ho、 ⒈ nuch thc testh1△ °ny

er and

IZcchariah11∶ 12-131 Herc

of thc Evangchst deParts ion1thc

stuagint translation And,in thc Hcbrc、 v,、 vhnC the scnsc is thc same,thc、 '。 rds ‘ arc turncd about and ncarly contradictory It rcadS:‘ And I said t。 then⒈ If t° y° ur ˉ cycs it sccms g。 od to y。 u,b】 ing forth my、 vagcs;and if not,d。 nothinε And t1△ cy eighcd out my`vagcs as thi】 △yl)icces of“ l、 cr And thc Lord said to1η c∶ cast thcm s1・

to the Potter,a suitable Pricc,f。 r it is the pricc t11cy sct upon luc And Ito° k thc 30PiCcCs of silvcr,and cast thcm to thc pottcrin the h° usc ofthc Lord,” (Dnc rnight

with accuse thc AP。 stle° f hlsch° °d,蚯 ncc he agrccs ncit11cr wid1thc Hebrcw nolˉ the Stuagint translat。 rs, and, 、 vhat is、 vorsc, hc crrs in thc attributi。 n, saying JcrCmiah instca
of Ch1・ ist,wh。 sc carc it was not to Chase aRcr words and syllables,but t。

rth thc lncaning of doctrinc.

Lct us gi、・ ct△

E、

other CxamPlC° fthc samc sort r⒈ 。 m zech盯 iah,which J。 11n thc ‘ thc Hebrcw truth∷ Thcy will gazc upon hin1wh。 mt11cy havc “ Thcy、、 Ⅱl look upon me, [John 19-37⒈ F。 r this thc stuagint reads∶ l】

angchst takcs ll。 m

PiC1・

ccd”

bccat1sc thcy haⅤ e lllockcd me,” which thc Latin vcr“

on订 anslatcs[inrcrP″

r虿

∠ il as

“ And thcy `、 ill gazc uP° n n1c becausc of th。 sc d1ings they havc m° ckcd” or ‘ ‘ insultcd” Thc Evangchst, thc Stuagint and 。ur Latin t1ˉ anslati。 n of Zcchariah cach diffcr,yct thc、 :ari。 us1nodcs of cxprcssion unitc in onc sPirit,ln Matthe、

v、vc

alsO read ofthc L° rd f° rctclling thc f"ght° f thc APostlCs,and c° n⒔rllling this、 vith a quotation fron1zcchariah∶

“

It is、 Ⅴ rittcn氵

’

hC says,“ I、 vdl strikc thc shherd,and

thc shc xs・ Ⅱl be scatterCd” IMatthC、・26:31;Zccha1・ iah13∶ 7⒈ Butin thc Stua8int

and thc Hclxcw itis much difkrcnt,br this is n。 ts“ d by thc Person。 f God himsclf, as thc Evangchst Ⅵ:ould havc it, but by thC Pr。 PbCt Cntreating God thc Fathcr∶ ‘ ‘ strikc the sbhCrd,amd thc shc Ⅵˉ ill bC scattcrcd” Hcre,I bchcvc,as d。 cc】 ˉ tain

26 JEROME °thcr Prudcnt luen, thc Evangchst n1ight stand accused of sacrilcge f° r daring to attribute thc 、 v° rds of a Pr。 d1c PcrSOn ° f God Thc sa1η c Evangehst, PhCt t。

Matthew,wⅡ tcs

tllat J° sePh,warncd

by an angd,took thc inhnt an(l hs mothcr,

、 Vcnt into EgyPt and thcrc rclnaincd until thc dcath of Hcr。 “

sP° ken thr°

ugh thc Prophet H° sca、 vould l)c ful⒔ llcd:

d,s° that God’

Out° f

s、 Ⅴ° rd

EgyPt I haⅤ C callcd

my son” P岖 atthCw2"5] Our Grcck and LaJn廿

anslati。 ns。 f Hosca d。 not havc it this way,but acc° rding to thc Hebrew订 uth it is writtcn:“ 、 Vhcn Isracl was a child I l° vcd

hi1n,and° ut° f Egypt I haⅤ e called1ny sOn” IHosca11∶ 1⒈ For this thc “ Whcn Isracl、 Ⅴas an infant I loⅤ cd hilu, and。 ut of Egypt I

Stuagint translatcs,

No、 v,arc all th。 sc t。 bc sc。 rned、 vho di"cr in translatin8thiS agc,、vhich PCrtains to thc1nystcry of Christ,° r rathcr bc:ranted indulgcncc, in tllc sPt1・ it of the忆 llowing agc iom Jamcs;′ VC all。 Ⅲ cnd in many things, haⅤ c called his s。 ns,”

and hc、 vh° body”

ncⅤ cr° ffcnds

in spcaking is a pcrfcct man and can rcstrain the cntirc “

[Jamcs3:2P Anc,ther examlDlC aPPcars in Matthcw where扯 is wHttcn∶

He

camc and liⅤ ed in a city callcd Nazarcth,s。 that、vhat、 vas spoken by thc Pr° Phcts m唿 ht bC h⒕ lled,that hc w° tlld bc callcd a Na/泸 cn卩 IMtttthCw2∶ 231 LCt thc w° rd smiths and thc hsticli° us judgcs of all things w0ttcn answcr whcrc thcy haⅤ e

vcr its PlacC in Isaiah No、・ , in this Place,、 vherc、vc haⅤ c rca(l and translatcd:“ Thcrc shall come forth a sho° t out。 fthe ro° t。 f JeSSe, rca(l this, and lct thcn△

(lisc°

m its roots” [Isaiah11△ 1,thC Hcbrew,accor由 ng to thc 。 ∶ ωuα Iidi° m]。 f that t° nguc,has“ Thcrc shall c° mef° rth a sho° t out。 f thc ro° t ° f Jessc,and a Nazarenc shall sPhn8【。 m its r° ° ts” 、 Vhy is thc word Nazarcnc

and a bough shall grow h・ 1δ

on1ittcd in thc stuagintP Ifit is not Per∏

1itted to rePlace° ne、 vord、 ˉ ith anothcr,

conccal or to ign° rc a myStcry of(]od /III 、 /e should Pr° ccCd t。 othcr cxamplcs——a bricflcttcr f° rbids。 nc to d、 vcll 、、 ‘ ‘ on a singlc Point Matthe、 v als° says, ll this took Placc in 。rder to ful丘 ll “hat `廴 thc Lord had spokcn thr° ugh thc ProPhCt∶ bchold a、 irgin shall havc in hcr、 vomb 乃口 bcbi丬 and bc盯 a sOn and tllcy曲 all cclll his namc Emmanuel” [MatthCw Iin uFcr。 then ccrtainly it is a sacrilcgc t°

‘ ‘

1:22-23; Isaiah 7:14⒈

Bchold a virgiI1 shall Which the sePtuagint translatcs as κcchc in hcr w。 mb[in u‘ cio dcciPiCrl and bCar a sOn,an(l you曲 all caⅡ his name EΠ1manuel” Can lncrc words dehme usP、 Vcll thcn,ccrt“ nlv“ She shaⅡ havc” and

‘ ‘

shc shall rccciⅤ

c”

‘

‘

and‘ they shall call” and‘ you shall call” arc n° td1c

MoreoⅤ cr,in the Hcbre、 /、 ve rcad it、 vritten

thus∶

“ Behold a Ⅴ irgin

samc thing

shaⅡ

conccivc

{conciPicFl and bear a son,and shc shall call his name En△ 1nanuel” It is mot Achaz, wh° was chalfged with in丘 delity,n。 r thc JewS,who woul〈】deny tllc Lorcl,but shc

、 vho、 vill c。 nceivc and bcar hiIn Hcrod、 vas disturbcd by thc arriⅤ al° f thc N1agi,and,gathering his scribcs and Pricsts,hc inquired° fthcm Ⅵ/herc Christ、 vould bc born And thcy rcsP° nclC(l,“ In BcthlchcIll° fJudCa;hr so it was writtcn by tllc ‘ Pr° PhCt: and you,Bcthlehcln,thc land° fJudah,are not thc lcast am。 ng thc rulcrs of Judah;九 r分 ° m you slDall c° mc a rulcr t° govern my pc° lDle Ismd” IMatthcw

hcrsclf、 vho shall name hirn, thc virgin hcrsclf, Elsc、 vhcre in this EⅤ an8chst、 vC rca(lho、 v

“

2:5-6⒈ This agc the stuagint rcndcrs: And you, Bcthlehem, housc 。 f Ephratah,arc smaⅡ to bc am。 ng thc th° usands of Judah;△ ° m you onc shall comc

f°

rth t。

mc to bc Princc ofIsracl”

冖 Γhc de8rCc。 f diffcrcncc bctⅥ

Λ 汀atthc、 v and

`ccn thc stuagint,in l)oth、 v。 rds and syntax,、 vill an1azc y。 u CⅤ Cn morc if you l。。k at

thc Hcbrcw,whcre it is wHttcn,“ And y。 u,BCthlChcm EPhratah,arc httlc among the th° usands of Ju(lah;yct out of y。 u onc will c。 mc儿 th to mc,wh。 will bc a lˉ


27

Micah⒌ 21 C° nsi(lCr phrasc by Phrase what is sct fo哎 h by thc 【 ’ “ And you,Bethlchcm,land° fJu(lah’ ∶忆r“ land° f Judah” thc Hcbrcw ’ has“ Ephratah,’ and thc stuagint has“ thc h。 usc of EPhratah” Considcr ncxt,thc rulcr in I盯

acl”

Evangclist∶

Phr灬 c℃ ° u盯 cn° t tllc lea虻 am° ng tllc lcadcrs of Judah,” In tllc sCF’ tua妒 1`t thS reacls,“ you are smdlto bc am° ng thc thousands of Judal・ clnd“ dlc Hebrew,“ you arc httlc among thc thousands of Judah・ ”HCrc the EⅤ angclist EⅤ angchsrs

,”

givcs a c° ntrary scnsc to thc stuagint and to thc HcbrcⅥ

/,、 vhich

agrcc closely For thc Evangehst says that Bcthlchem is not smaⅡ ofJudah,cvcn tll。 ugh it is(hκ and small as y。 R)ll。 Ⅵ 厂 s

ttly statc,d∶

、ou ale hdced littlc an(l small;bklt httlc

u arc,out ofyou Ⅵ,ill comc忆 rth

the saying of thc Apostlc Pau⒈

in this agc

am° ng thc lcadcrs

‘ ‘

t。

mc a leader of Isracr~which

vhat God chosc 、

is、 vcak in thc、 v° rld in

ordcr to c° nbun(l thc str° ng” u Corinthians ⒈27j,Lasdy, what忆 ll° ws in ’ “ N1atthc、 v∶ Ⅵ Ⅴcrn” or“ 、 vho shall ’ my pC。 Plc Isracl clcarly diffcrs `ho shall g。 fron△ thc、 vords。 f thc proPhct IX I reveal thcse things, not to declare thc EⅤ

angchsts guilty of hlschood~

indccd, such an accusation is rcserⅤ ed for the imPi° us, likc Celsus, P。 rPhyry and

Juhan thC Apostatc~but t° c° nⅤ incc llly accs of their ign° rancc and to scck indulgcncc分 om thcm,s° they will concede to Ⅱ1c in the∏1attcr of this simPlc lCttCr that、 vhich,likc it° r not,they rnust concCdc t° thc Ap° stlcs in thc mattcr of sacrcd

ScriPturc.Hcrc is a tclling examPlc Mark,thc disciplc of Pctcr,bcgins his gospc⒈ “ Thc bcginning of the GosPcl ofJesus Christ,as it is、 Ⅴritten in Isaiah the Pr° Phct∶ Bchold,I scnd my mCsscngcr bcforc your hcc,wh° shall PrarC y。 ur Ⅴfay,Av。 icc vay of the Lord, luakc straight his 。f。 nc crying in thc 、 Ⅴildcrncss; Prarc thc 、。m tw。 Proph【 ts~MalaChi, s” age is a comPoskC〖 [Mark1"-3] ThiS Pa“ Patl△ 1・

obⅤ iously,and Isaiah,Thc srst Part,、 vhich says“ Bchold

’

Iscnd my mcsscngcrl)cforc

Vho shall Prarc your、 vay,’ is fron1d△ c cnd of Malachi; the sec° nd your facc, 、 ’ hich is intcrPolatCd,“ a Ⅴoicc of one crying in the、 vildcrncss’ ctc,, part,ho、 vc、 cr,、 ˉ 、 ve rcad in Isaiah H。、rthcn d° es A/Iark,at thc Ⅴcry oPcning of his text,statc“ as it ’ vhen this is n。 t 、 vas、vrittcn in Isaiah thc ProPhct: BCh。 l(lI scnd my mcssenger,’ 、 f thc t、 in Isaiah, as I have said, but in N1alachi, thc last° vclⅤ c ProPhCtS? Let the ignorant in thcir PrcsumPti。 n solvc this littlc PuzzlC,and I in turn、

vill scck indul~

ark,llnorcoⅤ cr,also gence for n】 y dcviations from EPiPhanius’ s lctter Thc samcˇ 【

introduces the saⅤ iour spcaking to thc Pharisccs thus∶

“

Havc Ⅴou ncver rcad、 vhat

DaⅤ i(l did、 vhen hc and his f° ll° vccrs、 vcrc nccdy and hungry:ho、 v hc cntcrcd thc h° usc

of God,then undcr thc high~Pricst Abiathar,and atc thc brcad of prcscnta_

tion,which is n° tlawhl忆 r any cxct tl1c Pricsts to Cat?”

IMrark⒉ 25~26],Rca山 ng

Samucl~or,as it is columon圩 known,thc Book of Kings~we will discoⅤ cr that thc high p1・ lcst、广 as not Abiathar but Achimclcch,whom aftcrward Saul orclcrcd kllled by Docg,along、 vith thc othcr PriestS Wc can go on to thc APostle Paul,、 vh° 、 vritcs to thc Corinthians:“ If theⅤ had kn0、・ n,thcv vv° ukl ncⅤ cr havc cruciRcd thc Lord。 f glory But,as it is、 vrittcn,no eⅤ e has sccn,nor car hcard,nor d1c hcart° f man conccived,、 vhat God has PrarCd for th° sc whol° vc him” 卩 Corinthians2:8-91,CommcntatoⅡ on this agc typically root throu8h thC ravings of thc apocrypha and clai1n that it is takcn frona the

APocalypsc of Elijah,but in thc Hcl)rcw tcxt ofIs缸 ah wc rcad∶

“

Fr° m

thc bcgin~

ning,n。 nc haⅤ c heard nor PerceiⅤ ed by the ear N° eyc has sccn,(」 od,besides you,

what you havc prared fc,r those who wait for you” 【 Isaiah64∶ 4],The sePtuagint

28 JEROME anslatcs this1nuch(hffcrcntly;“ Fr° n△ thc bcginning,“ 'e11aⅤ e not hcard,nor have °ur eyes secn a God1)csidcs you and your truc、 vorks,and)。 u、 vill Pr。 vide1nercy

t1ˉ

f°

r those、 vho、 vait

f° ry° u”

yct thc APostlc d。 cs n° t pCriPh1・ asisl,as it iS sai(li】

h1his ePistle t°

translatc word by wOKl,but丌 αoα CfQα ot1× l’ g【 th1・ °ugh

1Grcck,he cxP1ˉ cssc(l thC samc scnsc in diffcrcnt phrasi11g

the R。 mans the san1c blCsscd aPostlc,taki11:a agc s・ on1Isaiah,

Says:“ Bchol(l,Ilay

in Zion a虻 uml)li11g stonc an(l a rock of scanclal”

Is 8△ 41 Hc dif、 rs hcrc f° r

Wc can Plainly understand thc s。 urcc of this a8e,

Ⅱom

[Romat1s9:33;

thc stuagnt and yCt agrccs with thc Hcl,rc、

thc sePtua8int has thc c。 ntrary sensc∶

And、vhcn Pctcr citCs this l,aSsagc he agrees、 vith

stonc or a rock of dcstruction”

both Paul and thc Hcbrc、 ˉtcxt∶ “ But for thc unbchcving a stumbhn思 ck of scandal”

truth,

“ so that you do not fall uPon a stumbhng st。 nc

and a

1Pckr⒉ 8],All 【

d1csc cxamPlcs makc clcar d1at i11intc1ˉ lDrcti11g thc c)ld Tcstamcnt thc AP。 stleS and Evangehsts s。 ught thc scnse, not thc、 vords, and di(l not particularly take PainS、Ⅴith thc syntax and stylc, so lon思 as thc truth r。

lay° pen to undcrstanding,

X Lukc,AP。

sdC and EⅤ angchst,lvxTitcs that sthen,christ’ s srst rnartyr,in

(liSl)utc with thc Jcws s“

(l∶

“

Witll scventy h、 ,Cs° uls Jac° b wcnt〈 l。 wn int。 EgyPt,

an(l hc died, he hi111sclf and our fathers, and theⅤ

vcrc carried l)ack to shechcn); 、

an(l thcy、Ⅴcre laid in thc t。 mb that Abraha∏ 1had b° ught、、ith

sⅡ ver fr°

n`thc s° ns

of⒈ Iamor,tlle son。 f Shcchcm” [Ac“ 7"4-161 ThiS P灬 sagC ttlkcs a vσ y

di11辶

κllt

忆rm in Gcnesis,whcrc clcarly Abraham Purchased flom EPhron thC Hitt止 c,s。 n of Z° har, a doublc ton1b and a⒔ cld ncar Hebr° nf° r400dicfr口 chm￠

of silⅤ

er and

・ ik sarah thcrc IGcncsiS23:8-16⒈ But latCr in Gcncsis、 ve rcad d1at Jacob,rctLl1ˉ r1ing s・【 m McsoPotamia with his xx:i、 es and his s。 ns,Pitc11Cd 冫 :elled his tcnt ncar Salcn1, thc city of shechern in thc land caⅡ cd Canaan, aI1dd、飞 aftc1・

xl=ar(l buocd his、

there,Purchasing t11c ncld、 vhcrc hc had pitchcd his tcnts from Ham° r, hthcr。 f

shechem,f° r1001ambs;and raising an altar thcrc he callcd upon the G。 d of lsrael IGe11esis36△ 8-20⒈ so,in this chaPtσ ,Abral△ am d记 not buy a ttDmb fl。 m Ham。 r Ⅵ hosc fathcr 、 vas shcchcΠ 1, but from EPhron s° n of Zohar; thc t° mb is 110t in Shcchcn1, but in Hcbron, 】 1)istakc‘ nly called Arboc The t、 velve Pat1ˉ iarchs are not buricd in Arb。 c but in shcchc∏ 1,and t11e seld vvas n。 t purchased by Abrahalu,but by Jacol) l will Put o∏ sobong this littlc PuzZle s° my dctractors may tlacmsclvcs inquirc and undcrstand that in scriPturc One must consider n。 t the、 Ⅴ。rds,but thc sensc,

Yct another examPlc Thc t、vcnty11rst Psahn in the I1ebrc、 v text bcgins“ thc san)e、 vords that the L° rd sPokc° n thc cross∶ tra11slated[inFc屮 rcr‘ irurl as“ My

“

bε

=ith

,'口 bF口力i,” 、Vhich is

`jJ,e/i`dn2‘ you%rsakcn m” 丨 G。 (l,my Go
21"1,Can lny detractors in turn cxPlain why thC SCⅤ C11ty Translators addcd“ uPon lnc” ?For thcy rcnder it∶

“ God,rny God,look uPon n1c,vvhy haⅤ c you forsakcn

me7” Surcly tlacy will answcr that nonc of thc mcalllng is damagcd if tllese fc、

・

、 vords arc added s° thcn lct thcm grant that I haⅤ c n° t in1PcrilCd thc P° siti° n° f tbe chvrchcs by lct伍 ng a、、:、 vOrds shp in sx△ ・ iR dictati° n ・ XI 【 t、vould bc tcdious to disclosc h° Ⅵ rnuch thc sePtuagint addcd and dclctcd, 、:hch in Church coPics is marked or by daggcrs and astcrisks,Indccd,dK Jcws incvitably laugh、

hcn they hcar、 Ⅴ

vhat、 Ⅳe rcad in Isaiah,“ Blcsscd is hc、 vh。 11as sccd

”

in Sion and a h。 useh° kl in JcruSalen、 and laugh no lcss at thc age in Arnos a⒒ er thc(lcscriPti° n° f`t`xuricl:“ ThCy have】 ˉ egarded thcsc things as Pcrmancnt rather


29

than Hcctingr’ This is actually Hnc rhctoric、 Ⅴith a Ciceronian nair, But、 vhat shall

、 vith thc authoritatiⅤ c books,in、 vhich thcsc and s。 n△ any si1uilar agcs do n° t aPpcar,、vhcn thc Pubhcati° n° fsuch c11ffcrcnccs、 vould丘 ll c。 untlcss volumcs? 、 Ⅴc

d。

Fornaerly,as I havc said,on1issi° ns、vcrc n1arkcd by an astcrisk,or diligcnt rcadcrs c°

mPared° ur

tmnslation I1n∠ e刁 9″ rdho]t。。 ldCr oncs,Bttt dcsPitth all tl△ is,thc

Stuagint rightly rcmains thc church editi°

made bc儿 th。

rc Christ’ sc。 ming,° r

n~eithcr bccausc it is the ° liginal,

bccausc it was usc(l by the APostlcs~but。 nly in

se Placcs whCrc it d。 es n° t conΠ k

t with the Hebrcw.Howcvcr,wc11ghtly rcjcct

Aqtllla,a Prosclytc and a c° ntentious订 anslat。

r Iinε c?r召 sl,wh。

attcmPts t。

not just“ nglc words,but thcir ctymology 、、 %o can acct or c。

订anskr

mPrehend hr

“ corn and、 vinc and oil” his xε 心uα ,♂ 冗ωo1σ u。 v,σ t1λ Jrvotη tα 。r,as、 vc、 V0uld say, “ prohsion,△ uithlncss,and bⅡ ghtncss” ?Or tht△ t,becausc thc Hcl)rcw marker【or thc accusativc Corrcspon(ls t° thc prosition“ with,” this man must~kα %oζ 岣λ(og ~intσ γ γ oσ 心v tη v Prc,t by Syllablcs and lcttc“ and tl△ cKbR say o心 toγ oiQα 0v彳 γ GCncsis1"],wlllch 。 r“ d creatcdl、 vith thc hcaⅤ cn and with thc carth” G° 丨 γη 丨 makcs no scnsc in cithcr Grcck° r LatinP Wc could giⅤ c examPles° f this in° ur o、vn

idion1 F。 r so much that is l)cautifully cxPresscd l)y thc Grccks docs not, if

transfcrrcd litcrally,rcs° und in Latin;and c。 nvcrscly,飞 Ⅳhat sounds Pleasing to us, if c。 nⅤ crtcd

by strict、 vord ordcr,、 vould clisPlcasc thcn1!

XII,Butin ordcr to by this cndless discussion and sho、 v you,lnOst Christian of n。 blcs, and m。 st n° blc。 f

Christians, the bnd。 f

falseh°

od thcy rcbukc in n1y

translation° f Epiphanius’ s lcttcr,I giⅤ c thc bcginning of this lctter、 vith the Greek 1η uα g, wordlng,so tllat through a sin型 e accusaton otl△ crs may be undeⅡ tood,” Eδ ε aγ α冗ηt。 ,I1"tη o1咱 oε 1tc,V Xλ liQω Ⅳcr爸 oε σθα1,which I rccall ha、 =ing convcrted to“ It

“

L。。 k/’ is Htting,dcarcst onc,that、 vc m。 t abusc our PrivilCgc as clcrgy out ofPride” 冗ηt0g is‘ dear° ne/n。 t‘ dcarcst thcy cry,“ ho、 vn△ any lics in° nc short hnc!First,aγ α ~br it says n° to1咱 ε 1, t1but o1岣 σ onC’ σ1g mCans‘ estccm,’ not‘

;thCn,oη

uα

PridC’

of which thc fc,rmcr means‘ a swclhng’ and thc lattcr sig血 hcs‘ a judgη cnt’ ;and

’

thc rcst。 f thc scntcnce is your o、 vn intcrPolation,’ llVhat do you say, (D Pillar of hterature and Aristarchu∮

of our tlmes,you who P淤 s judgmcnt on all writt・ rs?In

Rcn、 vinccd undcr thc Ⅴ ain,thcn,haⅤ c、 vc studicd s° l° ng and, as JuⅤ cnal says,“ ° r° d” 【 s口 rircs IlP sailing iom Port,we shipwrcck immc山 atcly.And so,sincc to crr is human amd to adn1it crror is Prudent,I bcg y。 tll11Cnd thc crr°

u,rny critic,、 vhocⅤ cr you arc,to

r~C)teachcr~and rcndcr w。 rcl允 r word “You ought to haⅤ c

‘ ” tcll me, It is ntting, dear onc, that、 Ⅴc n° t oⅤ crcsti1natc thc clcrgy’ This thc cloqucncc of Plautus,this the Attic charn△ 、 vorthy° fthc Muscs!Thc、 vcll~ Ⅴorn proⅤ crb is ful丘 lled in me: He l° ses b。 th his。 intlucnt and his m° mey, 、、 ^rho scnds a bull int。 a、 Ⅴresthng1uatch. All this is not thc fault of llay accuSCrs, 、 vho arc likc actors Playing rolcs in a vho for a high Pricc havc taught thcm to kn0、 v tragcdy, l)ut of thcir tcachcrs, 、 nothing By no mcans do I criticize uncultivated specch in a Christian~if only、 ve ‘ 、 v° uld havc that s。 cratic、visdon1,‘ I knovv、 vhat I(lo not kn。、 v,” and that。 f anothcr wisc n△ an,“ Know y° ursclf!” My(lcest rCSPCct has alvcays becn n。 t for crudc Ⅴcrb。 sity but for h。 ly sirnPhcity: those、 vh。 say that thcy in1itatc thc aPostlCs in sPCcch1nust Hrst in1itate them in life Thcir silη Phcity of spcech、 vas Ⅴindicatcd by the abundancc。 f thcir sanctity;and thC rcsurrcction ofthc dead con§ Jted thc syll。 cⅤ cr, gislns of Arist° dc and thc contrivanccs of ChrysiPPuS wC Inust adlllit,ho、 Ⅴ said/’ y° u

30 JEROME

∶ ∶ :盆瑟啦瑟扌∶ :炒 :盅拥:t:亻 :r:∶

:1∶

philosophy bo。 ks instcad。 f trcc trunksˉ

W∶

;?韭 JIl∶

∷冱奔 h∶吁 (∵

∶ 丨 ∶ ∶ ∶ 蓖是犭袼搀淋Ⅰ 苫i峨lⅠ更罗菸 i韩 ||∶

i∶

拄甘∶ 百点Ⅰ f淞默且 Ⅰ ∶ ∶ :Ι 瑟簋 ;T∶ ∶ 窟扌默s∵ 圭奋【 ∶ e饣 :F:虹 1揣默只芯斌s撂瑟庀 r∶

:f:∶ F::∶

:∶

j∶

l:∶

:∶

llllmm

\∶

:∶

;

:::lC c【

Translator’ s notes JCr° me

uses tw。 sctx。 f tc・ rms to rc、 rt° the a8cl′ t,PIˉ 。cCSs an(l product oF translating: °ne rclating to 立 /,rcrPrcs, 、 vhich f° llo、 vs classical auth° rs such as

Ciccro and H° racc, and thc。 thcr relating to rrtJns`dror Whcn the f° rmcr is rcndcrcd herc as‘ ‘ translatc/’ thc Latin、vⅡ l bc cncl。 scd in l)rackcts Pan11nachius 、 vas a Roman scnat° r 、 vh° abandoncd his Pohtical carccr t°

黯 Flδ

iT,∷i|∶ f丫}∶

:∶

冱 :}∶

凡:;lIi:lfT∶

:::r￡ l:∶

∶ i{:

衤孓扭挞热晏搀 h蛏 PF{嬲遵蚶捕雠 W糕随。 nd⒊ `盅

h著

Thc kng山 y由 u雨

u沁 d订

broadcr∞ mPaign by JcromC Hc ha stuagint and c)ld Latin translati° t∶

∵ 古 :1宀 s黑飧:l犭里

ns,、 Ⅴ hich

st扩

1蕊 i

hc frcqucntly critiqucd At thc C【

饣 Ⅰf毖 :世 T∶ 1‘ 冱浞 ∵ lr扌 ∷ 茹 :、 ;1:F〓扌苫 i∶ 嘎三扌 ∶抖 ∵扌山cⅠ ￠ulgatc,gadually(hsplaccd the c)ld Laun and c、 cntuaⅡ y bccalnc thc。 m~ ・ cial Church、・ ersion JeromC is rc∮ 辶rrh1g to Aristarchus

°f san】 °thracc, hcad of thc Alcxandrian Lil)rary(c, 180-145Bc)and al)roliHc tcxtual critic Hc Pr° duccd cditi。 ns of H° mcr, Hcsi° d, Alcact】 s, Anac1・ con, and Pindar, as wcll as volulnin° us commcntahcs。 n htera1・ ya11d grammatical su灬 ctts

Chapter 2

NiCOlas PerrOt d’ AhIancourt

PREFACE TO TACITUs Γra`?s切芒 ed by Lawre刀 ce1/e`?L`r`

e∶ 1i甘 :丘 1`⒈ ∴ 。∵∶、 ⒒ cj∶ 注 I∶ s∶ h:JI遢、JΙ∶

Ilc:u1扌

c泞Ι 氵::⒉ ∫∵∶

t∶

us thc hist。 ry° lf° ur

EmPerors】 n his 4nnc^, only thc Hrst and last rcIuain, thc morc than l)alf I have thcrcsccond is cntircly lost,and of thc third、vc PossCss no `付

forc(lccmed it aPpr。 Priate to(lcⅤ °tc onC、 olume to thc Rcign° f1Γ ibcrius,reserⅤ ing th。

sc° f Claudius and p《

dcsirc to c。

cr°

f°

r a second Part~ˉ -should I sOmc day bc scized by thc

ntinuc1Thc Prcscnt v° lumc is,ncvcrt11Clcss,Tacitus’ s lnastcrPiecc,as

Ⅵ・ cll as thc life° f a great Pohtician,、 vbich is the llloticr、 vhcrein。 ur Aud1。 r exccls Thc rcst。 f his History lllight haⅤ c bccn con】 Poscd by somcOnc clsc;n° r did Romc lack its Rantcrs to(lict thc Ⅴiccs of Cahgula, thc stupi(lity of Claudius, and thc vritc cruclties of Ncro But t° 、

thc lift・

c〉

fa Pri11ce like Tibcrius rcqui1ˉ cd a Hist°rian

hkc Tacitus,、 vh° could unraⅤ cl all thc intrigues in thc Cabinct,assign gcnuinc causcs to cⅤ

cnts,and(hstinguish PrCtCnsc and aPPcarancc fr° n△ truth. F。 r hcre° nc ncⅤ cr

cncountc1・ s, as onc clocs in。 thcr⒈ Iist。 rics, a long succcssion of、 :ars and battlcs;

and if you cxct thC n1ihtary cxPloitS。 f Gcrmanicus treated in thc⒔ rst and scc。 nd Bo。 ks,you、 vill nnd n。。thcrs that arc not disPosed of、 vithin thirty lincs and arc not morc con△ mendable f° r thc c° nscquences that thc Auth。 r dra、、sF⒈ on1thcn1, and the circumstances that hc n° tcs in d)C1η , than f° r thc grandcur 。r beauty 。f the cvcnts,All thc samc,as he oRen consi(lcrs things分 om some stral)gc anglc, he。 ccasionally lcavcs his narrativcs incon1PlCtC,a quahty Ⅵˇ hich,t° gcthcr、 vith thc luultitudc。 f crr。 rs that aPpCar in thcru and thc(hm hght that Prcscntly shincs uP。 n 、hcrc。 f thcy treat, cngcndcrs thc °bscurity in his 、 most things 、 vorks (Dnc nccd not n1al、 cl, thcrcf° rc,that hc is s。

1640

dificult t。 translate, seeing that hc is(hFflcult

32

NIcOLAs PERROT D′

ABLANCOURT

to undcrstand He is,furthcrm° rc,Ⅵ ・ ont to n1ix in the samc scntcncc,som C_ ti1ncs in thc samc PhrasC,diⅤ crsc thoughts、 Ⅴhich bcar not thc shghtcst relati。 nt。 each othcr,and of、 vhich a part is incvitably lost(as、ihcn。 nc P。 hshes a、 Ⅴ°rk)in the cffort to cxPrCSS thc rcst、 vit11° ut o=父定nding thc dchcacy of our Langua8c and thc c° rrcctncss of thc argumcnt For pcoplc do not havc thc saIη c rcspcct for my French as f。 r his Latin;and thcy`^fould n。 tf° rgivc mc things that thcy° Rcn adn1ire in hirn and cⅤ en~ifit rnight bc Put thus_-revcre Evcryvvherc clsc I havc f° ll。、 vcd hi1n st l)y st,and rathcr as a slave than as a comPanion, although I Π1ight haⅤ c vcd mysclf1norc f⒈ ccd。 n1 sincc I 、 all° 、 vas not translating a agc, but a B。 ok, cⅤ cry Part ° f 、 vhich must bc hnkcd t° gcthcr and fuscd as in the san△ e body, Furthcrm。 rc, the diⅤ crsity that 。nc ⒔nds am。 ngst languagcs is so grcat, in thc construction and shaPe of PCriodS as、 vcll as in⒔ gurcs and othcr。 rnaments,that at CvCry turn onc must adopt a dircrent air and Ⅴisagc,unlcss onc、vishes t° crcate a lllonstrous body, such as th。 sc° f ordinary translations, 、 vhich arc cithcr(lcad and hstless °r confuscd and muddled, 、 vithout any。 rdcr or charIη Hcncc 。nc1nust cⅤ cn

takc heed that an Author’ s gracc n° t bc lost thr。 ugh too n△ uch scruPul。 uSness,and that thc fcar of being unfaithft】 l to hi11,in s° mc onc thing not rcsult in in6dchty to thc、 vh。 lc∶ PrinciPally、 vhen onc is crcating a vvork that is t。 original, and 。nc is n° t cndeaⅤ 。ring to hclP youn:PcoPlC

takc thc Place° f thC

undCrstand Greek

°r

vs that bold Phrascs arc not exact, bcCausc corrcctness is thc Latin, For onc kn° 、

cnCmy。 f grandcur,as can bc secn in Painting and`vriting,Yct a bold strokc suPPhcs ・ the、△ ant of corrcctncss, and such PhrasCs are dcCmcd morc l)cauti§ Jl than if they 、 vcre morc in conf° rn1ity、 vith thC Iˉ ulcs It is difhcult, m° rc。 vcr,to bc Ⅴcry cxact whcn translating an Author、 Ⅳho is n° t hillasclf cxact (Dne is oRcn f° rccd to add №methng to h厶 tl△ ought in ordcr t° d泸 i△ it;at dmcs k is nc∝ ss扩 y tt,rctκ nch one Part in ordcr to8ivc l冫 irth t。 all thc rest This lncans,ho、 vcvCr,that thc bcst transladons sccm to bc thc lc淤 tR"th凡 l Inclccd,a Chtic ofour umc has n。 tc(ltwo th° usand crrors in ArnⅤ ° s Plutarch,2 vvhile an。 ther f° und ahn° st as manⅤ in Erasmus’ s translati° ns,3 PcrhaPs bCcausc they did not kn° 、厂that thc (h、 crsity of Languagcs and stylcs obhgcs dac usc of con△ PlctCly diffcrent cxPrCSSions, sincc t’

eloqucnce is such a dehcatc thing that someti1nes a lncre syllable is cnough to sPoil it, For aftcr all it is hardly hkcly that such grcat Mcn

、 vcrc n)istakcn in s。

n△ any

PlacCS,CvCn th0ugh it is n。 t unusual for a n1istakc to bc madc hcrc and therc But not eⅤ eryonc is capablc ofjudging a translation,alth° ugh cvcry° nc is ofthc oPini。

n

that hc is.Hcrc as clscwhcrc,Aristodc’ nccds trust cach man c。 nccrning his o、 vn Art,4It is tin1c,h° 、 vcⅤ Cr,t0l)roccCd to sn△ axilu shoukl scrvc as thc rulc∶

onc lllust

。thcr considerations,and to concludc this Prefacc One sh° ukl n。 t bc surPrisCd,丘 rst。 f all, to hcar mcntion° f Ccnturions and C。 horts,thc AngriⅤ aricns and thc Cattcs,Thc translat。 r has l)ccn f° rccd to rctain thcsc tcrms bccausc ancicnt ar∏ 1ics do not corrcspond to ours, and has

undcrgonc so many changcs that it no longcr contains the samc Pr°

Ⅴinces Or thc

samc PcoPlcs・ As for thc ancicnt systcn1° frnoncy,I、 vould not have retained it had

und great disadvantagcs in thc Onc uscd t。 day For sincc Roman money vc nCcd a r。 und sul,l, it comcs out quitc differs fron1 。urs, someti1ncs vvhcn 、 contrary, F° r cxamPle, Arn)inius Pron1ises Onc hundred scsterccs pcr day to thc I not f°

s° klicrs、 vho surrcndcr t° him;if I inscrt scven liⅤ rcs tcn sous,、 vhich is PrCtty nCar the saIne amount,I、 vould rendcr thc thing ridiculous For、 vho、v。 uld ever conceiⅤ e

PREFACE TO TACITUs

33

of1uakh】 g such a Pr° n1is(Dne lui:ht o∏ 辶r soldiers a Pist。 lc。 r an誉 cu, c)r son1c'oukl bc absurd d1ing ofthc k【 nd,but scⅤ cn liⅤ rcs tcn sous,or six livrcs⒔ ftecn,、、 I havc thcref。 re rctained thc ancicnt forn1,and I contcntcd mysclf Sxˇ id1Putting thc

Ⅴaluc in the margin to Prevent obsCurity It rcmains to spcak of ProPCr11。 uns, 、 vith 、 vhich【 havc not f° ll。、 vcd any particular rulc bccausc n° nc in fact cxists VVc saⅤ Marc A11toine and A/larc Aurclc,but Ⅵ厂 c do not say,in my vicw,Marc Agrippa。 r

Marc Ciceron Wc say Quintc Curce,but n° t Quintc Li8airC・ AS允 r thc Ancicnts’ custom° f designating(layS as N。 ncs,I(lcs,and Cdends,I had initially f° llowed it bccausc it adcls s。 mc m句 CSty,but in tbc end I abandoned⒒ to av。 i(ln△ aklng a mystery of a thing that is naught, and that is n△ arvclous 。nly in its extraⅤ agance That is、 irtually all I have fclt °bbgcd to cxPlain in this Preface I shall add °nly that I have n° t obserⅤ ed anⅤ of thcsc rules s°

cxactlv that I did n。 t° ccasionallv

cxcn1pt n1ysclf r⒈ 。m it, eithcr to avoid the a、、k、、ard Pronunciation of a xsˉ °rd,。 r f°

rs。 n1c。 ther rcas° n TrulⅤ thc Lati11s、

verc cvcn morc rchgious than`c in this

reSPcct, taklng pains to PrcⅤ Cnt any offense to tlac dclicacy of thciI・ languagc l)y barbaric an(l儿 rciε n tcrms Our own Fathcrs s“ d NaPles and thc Tibcr,l`。 t NaPoh and thc TeⅤ crc,in ordcr to accomn】 Odate things to thcir Pr° nunciation But bcf° rc concludh1g,to ProⅤ i(lc s。 mc informati° n regarding our Author,I shall say that hc

dcsccndcd⒒ °mR。 man Knights,that he ll° urishcd undcr Vcspasian’ s EmPirc and dlc bllowi11g rcigns,an(l that aRcr haⅤ ing cd through all thc grcat0帕 ccs of thc Rubhc,chCrishcd by thc f° rcmost111en of his ccntury,hC Hnally cni° yCd thc h° b。 rc l)is nan1e and bcl° nged to his farnily5 glory oI haⅤ ing an EmPcr° r、 Ⅴ

PREFACE TO LUCIAN T°

M。 nsieur Conrart, Counscl。 r and Sccretary to thc King6

/1。 nsicur, Λ

As things rcturn to thcir° rigin and。 rdil)a1・ ily cnd、 vhcrc thcy commcnccd,it、 vas only ju咐 t11at I dedkate my Hnd Tmnslad° n to him who c句 ° yed my⒒ rst△ ui“ and so NIinucius Fehx7having思 ivcn bi1ˉ tb to our fricndshiP, Lucian 、 vas to l)】 ˉ ing ;

about its Pc1・ lc・ cti° n It、vas ncccssary,l⒈ rthcrm。 rc,n° t s^。 ntispiccc

mcrcly that amxc(lt。 thc should bc a nan1c that banishcs cⅤ cry ill。 pinion xl:hich1uight suⅡ y this

、 Vork, but that thc Auth。 Conrart’

s、 1rtuc

r’

s hbcrtinagc should bc

。vcrshado、 vcd by Monsicur

:° I、 ∧ uld add that this B° 。kc° uld not honorably apPcar in Pubhc

under any ausPiccs but your o“ ・ n,sh1cc you havc dOnc s° much to br"1ging it int° the Ⅵfc)rld, and your sOund advicc is thc rcason that it sccs thc hght in a morc perRcted state This is not,then, s° much a giR as an act of逻tateful recognition, alth° ugh an intercstcd rccognition, sincc it bcgs thc protcction of hiln 、 vh° lll it 、・ °uld recognize as its benefact。 r And truly, Monsicur,sincc it is PrinciPally you Ⅵˉ ho rn° vcd lne to undcrtake this Ⅴersi(冫 11,you ought to sharc thc ccnsurc or Praise tl、 at may attcn(l it~aPart△ 。 m thc Fact t11at it Ⅵill mcct with monstcrs cnough at its biHh to jusuf)tllc search k〉

1654

ra Pr。 tcctor B1It d1at you mi思 bt not rroach mc

34 f°

NIcOLAS PERROT D′

ABLANCOURT

r rashly imphcating you in a quarrcl、 vhich you、 Ⅴerc bcttcr off、1thout,I ai1n to

CquiP y。 u、Ⅴith、 vcapons to(lcfcnd yoursclf,and t。 shicld us b°

th from CaIumny,

Heads:Dcsign Every comPlJnt that may bC lodgcd agalnst mc hlls under tw° 严 and、、 ay of Procccding,For somc、vill say that this丿 \uthor ought not to haⅤ c bccn translatcd,、 vhilst° thcrs、vill say that hc ought t。 havc bccn translatcd。 thcr、 visc I

wish thereforc to rcsPond to thcsc two°

匀ccti。 ns,aftcr

ha“ ng said somethng about

Luchn which will servc aq my justinmu。 n and dari灯 thc κas。 ns that lcd mc ttD translatc hirn

Lucian was a natiⅤ c of Sam° sata,caPital of Commagcnc,and hc was not of gentle birth, f° r his fathcr, 1acking thc means to maintain hiIn, res° sh° uld

lⅤ

ed that he

learn a moticr; but sincc his nrst eff。 rts did n° t sho、 v Pr° n1iSC, he threvv

hiInsclf int。

Lcttcrs,a竹 cr a drcam vvhich is rortcd at the beginning of this、 Vork,

Hc hirnsclf says that hc embraccd thc ProfCsSi° n of Barristcr;but sincc hc abh。 rrcd 、 vranghng and thc° ther vices of thc Bar,he rcs。 rtcd t° PhilosoPhy as to a rcfuge T° judge fl° m

hs W1ˉ ltings,he w凼 a Rhctor who made Eloquencc his Pr。、Ssi° n

and comP。 scd DCdamatons and Harangues。 n aⅤ crsc sul,Jccts,CvCn Pleas br Law Courts,although nonc。

f his、 v° rk in this

in Antioch,、 vhcncc hc shiftcd t。

I。

Ⅴcin survivcs Hc nrst t。 ok uP rcsidcnce

nia and Grcccc,then to Gaul and Italy,and aftcr-

ia RIaccd° nia,Yct hc clcarlv liⅤ ed a strctch° f tiInc vards rcturncd t° his countrⅤ Ⅴ 、 in Athcns,whcre hc also acqulled its viccs and v止 tucs,Hc hnally withdrew⒒ om the activitics of、 vhich1have sP° kcn,in ordcr t。 deⅤ otc hi1nself t° Phil。 s° Phy;this is、 vhy hc comPlainS s。 me、vhCrc that PeoPlC、 vant hin1to cmbark on thcn△ anc、 v in his old agc Hc livcd nincty yCars,bcing born bc凡 rc Tralan’ s reign and outlasdng Marc Aurclc,undcr vvholll he、 vas hcld in great cstccn△ and bccamc thc EmPeror’ s

Adn1inistrator in Egypt suidas, thc Byzantinc lcxicograPher, lnaintains that clogs had torn hiFn to PiCcCS;but this is aPParently calumny,a gcsturc of rcⅤ cngc becausc in his raillery he di(l not sparc thc srst Christians any n1orc than othcrs Yet、 vhat hich hc sai(l of thcm can be rclatcd, in my vicⅥ /, to thcir charity and shnplicity, 、・ is rnore Praise than injury;bcsidcs,。 ne should n° t exPcct a Culogy of Christianity fi。

n1a Pagan somc bchcvcd that he、 vas a Christian;but it is not cⅤ i(lcnt in this True,br a Forcigncr hc lu△ °ws many of our my哎 CHCs,although Judea’ s

Bo° k

ncarncss and dcahngs、 vith Christians,along、 Ⅴith his natural curiosity,1night haⅤ c lcdgc Others have sought to rresent hiIn cnablcd hin△ to comc by all this knoⅥ 厂 vhich as a paragon of、 visd° n1and lcarning But in additi° n to thc love° fB° yS,t° 、 ncd for t bc Pard。 he、 vas inclincd, and his scant a、 Ⅴarencss of the Dcity,hc cann° having vili6cd thc rutations of thc m。 st cn1incnt Mcn on thc strength of Rumor _or rathcr their cncn⒒ cs’ talcs,For cⅤ cn though one n1ight cxcusc hiln by arguing that his sights、vcrc not traincd on thcn△ ,but on th° sc、 vh。 Ⅱ1isusc thcir namcs to hide thcir Ⅴiccs, hc obvi° usly lct shP no oPP。 rtunity to traducc thc∏ 1and al、 vays

made s° mc biting rcmark cn P￠

ss召

nr Furthcrmorc,the luanner in、 ⒎ hich hc trcatcd

thc most signi6cant lnattcrs rnakcs abundantly clcar that hc、 Ⅴas n° t deePly learned

in PhilosoPhy,and that hc had acquired only、 Ⅴhat、vas of usc for his Pr° fCssi° n。 f Rhctor,which was t。 sPeak Pro and∞ n° n all kn(ls of mbJccts.YCt⒒ Cannot bc dcnicd that hc、 vas onc。 f thc readicst Wits of his century,、 vho is cvcry、 vhcrc dchvhich the vith a gay and Playful humor and that gallant air 、 cate and char∏ 1ing, ˇ ancicnts tcrmcd urbdniry,n。 t to lncntion thc cleanncss and Purity of his stylc as、 vcll as his clcgance and CiⅤ ility I nnd hirn。 nly a bit coarsc in mattcrs of Lovc,、vhcthcr

PREFACE TO LUCIAN

35

n, Indccd, 、 Ⅴhcn hc uld bc imputcd t° thc sPirit of his tilnc or to his。 Ⅵ厂 rth、 vith tumblcs into 、ishcs t° spcak of it,hc lcaPs thc bounds° f dccency and f° vhich is thc mark of a clcbauchcd rathcr than a gallant、 Ⅴit Hc also thc °bsccnc, 、 displays the mark °f a Ranter 、 vhcn he 、ˉ ishcs to say CⅤ crything and docs n。 t vhcn hc n1ust nceds d。 , a 、icc d1at springs from too n1uch 、 concludc 、 Vit and lcarn"1g NcⅤ crd1elcss,it is a grcat pr。 of′ of thc I1】 crit and cxccllcncc° f his VV° rks that thcy havc been PrcserⅤ ed d。、 vn to °ur day, sceing the httle arccti。 n that that sh°

pcoplc haⅤ c fclt for their Author and thc、 vrcck ofs。 rnany othcr`csscls of Antiquity

r ncghgcncc;and° bⅤ i。 usly Christians as wcll must haⅤ c bund tlaat he c° uld bc much m。 rc Prontablc than il△ lurious More, 、 vhich have bcen l。 st

thr。 ugh n△ ischance。

Ⅴanity and imPosturc of false G。 ds,° r vith the frailty and inc° nstancy thC PridC and ign° rancc of Phil° s。 PhCrs, al° ng Ⅴ For hc 。f human things;and I doubt that thcrc cxist bcttcr Books in this resPect・ ncver did a man sO cffcctivcly lay barc thc

s`Ⅴ CCtly

stcals int。 thc intcllcct tbr。 ugh raⅡ lcry;and his M° ral is all thc n1。 rc uscful

as it is Pleash1g Hcrcin too onc can lcarn a thousand m。

st cuIˉ ious

things;it is likc

vcrs sclected frol△ 1 thc Hnest spcchncns of the Ancients, I lcaⅤ ab° uquct of n° 、

c

asidc thc P° i11t that the Λ 压yths arc t1・ catcd in an ingcni° us fashi° n that is most nduciⅤ c。 c to in1PrCssing thcm on thc luemory and contributcs n° t a littlc t。 thc

undcrstanding of Pocts Onc nccd n° t6nd strangc,thcn,rny dccision to translatc ving thc cxamPlc of sCvcral lcarncd Pcrs° ns Ⅵh° haⅤ c Produccd this B。 ok, foll。、 Latin Vcrsions,、 Ⅴhcthcr° f onc Dial° guc or anothcr;and I am thc】

css blamc、 vorthy

as I havc rctrcnched、 ˉ hat、 v as1nost obsCcnc and,in s° mc agcs,ten1Pered、 vhat Ⅵ′ as too k)osc Thus ha、 e I cntcred uP。 n thc justi⒔ cati。 n of my、 :ay of ProcCCding, vcⅡ jusdscd by thC tuany advantagcs that thc Pubhc can dcriⅤ c r1ny dcsign is 、 △。n△ rcadiI1g this Auth。 r,I shall say only that I havc left his。 pit1ions、 'holly intact, sincc othcrⅥ jisc this、 i° uld not haⅤ c bccn a Translati。 n,but I resP。 nd t。 dac most f°

intcmPcratt・ in the Argument or in the Rcmarl【 s,s。 that no illJu1ˉ y might result,

As thc 思rcateSt nun11)cr of things found herein consists Only of Pohtc turns °f Phrasc and radlcry, vchich arc differcnt in eⅤ cry Lan:uagc, a Translati° n in o盯 Cls’ accord、、ith thc rulcs、 vas imPossiblC Thcrc arc cvcn somc Picccs、 hkc「 rlc Γ 丿u句 mcnr,s“ hitll could n【,t bc仔 mslatcd献

all,tarld tw。

or thl ec otllt,、 whitˉ la

hinr

ill not bc undcrst° 。d。 utsklc of that on thc(hstinctiⅤ e quahty of Grcck tern1s and、 Ⅴ

contcxt, All comParisons drawn with I~° Ⅴc addrcss thc Lovc of B° ys, which、 vas not f° rcign to thc rn° rals

of Grcccc,but、 vhich is abh° rrcnt to ours At cⅤ cry turn,

the Auth° r citcs s()mc vcrscs分 n。 thing

om Homcr,which w°

uld n° w bc pcdantry,t。

Say

of thc old,too banal N1yths,thc Pr。 Ⅴerbs,thc ExamPlcs and thC antiquatcd

vhich 、 v。 uld today Producc an cffcct c。 mplctcly contrary to his ComParis。 ns, 、 dcsign;f° r hcrc it is a quCstion of Gallantr),not Crudition It、 Ⅳas thercf° rc neccs-

in° rder t° makc sOn,cthing Plcasing; other、 ise,it、 vould not bc Lucian; and 、 vhat PleascS in bis Language`、 Ⅰ ould not be t。 lcrablc in 。urs Furthcrn10rc, as thc most bcautiful 、isagcs al、 rays contai11 somcthing that one sxishcs 、 vcre not there, s。 thc bcst Auth° rs contain agcs that must nceds be altcrcd or clari⒔ ed, Particularly 、 vhcn things are d。 nc solcly to PlcasC; for thcn one cannot Pcrnìt thc shghtcst fla、 Ⅴ; and should thcrc bc any 、 vant of dchcacy, one Ⅵ・ ill not diⅤ crt,but b° rc,Hcncc I do n。 t al、 ,ayS clCaⅤ c to thc、 Ⅴ ords Or th° u8hts oF this Author; 、 vhnst kcePing in sight his PurPoSe, I 丘t things t。 our air and manncr E)i`crsc tinncs rcquire n° t only diitc1・ cnt Ⅵ・ ords,but different thoughts;and sary t。 cban思 c all that、

36

ABLANCOURT

NICOLAs PERROT D′

vhere thcⅤ havc Arnbassad。 rs are accustomcd to drcss in thc fashion° fthc countrⅤ 、 th° sc、 Ⅴ hon△ thcy Cndcavor t。 l)lCasc

bcen sent f° r fcar of aPPearing ridicul° us t°

Ncvcrd1clcss,this is not Propcrly a Tra11slati° n;but it ratcs morc h、刂)ly

tha1】

a

。thcr、 visc, Tcrcncc dloycd this vcry n△ ed10d、 Ⅴith thc Comedies that hc to° kf1・ °mN1cnandcr,cvcn though Aulus Gelhus(locs not lcave° ff calling thcm Translati。 ns;thc namc is of n。 iluP° rtance, providcd tl△ at we haⅤ c thc thing Gcer。 ms° rtcd t° thc跎 mc mcthod in llls Cy阝 ccs, 、 Ⅴhich arc scarccly l)ut a Vcrsion of Panactius; and in th° se Vcrsions that hc had made fl。 m tlac0rations of Dem。 sthcncs and Aeschincs,hc says that he、 v° rkcd not vhich is thc vcry thing that I vvant to say of as an IntcrPretcr,but as an Orator; 、 Translation; and the Ancients di(l not translatc

Lucian’ s Dialoε ues9althou8hI(lid not Pernìt n)ysclf thc samc frecd°

m throughout

Ⅵ ord for、 :ord, at lcast as mucb as。 nc can(lo so in an clcgant TranslatiOn;therc arc also ages、 Ⅳhcrcin I haⅤ e l、 ccdcd more、 vhat should be said,。 r、、hat I c。 ul(l say,than、 vhat hc had sai(l,R)lloxl'i11g the cxamPlc °f Vil^gd in those agCs that he t。 ok Ⅱ°m Homcr and Thc。 critus But I ha、 c 'ithout dcsccnding into detaⅡ s,aP1ˉ actice that hcrc、、 rcstraincd Iuyself alrnOst cvcryⅥ 厂・ ill n° t Plcasc arc,ho、 vcⅤ cr,that this Ⅵ・ is not follosscd in our tilnc, I am wcll a、、 Ⅴord and cvcry thought of thc cvcryone, particularly t110sc 、/h。 id° hze cvcry 、 I bavc translatcd n1any agcs

Ancicnts and(lo n。 t bchcⅤ c that a Work can be good ifits Author is stⅡ For thcsc s° rtS0f PcoPlC、 vill carp as thcy(lid in Tcrcncc’ s tirnc,

l living,

Contan】 inari non decerc Fabulas, ith ay tamPCr Ⅵ∶ That° ne n1ust not corruPt onc’ sA11thor,° rh1any Ⅵˉ

but I shall

bis sul)jcct;

resPond、 vith Tcrence’ s11Cll),

Faciunt nac intclligcndo,ut nihil intclligant,

Qui cum hunc accusant,Nacx・ lum,Plautum,Ennium Accusant,quos hic n。 stcr authorcs habct.

Quorum acmttl犴 i

cx。 l,tflt nc匪

唿cnuam

Potius,quam istorum° bscuralll(hligcntiam,9 Ho、:wcll“ °bscu1・ n diligcntiam” articulatcs the dc%ct of scrupul。 us a】

xx:hich rcquire° nc to rcad thc Original to understand the Vcrsi。 hat I had t。 Thus havc I Prescntcd, NI。 nsicur, 、・

saⅤ in t11Ⅴ

Tra11s】 ations,

n!

(lCfCnsc I lcavc t°

your valor and shrcvvdness, not to n1cntion vour zcal and affcction, hoⅥ `bcst to CmPloy these、 veaPons、vhich arc morc strong than bright -should)・ our namc not suⅢ cc to disPersc my enemics and Prcvcnt thcm仔 om sh° wing themsclves C° mc 、 vhat may, I shall attributc eⅤ ery favorablc outcomc to thc glory of lny dcfcndcr, and I shall remain all lnⅤ

life,

ˇIonsieur, Your n1° st humblc and obcdicnt scrvant,

Pcrrot Ablancourt

PREFACE TO LUCIAN

37

Translator’ s notes 1

2

D’ Al)lanc。

urt l)ubhShed thc sccond、 olun1e in 1644

JacquCS Amyot(1513— 1593),ProksS。 r° f

Grcck ancl Latin at thc uni、

crsity

of Bourgcs,ProducCd Frcnch`・ crsions of such、・ °rks as L° ngus’ s DdPhn1S口 nd Cf,丿。 c(1559)and Plutarch’ s LiΓes(1559, 1565) Tbc t1・ anslati° ns ProducCd by thc scholar and theol° gian Dcsi(lcrius Erasn】 us (?1466— 1536)includc a Latin vcr“ on。 fthc New Tcstamcnt

The “ n1axilu”

is actually not AristOtlc’ s, but attril,utcd t。 the f° ll。 wers

Pytlnagolas by M° nt缸 gnc in his'亻 1972∶

122-123n24),

of

′εrJ%r Rqym° nd seb° nde(D’ Al,lanc° urt P° 。

ˉ

Ⅴ Thc cn1Pcror iS N/larcus Claudius 「 ho reigned bricHy in d1c third acitus, 、 ccnturⅤ AD and clain)cd dcscent fIˉ

()lγ

1t11C historian

、Vid1 the suPP° rt of Ca1・ di11al Richchcu, Valcntin Conralt (1603— 1675) f° undcd thc Acad志 n、 ic Franqaise in1635and for thc ncxt four dccadcs scrⅤ cd as lts sccrctarⅤ

,

Marcus Minucius Fchx, an carly Latin aPologist for Christianity, 、 vrotc thc (haloguc C)cF口 vJ1氵 s、 :hiCh D’ Ablancourt translatcd anonym。 usly in 1637 His vcrsion of Lucian did not pr。 Ⅴc to bc his last translati° n; hc subsequcntly rcndcrcd ThucydidCS(1662)and a c。 llcction of ancicnt aPoPhthCgn1s(1663) 】 n this lˉ hctorical work,a jury ofòxxcls judgcs a suit brought by the Greck

lcttcr sign1a against tau E)’ Ablancou】・ ith an original con11)。 si~ t rlacCd it、 Ⅴ

tion,Did`昭 “ dcs∠ crrrcs(氵 c∴ 丬PF,宀 d占 r,a hntcasy。 nF泔 ncb sPelhng小 s`P1ed to t・

F1・

o1nont d’ Ablanc° urt

D、

Al)lancourt drc、 v thcsc lh1es nˉ c)tn thc Prologue to Tcrcncc’ s Play

Ⅱndi・

i tI

(ll,16-21) In a n。 te hc Pr° vided a Frcnch translati° n that is gcncrally faith【 0l

、:hⅡ c °n】 itting thc Latin authors’ names∶

‘ ‘

Thcy undo reason by dint of

vhO scrⅤ c as its rcasoning For by uPbraiding it, thcy uPbraid the Ancicnts, 、 surcty,and、 vhose ncghgcnce hc、 ould rather il△aitatc,than thc° bscurc cxac’ titude of °thcrs’ (thc French vcrsion is quoted in E)’ Ablanc° urt 1972:

188n25;my translati° n)

Chaρ ter 3

John Dryden

FROh/lTHE PREFACE TO @/fD/S fPfSTLfS

∶ ∶ 苏唁W坏瑟⒊Ft找 :&lu∶ 】 1丫 gI「窟;if且氵 I搏氵 ::l∶

f。

way° f VCrsion sccms to mc most Pt・ oper,

All Translation I supPosc lnay bc rcduccd t。 thcsc thrcc hcads. First, that。 f Metaphrasc, or turnin思 an Auth。 ur、 Ⅴord l)y、 vord,and Linc l)y Linc, fr° m

vas Hordcc onc Lan8uagc int° another Thus, or near ths manncr, 、

hn,cDn1Thc sccond Ⅵ ay is that of ParaPhrasC, his Art° f Poetry translatcd by Ben丿 ° or Translati。 n、 vith Latitude,、 vhcrc the Auth° ur it kePt in viC、 :by thc Translator, so as ncvcr to bc lost, but his、 v。 rds arc〖 1ot so striCtly ft〉 llo、 v’ d asl)is sensc, and I匕 FF召 h Translatio1△ is adn1ittcd to bc amPlyHcd,but not altcr’ d Such is NIr 丨 'here thc Translator of"r孑 ″s Fourth i￡ neicl2Thc Third way is that ofIn1itation,、 Ⅴary flon1dk t only to (if now hC has n。 t lost that Namc)assumcs thc hbeⅡ y n。

that t° o

、 v° rds and scncc, l)ut to forsakc thcn△ b。 th as hc sccs OCCasion∶ and taking only somc gcncral hints lion1thc Original, to run division on thc gr。 und-、 vork, as hc vo odCs of Pj,ltfcJr,and onc° fH° r口 cc PlCaSes such is NIr ll刂 e阝 Practicc in turning t、

into￡ nJfis/’ ;

Concerning thc ⒔rst of thcsc NIcth。 ds, 。ur R/lastcr H。 rα cc

has giⅤ en us this

Caudon, Nec Ⅴcrbun1Ⅴ crbo curabis rcddcrc,⒔ dus IntcrPres~ rd r∞ 、乙ir勹 n'9F阳 nsbre As tllc￡ drF ° Nor word少 rⅥ ′ 丿 ’

rendcr’ d it+Too faithfully is indccd Pedantically∶

1680

of R°

sct,n″

920n has excellcntly

tis a f1ith likc that、

vhich Procccds

FROM、 THE PREFACE T0 0yfD/s EP∫

sTLfs

39

i° ∏1suPcrstltl° n,bhnd and zcal。 us:Takc it in the ExPrcssi° n of sir丿ohn D召 n为 dm,

do5 to sir RicJa Fdnshd″ ,on his Vcrsion of thc PdsFOr厂氵 That serⅤ ilc Path,th。

un。 bly

do’ st dechne,

Of tracing、 vord by、 v° rd and Linc by Linc; A nc、 v and noblcr、 vay thou do’ st pursue, T。

make Transladons,and Translators t°

o∶

Thcy but PrcSCrⅤ e1he Ashcs,th。 u the Flamc, Truc t° his scncc,but trucr to his Fame.

ηΓ is ahn° st imPossi丨 )lc

t°

Translatc vcrbaⅡ y, and、 vell, at the same tilllc; For

crc and ComPcndi° us Language)° Ren exPresses that in° nc vvord, 、 vhich cithcr thc Barbarity, or thc narro、 vncss of rn° dern T° ngues cannot

thc I口 rin, (am。 st scⅤ

’

suPPly in m° re, Tis frcqucnt also that thc Conccit is couch’

、 vhich、vill

d in s。

me ExPressi° n,

bc l。 st in￡ nfìsrl

atquc idcn1Ⅴ cnti vcla丘 demquc fcrcnt6 What Poct of our Nation is so haPPy as to exPress this thought Litcrally in￡

r,JFisfl,

and t° strikc Wit or alrnOst Scnse out ofit?

In short thc Vcrbal C。 Pycr is incumbcr’ d、 vith s° rnany(hfHcultics at once,that he can ncⅤ cr discntanglc hin△ sclf△o1u all,Hc is to c。 nsider at thc samc timc thc

thought of his Authour,and his、 an° thcr

v。 rds,and

t。 hnd。 ut thc Countcrpart t。 cach in con丘 nc hi1nsclf t。 thc c° m 。f

Languagc∶ and bcsides this hc is t°

’

Numbcrs,and thc slavcry。 f Rhimc Tis luuch like dancing on RoPes wid△ kttcr’ d Leggs: A man may shun a%ll by using Caution,but thc gracefulncss。 fN1oti。 n is

‘ vhcn vve haⅤ e said thc bcst。 f it, tis but a f° ohsh Task; 、忆rn。 sobcr n1an would Put hin△ sclf int° a dangcr忆 rd1c Applausc of scaping 、 vithout l)rcaking his Ncck Wc see Bε n 丿oJ,ns。 n Coul(ln° t aⅤ 。i(l °bscurity in his htcral Translati° n° f Ffordcε , attemPted in thc samc com° f Lines: nay fJordcc not to l)c cxPcctcd: and

hi1nsclf could scarcc haⅤ c donc it to a Gˉ Brevis cssc lab0r° ,° bscurus

Eithcr PcrsPicuity or graccfulncss aⅤ

° idcd

b。 tll

tl△

rcc炎

Poct.

Ho7 、 vill frequcntly bc Ⅵ/anting Hor口 cc has indccd

ese R° cks in hs Translation of tllc thrcc⒔ rst hnes ofFf。 mcrs O￠ ,sses,

、 vhich hc has C° ntractcd into t、vo,

Dic m山 iM“ aV订 um caPt￡ PoSt tCmPola Trol茨

丨 ∶ ∶ ∶∶ 忄糨撼萝 :i∶ i丨 :∶ !∶

Btlt th⑾ thtS汕腚 Ⅱn驴 of u,sses,WhiCl△

arc omittcd, “

Og uaλ αJrλ λo兀 λoγ x0η :

t△

rel="nofollow">呼

}裂

re a Con涮 c忱uc pt.⒒

,犭

d tl△ 哎攵 l△ t∞ ∝

40 JOHN DRYDEN The C。 nsiderati° n of these difscultics,in a scrⅤ ilc,literal Translation,not lon8 sincc maclc tw° 。f。 ur%m。 “ Wl“ ,⒌ r丿 ohn Denhdm,an(l Mr,CoΠ '`⒐ to contHvc anothcr、 Ⅳay of turning Auth° urs into our Tonguc, call’ d by thc lattcr °f thCn1,

ughts on

In1itauon, As thcy wcrc Fricnds, I supPosc thcy Con1rnunicatcd thcir th° tl△

is Subjcd t。 cach otlacr,and tllcrebrc tht,lr K灬。ns忆 r it arc littlc diffcκ

though thc Practicc of onc is n△

nt∶

uch m° re modcratc,I takc In1itation of an Auth° ur

in thcir sensc to bc an Endcavour of a latcr Poct toˇ vrite like°

nc xs・ ho

has、、广 rittCn

bc忆 rc him on thc samc Su叻 Cd∶ th敲 is,not to Translate his Ⅵ:° rds,orto be Con⒔

Ⅴritc,

to his scnsc, but only to sct hilu as a Patern, and to、

’

n’

d

as he suPP° seS, that

Authour xs:ould have do11e,had he liⅤ d in° ur Agc,and in。 ur C。 untry Yctl dare not saⅤ that either of thc∏1havc carried thir libcrtinc、

vay of rcndring Authours(as

Mr CoTlF⒐ calk k)so hr灬 my Dehniti()nK犯 hcs,For in tllc P,nd口 Custon`s and Ccrcmonics of Ancicnt Grccc召 are stdl PrcscrⅤ

’

(l∶

ri法

Odcs,the

butI kn。 w not what

hen、 'riters n1ischicf rnaⅤ arisc hcrcaRcr fr° lll the ExamPlc ofsuch an Inn° vation,、・ of uncqual Parts to hilu,shall in1itatc so l)old an undcrtaking;to add and to di1ninish

Ⅴhat、vc PlCase,、 vhich is thc、 Ⅴay aⅤ o、v’ d by h"η ,ought only to be grantcd to N/Ir 、 Co⒒ 刂 cy,and that to° 。nly in11is Translati° n° f Pind￠ r,becausc hc alonc、 vas able to make him amcnds,by giⅤ ing him bettcr of his own,whcn eⅤ er hc rc忆 d his vant vriter, to 、 Authours thoughts PⅠ I,dt,r is gcncrally kn0、 vn to bc a dark 、 s’

Conncxion, (I n1can as to our understanding) to s°

a1・

out of sight, and lcaⅤ c his

Rcadcr at a Gazc∶ So、vild and un8° vcrnablc a Poct cannot bc Translatcd littcrally, his Gcnius is too strong to l)car a Chain,and sdzllPsOI’ likc he shakcs it off:A Gcnius so Elcvated and uncon⒔

n’

d as N】 r C° ″艹 s,、 vas but ncccssary to lnake Pindclr spcak /’

bc PCrfornn’ d by no othcr way than Imitation But if乃昭″ ‘ °r Ovid,or any rcgular intcl1igiblc Auth。 urs bc thus us’ d, tis no longer t。 be call’ (l En孑 ′ ish’ and that was t°

thcir w° rk,whcn ncithcr thc th°

u8hts nor words are drawn⒏ om thc Original∶ but

instcad of thcm there is something ncw Produc’ d,which is almost tbe crcati。 n of ‘ anothcr hand By this`Ⅴ ay tis true, so1uc、 vhat that is Exccllcnt maⅤ bc inⅤ cntcd PerhaPs rn° re Excellcnt than thc Hrst dcsign,though I1“ 〃′rnust bc still cxctcd, 、 vhcn that PcrhaPs takes placc∶

Yct hc Ⅵ/ho

is inquisitiⅤ c to kno、 v

an Authours

vill thoughts、 vill be disapointcd in his cxPcctation And‘ tis not alvvaⅤ s that a lnan Ⅴ

vhcn he cxpccts thc Payment。 fa Debt To statc it氵疝rly,Imita‘ on of an Auth° ur is thc mOst advanta妒 ous way br a vhich can be d° nc to thc vrong 、 Translat° r t。 shc、 v hi1nsclf, but thc grcatcst 、 bc c° ntcntcd to havc a Prcsent rnadc hhn,、

Memory and Rutation° than hc t°

f thc dcacl sir J° 凡n Dcn南

dm(wh°

ad“

s’

dm。 rc

L⒗ crty

。k hilllsclf,)givcS thiS Rcason忆 r his Inn。 vauon,in his iral)le Prcfacc

bcf° rc thc Translati° n ofthc scc。

nd￡ ncitF:“ Poctry

is of s° subtⅡ a spirit,that in

P° uring out of onc Languagc into anothcr,it、 vill all EⅤ aporatc;and if a nc、 v sPirit bc not addcd in the transfusion,thcrc、Ⅴill rcmain n。 thing but a C虿 PuF⒒rorFuum” ,I con、 ss this Argumcnt h。 lds good aga1n虻 a littcral Translation,but wh。 (lc%n(ls it? In1itation and Ⅴcrbal Vcrsi。 n arc in n1Ⅴ OPinion thc tⅥ 厂 0EXtrcan1s,、 Ⅴhich° ught to bc avoidcd∶ and thcrcf° rc、 Ⅴhcn I haⅤ c Pr。 P。 s’ d thc mcan bct、 vixt thcm, it、 Ⅴill bc

sccn how hr his Ar:umcnt will rcach No man is caPablC° f Transladng P。 ctry,who bcsides a Gcnius to that Art,is a NIastcr both。 f his丿 \utl△ 。urs Languagc,and of his° Ⅵ/n:lòr must、 Vc undcr。f stand the Language only of thc P。 ct, but his Particular turn of Thoughts, and verc indiⅤ iduatc Ⅴhich arc thc Charactcrs that distinguish, and as it 、 ExPreSSion, 、

n° t

FRO M.THE PREFAcE To oy∫

D′

s fPJsTLfs

41

厂 hin11ioΠ 1all° thcr ⅥⅠ riters, 、、 hcn`Ⅴ e arc comc thus far, ‘ tis til,lc to l° 。 k int° ° ur sclⅤ cs,t。 confor1△1。 ur Gcnius to his,t° ivc his thought cither thc san1c turn if our 思

弘弘 ∷Ⅰ fli逸 Ⅳ ∶ T玉 f1J⒒ 岁 Tλ :r森 J‰ 黑男 rul芷点丨宝 \∴

:∶

:

槲肿橼槲椭辄肼蕉叮 ⒒ f扒∷

Jtt齐 :s∶T肀芽 t⒎ 打氓 Ft辟 rs;∶ :∶∶ ∶ 褙

`:其

Ι 孟苫 ∷ 扌胃拣⒉ J涩昱 ruⅠ甘庀∶ 菅鞯λ⒒只取糕:j±1P了张 ∶ 丛 ∶ 嚅拈毖生 ft⒊∶ ll扌旷 ∴ 石】jf拈 y⒊ ⒊璧牡肾∶ 凡:捕 %l哏丨蔗 F点 W坛 &∵ ∶ 、犭忿扭Ⅰ :I扌

f∶

C王

rT・

:jill∶

J∴

rfi∶

1Ⅰ 1b∶

:∶

}∵

:∶

:

;:’

嬉淇鞍擀淇l鞘蚶砷博l挂#翼

i

找:∷紧】嘿∶ :T‖ 扌芏 I甘犭出苕笮甘扌 ∷找 ∶ CT:趑狃Ⅰ ‰拶 ⒒ 抵$STi〓甘λ ∷N`∶ ∷ 萑 :t⒉ 挛拭・ a岁

R∶

:垦

1∶

:r⒈

samc AnsⅥ cr、vⅡ l

servc for l)。 th,that

then thcy。 u思 ht n° t to bc Translatcd

—Et quac DCsPeres tractata nitesccrc Possc,rchnquas9

aW甘 d涝冱圭 b。 th lov’

∫ 摞Ι1猡:恝Jl∶

hJJPTTξ I喘

i∷

∴ 戴甘 ∶ 丨 :∶

(l thcm hving,and rcvcrencc thclu n° 、 v thcy arc dcad.But if aRcr、 vhat I

暹瑟

拙

:’

圣丨△ 黥

谶

妊

群

‖

群

棋

I

n1ean tirne it secn1st° l))c,that thc truc rcas° n、 :hy、 vc havc so fc、 Ⅴ、 `crsions、 vhich

I∶

樊 l亠

k聍

牒

fii[lI:∶

jil∶

∶

i孟f1帚t苎 l社

jF11琪苷婪【

l;∶

;f肖 J甯

⒊ :TTi∶ :1~‰

iF∶ :t趑

IⅠ

窝】 W 皆Ξ h堇投lI玑找弘、 `奋

:哏 1片蕊 ∶ 1:⒊ :e=tF捃 |:1嗡品浮 ti亠

i∶

i齐

:

42 JOHN DRYDEN But if shc d。 cs n° t,I an1afraid shc has givcn us occasion to be ashan1’ d、vh。

d。

For Fny o、 vn Part I an△ rcady to ackn0、 vlcdgc that I haⅤ e transgress’ d thc Rules

which I haⅤ e givcn;and takcn m。 rc liberty than a just Translati° n wⅡ l allow But

so many Gcntlcmcn wh。 sc、Ⅵt and Lc汀 ning arc wcll kn° wn,bcing J。

yn’ d

in

it,Id。 ubt not but that thcir Exccllcncies vvill1nakc you amPlc satisfacti° n for lny

Errours

Editor’ s notes Thc poct and dramati哎 Bcn Jons° n(1572— 1637)translatcd H° P° ctric”

racc’ s“ Art

of

around 1605 and thcn rcⅤ ised his vcrsion after 1610、 vhcn a ne、 v

cditi° n。 f

thc Latin tcxt apPcared.

In1658Edmund、Ⅴallcr(1606— 1687)comPlCtC(l

thc Ⅴcrsi。 n of the凡 u⒒h Ⅱcnc氵 cl bcgun by Sidncy Godolphin(1610— 1643),、 vho dicd in the CiⅤ Ⅱ War Both Pocts 、 Vcrc associated 、 vith the c° urt 。 f Charlcs I Wallcr’ s sm° 。th Pr° s° dy、 vas rnuch adn、

ired in his lifctirnc and during thc cighteenth century

The P° ct Abraham C。 wley(1618— 1667)丘 rst Pubhshed his Pind日 rJquc Odes in

1656

Wentwo⒒ h

Dill。 n(1633—

Horace’ sH泠 Ess⒐

P° eric'into

1685),the允 urth Earl。 fR° scommon,订 anslatcd Ⅴ crse(1680)and wr。 te a trcatisc in couplets,

blank

° n TIdnsf虿 Fed陀 rsc(1684). J° hn Dcnham(1615— 1669)wr。 tc

Thc poct s△

an inΠ ucntial translati°

the secon(l Hcncjd,clltitled rJ,c DcsrrucriOIa of Tr⒐

(1656),In1648sr Rlchhard

Fansha、厂 e (1608— 1666) Pr。 duced an Enghsh

Pastoral dmma,″

d。

Ⅴ crsi。 n ° f Battista

n° f

Guarini’

s

(ThC F“ thf谊 l shhcr(l),tll whiCh Dcnham

Pdsror、尸 Contributcd a c° ∏11ncndatory P。 cm

This linc,takcn f1・。mO"d’

s Hc1・ oi山 s CDid° ACncac,” 7,8),may bC rcndercd dosdⅤ as hll° ws:“ And Will thc samc winds carrⅤ awaⅤ Ⅴour sails and Ⅴour (∶

’

idchtⅤ

H° race’ s Hrs P° cFJcd(1,25)rCⅨ for shortncssc labour,and am stil’ d/Obscurc”

J° nson’

s vcrsion of this linc fIˉ om

'’

D∵ 【 n is quothg a Pornon° fO⒋ ss⒐ 11-2・ lt・

‘

R° bc⒒ Fa型 cs’

ls∶

“

My sclk

s1996κ 邗on

rcndcrs the phrase as‘ drivcn ti1nc and again° ff coursc,” Hcrc arc Fagles’

s

oPening lincs: sin8t。

mc。 fthe

Inan,rv【

usc,the1nan。

ft、 vists

and turns

driven ti1uc and again oFr c。 ursc,。 nce hc had Plundercd the hall° 、 vcd hcights。 f Tr° y

Many citics° frncn hc saⅥ/and lcarned thcir rninds,

many Pains hc suffcred,hcartsick on thc。 pcn sca JonSOn’

s vclˉ sion

of thcsc lincs i° m

Horacc(Ⅱ 149-150)rcaclS:“

letting

/hat hc dcsPaircS,being handled n1ight not sho、 v” goc/、、

10

Drydcn is rc%rring to thc n。 Ⅴ chst and drama伍 st APhra Behn(1640— 1689), wh° als° translatcd La R° chcfc,ucauld’ s maxlms (1685) and Bcrnt△ ld dc Fontcndlc’

s

ⅡDⅠ scov召 ⒐ ofN召 ″Ⅱbr五厶(1688)

Chapter 4

Friedr∶ ch

schleiermacher

ON THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF TRANsLATING rra刀 s∫ aFec/by S〃 sa刀 Bernofs/cy

ˉ

T‖

lrWj:↑ Γf呈 :茹 FJtll挝 :⒒ r乩￡ ∶Tc莒点鞴 :∶ ∶ thc° nc hand,1ncn are thus brought togcther、 vho vvcrc Originally sarated PerhaPs by thc sPan° f thC Carth’ s diametcr,and if onc languagc can bcc° me thc rcctacle rittcn many cCnturics l冫 cf° rc in a tongue long sh)cc deceascd,Ⅵ ˉ of vv° rks、 Ⅴ c11eed not,on the othcr hand,cvcn:° bCyond thc b。 unds° f a singlc languagc to cncounter the sa1t1cl)11Cn。 mcn° n,For not only(lo thc(halccts Of thc(lis辶 rcnt clans tl)at n1akc

uP a PC。 Ple, and thc diffcrcnt 、 vays a langua:c 。r clialcct deⅤ elops in diffcrcnt centurics,already c。 nstitutc(lirerent languagcs in a strictcr scnsc,bct、 vccn、 Ⅴhich it is oRen cn° ugh ncccssary t° translatc;cvcn contcn1Porarics、vho sharc a("alcct but bel° ng to diffcrcnt classcs that rarcly come togcthcr in social intcrc。 ursc and divcrgc substantially in thcir cducati° n arc coll△ rnonly unablc to c° mn1unicate savc thr° ugh

a sin1ilar mcdiati。 n Yca, arc xx:c not oRcn collaPcllCd t° translatc f° r

c uttcranccs of anothcr Ⅵ刂 1° , th° ugh 。 ur compecr, is of d⒒ 1辶 rent opinions and scnsibⅡ ityP C。 mPCllCd to translate,that is,、 Ⅴhcrcver vvc fccl that the samc、 vords uP。 n。 ur o“ ˉ n liPs、 v。 uld haⅤ c a rathcr diffcrent imPort than uPon hiS, °r at lcast、 vcigh hcrc thc m。 rc hcavily,therc tbc morc lightly,and that,、 Ⅴould、ⅤC oursclvcs d△

CxPrcSs just what hc intcn(lcd,we must needs cmPl° turns of P111・ asc;and、

'hc1】

y quitc diffcrcnt、。r(ls and

wc cxarninc t11is tcling morc clc〉

scly so d1at it takcs° n

thc charactcr of th° ught,it`vould aPPear that、 ve arc translating,Indccd,、

ve must

sOmcti1ncs translatc our oⅥ ・ n utteranccs aftcr a ccrtain tin1c hasl)asScd, 、 vould、ve makc thcn△ truly our。、 Ⅴn again This ability is cmPloyCd not° nly to transPlant t。 f°

reign s°il thc scientiHc and rhct。 rical accomPhshn1Cnts of a giⅤ cn t° nguc, thus

1813

44

FRIEDRIcH SCHLEIERMACHER

cnlar思 ing

thc sPhcrc of thcir inHucncc; it also enters into busincss transactions d⒔ trcnt indiⅤ i(lual PeoPlCs and in diPl° matic rclations bct、 veen indCnd~ cnt govcrnil)g bodics, cach °f、 vhich, l)y custom, sPCaks only its 。Ⅵ`n lan8uagc 、 Ⅴhcn addressing thc othcrs so as t° maintain strict cquahtyˇ othout thcir availin思

bct、 vccn

thclusclvcs。 f a clcad language still,n。 ta1l that lics、 vithin this br。 ad rcalrn sh。 uld Play a rolc in。 ur prcscnt

inquiry ThC conlPulSion t°

、 vill

ahⅣ ays be to。

translatc in resPonsC t。 a rnorc or lcss Ino11,cntary nccd

consncd t° thc m。 n1cnt in its cffects to rcquire othcr guidancc

vcre to bc giⅤ cn,they、 Ⅴ。uld havc to be duce a PurCly m。 ral statc of rnil)d in、 11ich the sPirit1ˉ cmains rcc-

than that of fcchng; and if rules for this、 such as t° tiⅤ c f°

I)r。

cven to、 vhat is most unhkc itsclf Lct us sct this casc asidc and rcstrict oursclvcs

r the noncc to Considering only translati° ns

hcrc t。

hˉ on1af°

rei:nt° nguc into our o、・ n;

Ⅴc、Vill bc ablc to distil`guish tˇ vo separatc arcas -not clcarly dCHncd,t。。、

bc surc、 for that is rarcly Possiblc,but cvcn thcsc blurrcd b。

undarics、 vill aPpcar

disti11ct enough if(,ne exatnines thc ultimate goals in cithcr casc Thc interPrctCr Plics his tradc in thc area of busi11css,

、 ⅣhilC thc translat。 r proPcr Ⅵ=orks al)ove all

in thc arcas of sciencc and art If thesc deE11itions aPPcaΓ

arbit1・ aI・

)′

intcrPretation

bCinE conunonly undcrsto。 d to rcfcr lnore to oral translation and tra11slati° n Pr° Pcr c~ to thc、 vritten sort,n1ay、 1:ivcn R)r ch。 °sin8to uSc thclll thus out of conⅤ ^c bc fo】

nicncc in thc prescnt instancc,Particularly as thc t、 rsò terllls are not at all distant from。 nc anothcr The arcas ofa】 △and scicncc arc bcst scrⅤ cd bⅤ thc、 vrittcn、 Ⅴord,

、 vhich alonc can n1akc d1cir 、 vorks cndurc; and intcrPrcth1g scic11ti⒔ c or artistic ducts aloud、、 fould bc just as uselcss as,it seems,in1possiblc For busincss trans-

Pr° actions, 110、 vcⅤ Cr,

ˉ Ⅵriti1】 g is only a mcchanical n】 eans; 、 Crbal ncgotiation is thcir

original m° dc, and cvery、 vritten interPrCtation should bc sccn only as thc rccord

of a sPokCn cxchangc B° rdering this arca are t、 vo othCrs cl。

scly akn to it in sPirit and naturc, yct

glx・

en tllc8rcat varie” of objCcts embraced by thcm,they drcady凡 rm a订 ans⒒ ion

t°

thc areas of art, in thc° nc case,and of scicnce, in thc othcr. For cⅤ ery nC8oti-

ation involving an intcrPrctCr is an cvcnt、冖 chosc Particulars are set clo、 vn in tvvo cliffcrent tongucs But cvcn thc translati° n° f Purcly narrative or(lcscriptivc xl:ritings、 vhich mcrcly transmits a Prcvi。

usly dcscribcd scqucnce° f cvc11ts into anothcr

tonguc can still haⅤ c much about it of thc intcrPrCter’ s tradc Thc lcss° aud1。

r’

b、

ious tbc

s PrCSCncc、 vas in thc° iginal,and the lll° rc hc servcd mercly as an organ 1・

of aPPcrcePti。 n gui(lcd by his ol冫 thc translati°

jcct’

s sPatial and temP° ral organizati。

n、 dl bc a tuatter()f mcrc intcrPrCdng Thus thc translat。

n,thc morc r ofnc、

s~

PaPer articlcs and° rdinary travcI litcrature tcnds to makc common cause、 Ⅴith thc intcrPretcr,and it、 ill s° °n bcc° n1c ri(liculous if hc clailη s f。 r his、 °rk too high a status and、 ishes t° bc rcsPcctCd as an artist,Thc rnorc,h。 vvcvcr,thC author’ s° 、 vn Particular、 Ⅴay° f sccing and dra、 ving conncctions has dctcrnnincd thc charactcr of thc xsˉ ork,and thc m° re it is organizcd acc。 rding to principlcs that hc hin1sclf has

citbcr frccly choscn° r that are dcsigned to call forth a Particular imPrCSSi° n, the

morc his 、 vork Ⅵ冖ll

pa1△

akc of thc lⅠ ghcr realn】 of art, and s°

t。 o

thC trans】 ator

must bring diffcrent Po、 vCrs and skills t° his、 vork and bc fan1ihar、 vith his author and thc auth°

r’

s tonguc in a di∏ 、rcnt scnse than the interprctcr Evcry ncgotia-

cs,as a rulc, sctting do、 n a Particular statc oI within a sPCcinc仔 amewc)rk;tlae intcrPretcr is worl【 lng only fcDr thc bcncst

tion that uses an intcrPretcr involⅤ

irs a∏ 。

oN THE DIFFERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING

45

ol ParticiPants sufhCicntly fa1niliar、 vith thcsc affairs, and the Ph1・ ascs that exPrcss thcn1 i11b。 th languagcs arc〈 lctcrn1incd in advance eithcr by laxs=or by usage and

1t mattcr盯 c tl,cs° l ts° fI1eg° n1utually agrced upon co1)、 cnti0ns,Quitc a diffcκ 】 tiations that,alth° ugh oftcn sirn⒒ ar in f° rn△ to tllc convcntional oncs,arc intcnded

tC)Cstablish ne、 :iamew° rks Thc lcss thc lattcr can thcmsclⅤ cs bc con“ dcred

′

Pcci⒔ c instanccs of a rcc。 gnizcd gcncral P1ˉ

inciplc,thc luorc scientiRc kn。 xs-lcdgc

an(l carc、 vill bc rcquircd in thcir vcry composition,and thc grcatcr thc kno、

of tcchnical dctails and tcrn1in。 logy necdcd f° r

ˉ

thc t】 anslator t° carrⅤ

this tⅥ ˉ of° ld laddcr,thcn,thc translat。

Ⅴlcdgc

out his task.

r asccnds higher and higher above thc he rcachcs thc rcahn most Properly11is, namcly, thosc、 '° rks of art and scicnce in、 vhich thc author、 s frcc indiⅤ idual combinatorΥ faculties、 °n the °nc hand,and thc spirit of the languagc al。 ng、vith thc cntire systcm of Ⅴie、 :s and scnti1nents in all thcir shadings rrcscntcd in it, on thc 。ther, c° unt for eⅤ eryˉ t11ing;the objcct no lon思 cr d。 n1inatcs in any、 vay,but radlcr is govcrncd by th° ught LIlD。 n

intcrPrctcr untⅡ

and fccling; indecd, it° ften comcs into Cxistence only throu:h bCing uttercd and exists onlⅤ in this uttcranCC

Yct、 vhat is thc basis f。 r this imPortant distinction that is b。 rdcrhnc

Ⅴisible cvcn in thcsc

rcgions but shincs forth1n° st brilhandⅤ at thc furthcst cxtrCmcs?Bush1css

dcahngs generally inv° l、 can1atter of rcadily aPParCnt,。 r at lcast fairly、 Ⅴcll(lchned objects;aⅡ negotiati° ns arc,as it wcrc,arithmctical or gcometHcal in naturc,and nullrlbcrs and mcasurcs comc to onc’ s aid at evcry st; and cvcn in thc casc° f n1 thc 8reatcr and lesscr

notions that, as thc ancicnts alrcady obscrvcd, cnc°

、 vith"1themscl、 cs and arc indicatcd bⅤ

a gradcd scrics。 f tcrms that vary in ordh1-

ary usagc, rnaking thcir i1nP° rt unccrtaiI),habit and c。 nvcntion soon scrⅤ c to⒔ x thc usagc of thc indiⅤ idual tern△ s so long as thc sPcakCr(l。 cs not sn△ ugglc in hidden

vagucncsscs、vith intcnt t° dcceivc,or crr out of carclessncss,hc、 vill be Pcrf辶 ctly c° mPrChCnsible to any。 nc 、1th kno、 vlcdgc of both thc matter undcr (liscussion an(l thc languagC, and in any giⅤ cn casc Only shght`,ariations in languagc use`vill vⅡ l bc scarccly any doubt that cannot casⅡ y bc bc cncountcrcd Evcn s。 thCrC 、 rcmedicd as t。、 vhich cxprcssion in thc Onc language corrcsPonds t° any 8iⅤ cn exPresSi。 n in the othcr Thus is translation in this rcaln11ittlc1u。 rc d1an a1ncchan~ ical taskˇ vhich can bc perfOl^rncd by anyone、 vho l)as modcratc kno、 vlcdgc of thc t、 v°

languagcs,、 vith littlc differencc to bc found bct、 veen bcttcr and lcsscr efforts

as long as obⅤ ious errors arc aⅤ oidcd,W11cn,ho、 vcvcr,artistic and scicntiHc、

ôrks

arc to bc transPlanted fron10ne language to an。 ther, t、 Ⅴo sorts of Considcrati。 ns vhich altcr the situati° n Forifin any t、 vo languagcs cach 、 a1ise 、 vord in the onc vvcre to CorresPond PCrf。 ctly

t° a、 vord

in thc Othcr,cxPrcsSing thc same idca、

vith

thc samc range of meaning; if thcir(lcclcnsions (lisPlaycd the samc relationshiPs, and thc structures ofthcir PcriodS c°

inci(lcd s° that thc t、 vo languagcs in fact diffcrcd

onlⅤ t° thc car;thcn all translation in thc arcas of a1ˉ

t and scicncc,assun1ing the so】 c

mattcr t° be c° n)municatcd lⅣ as thc inf° rmation containcd in an1】 ttcrancc or Piccc

°f、

^riting,

asi【 lc・

⒖'ould bc as Purcly mcchanical as in busincss transactions; and, sctting r【Dcl哎 cxd bx tOrlc⒛ d mt。 n汕。ll,ollC而 ght ch而 of tllly gvm

thc cIlfk:c“

1●

translation that it PlacCd thc forcign reader in thc san】

c rclati° ns11ip to dlc aud)。 r

and his w° rk as was thc rcadcr° f thc original As it haPPcns,howcvcr,juSt thc

。PP° SitC iS truc f° r all languagcs that arc n。 t so closclⅤ relatcd as to count ahuost as diffcrcnt dialects。 f a singlc tongue, and the furthcr rcmovcd thcⅤ arc fr。 m onc

46

FRIEDRIcH sCHLEIERMACHER

another in ctymol。 :y and ycars,thc m。 rc it、 vill be sccn that n。 t a sin思 lC、 vord in onc langua8c、・ Ⅱl c° rrcsPond Pcrfcctly to a、 v° rd iI)an。 ther,n° r does any pattcrn

。f

nc contain PrCcisely thc samc n】 ultil)hcity of relati° nshiPs as v° uld likc t° call it,pcrmcatcs all clcmcnts 。ft、 vo languagcs,it1nust als0、 to be surc,affcct that sPhcrc of b° urgcois affairs“ ・ c clcclcnsi° ns in thc°

in another Sincc this irrationahty,as I、

bavc menti° ned Yct it is obviouslⅤ lcss of a hindrancc hcrc, haⅤ ing littlc or n。 effect A"w° rds d1at stand【 or。 blccts and actioI1s thc△ t can bc ofc。 11sC(luCnce are, as it、 vcrc,gaugcd according to a standard mcasurc,and cvcn if,。 ut of unfounded faint~hcartcd。 Ⅴersubtlcty, onc、 vcrc to Protest that thc 、 v。 rds、 verc l)cing incon~ sistently aPPhed,thc Si1η

Plc f′ cts ofthe n】 attcr sh° uld

serve to resolve all quibblcs

QuitC diffCrcnt is thc casc in thc arts and scicnccs,and indecd in cvery sPhcrc in 、 vhich thought thatis onc Ⅵ・ ith sPccch Prcd。 n1inatcs and it is n。 t thc facts that ll△ akc °f thc sx∶ ord a PcrhaPs arbitrarⅡ y dctcrn△ i11cd and thcn irreⅤ °cably⒔ xcd sign F。 r /11at hrm kn0、 v~ 、、 ,° languagcs docs it rcquire! And h° Ⅵ Rcn, 、 vhcre it is gcncrally acknoxx・ lcdgcd that a Pcrfect cquiⅤ alcnt f° r an cxPrCsSion cannot bc

h。、 v

in6nitcly laborious a11d knotty t11e busincss l)ccomcs hcrc!

lcdgc and mastcry of the t、

f°

und,d°

cⅤ en

:。

tbc n10st kno、 :lcdgcable sch° lars1、 vell-vcrscd in both thc languagc

kself ti11d tlac quL● lctt matter,(liⅤ

crgc signiscant|in th。

rt△ t∝

mP“

to ch° 。sc

dk

m。 st ntting、 vord This is cqually truc ofthc viⅤ id Picturesquc cxPrcssi° ns° f poctic

、 v° rks and of the rnost abstract、 vorks of d)cn° blcst scienccs that shox1・ Pr°

f°

tIS thC Iη

ost

und and univcrsal naturc of things

Thc second mattcr, ho、 'cⅤ cr, that makes translati° n pr。 Pcr a quite diffcrcnt

activity∴ ˉ om。 rdinary interl)rcting is tbis, WhercⅤ

readily aPParcnt o匀

ctˉ

er utteranccs arc not b。 und b、

tS Or cXtcrnal circumstanccs、、 ic11it is n1crcl、 1】

d1cir task to

vhercⅤ cr, in othcr、 rds, thc sPeakcr is cngagcd in morc Or less indc~ namc一、 '。

PCndCnt th。 ught, that is, scl∴ cxPrcssi° n, hc stands in a tⅥ /。 f° ld rclati° nshiP to languagc, and his、 v° rds、 vill bc undcrst° °d aright only insofar as this rclationshil) itsclf is corrcctly εrasPcd, E、 Cr) hulγ 1an bcing is,on thc Onc hand,in thc P° 、 vcr。 f thc langua8e he sPcaks;hc and aⅡ comPlCte ccrtainty anythin思

his thought are its products.Hc cannot think、 vith

that lies° utsidc its boundarics;thc form of his ideas,

thc manner in、 vbich11c combi11es thCm, and the lil))its。 f thcsc combinations arc all PrCOrdaincd by the languagc in、 vhich hc、 vas b。 rn and raised∶ b° th his intcllect and hisimagination are bound by it On the° thcr hand,cⅤ cry free~thinking,intcl_ lectually indePcndcnt individual shaPes thc languagc in his turn For ho、 v elsc if n。

t

・ cgil`nings to its by theSC influcnces c。 uki it havc gaincd and gr0、、n仔 °n1its ra、、 l冫

prcscnt, m° re PcrfCct State of deⅤ

cl。

Pn1ent in thc sciences and artsP【 n this scnse,

then,it is the liⅤ ing forcc of thc individual that causcs nc、・forms

to emergc fron1

thc tractablc mattcr。 f languagc, in each casc vvith thc initial ai1n of ing on a nccting state of c。 nsciousncss,but lcavil、 g bchind n。、 v a grcater,n0、 v a faintcr tracc

in the language that,taken uP by others,continucs t。 in∏ ucncc

havc an cⅤ cr broadcr shaPing

Indccd, °ne can say that only t。 thc cxtcnt that a PcrSOn influcnccs

languagc in this、 fay docs11c dcscrvc to bc hcard〈 )utsidc his i∏ 11nediatc sPhcre of cr it rnay bc,Evcry uttcrancc、 Ⅴill quickly a、vay ifit is such that any one° f a thousand voiccs Inight reproducc it;° nly that one is ablc and cntitlcd actiⅤ ity,、 vhatcⅤ

to endurc、 yhich cOnstitutcs a〗 1c、 v mon1ent in the lifc° f languagc itsclf, F。 r

this

rcasOn, cvcry nobler, 【 rcc utterancc n1ust bc grasPcd in t、 Ⅴo diffcrcnt scnscs, ⒒rst in tcHns° fthe gc11ius° f thc language仔 om whosc clcmcnts it was dchⅤ cd,as an

oN THE DIFFkERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING cxprcssiⅤ c

l△

47

lcans ticd to and dctcr∏ 1ined by this spirit that brou8ht it to lifc、 Ⅴithin

thC sPCakcr; yCt it rnust also be undcrst。 od in ° f the sPcakcr hirnself, as an act that can only haⅤ C Cmcrgcd out° f,and l)c cxPlained as a product° ∫ ∶hiS Particu_

lar being Indeed,every uttcrancc of this sort、 vill be undcrstood in thc highcr scnsc

。fthe“ °rd。 nlⅤ 、 Ⅴhcn thcsc t、 Vo sCts of rclati° nshiPs arc concciⅤ cd of b° th

t° gethcr

and in thcir truc connection to onc anothcr,sO that no qucstion rcmains conccrning

“hicb° f

d° n1inatcs in thc utterancc as a、

the t、 `。

vhole and in its indiⅤ idual Parts

Onc undcrstands an uttcrancc as an action of thc spcakcr°

nly if,at thc same tirnc,

onc can fccl、 vhcre and ho、v hc、vas seized by thc forcc° fthc languagc,、 Ⅴherc along

its Path thC lightning Rashcs

。f th。 ught snaked their 、 vav, 、 vhcrc and ho、v in its R订 ms crrantima⒉ n菠 i()n was hdd hst One understands sPccch both as a w。 rk。 f langua8c and as an cxprcssion ofits spirit only if,、 f°

vhilc fcchng that only a HC1lCnc,

r instancC, can havc thOught and sP。 kcn thus, d△ at。nly this language can haⅤ e

in∏ ucnced

a hu1nan sPirit thus, onc at thc samc ti1nc fecls that°

mcIn haⅤ c th。 ught and sP°

nlⅤ thus can FJaⅠ s

kcn in a Hcllcnic manncr, only thus can hc havc scizcd

and、v。 rked t° shaPc this languagc, and、 vhat is hcrc manifcstcd is Only his liⅤ

ing

grasp on thc richness of thc languagc,his kccn scnsc of rhythm and cuPh。 ny,and his caPacity t。 think and t。 fashi° n N° vv if undcrstanding 、 vorks of this sort is alrcady difHcult cvcn in thc samc languagc and involⅤ

cs ilnIncrsing onesclf in

both thc sPirit° f the languagc and thc、 vriter’ s charactcristic naturc,ho、 v rnuch yct n。 blcr

an art must it bc vvhcn、 c arc sPcaking of thc Pr。 ducts 。f a forcign, far (listant tonguc! To be sure, 、 vhoeⅤ er has mastcred this art of understandin8 1)y vlcdgc of the cntire studying thc language with diligence, acquiring prccisc kn° 、 ofa Pc。 PlC and Picturing kccnlⅤ l)ef° re hirn thc individual、 vorks and

hist。 rical hf辶

their auth° rs~/,c, to l)e surc, and hc alonc is justi丘 ed in dcsiring to bring to his

coun仟 ymcn and contt,mP° mrics” 哎ths same undcr哽 anang。 fthcsc m灬 tc・ rworh Ⅴ chcn hc PrarCs t° 。f art and scicncc, But his scruPlcs must nCCds multiPly aPProach the ttlsk,whcn thc timc comcs fl,r him t【 J spcci、 h“ 8。 alS an(l hc bc要 ns to survcy thC mcans at his(lisP。 sal sh° uld hc rcallⅤ Ⅴcnturc to takc tvco mcn vvho

arc as hr distant⒏ om° nc anothcr as his countryman wh° sPcaks。 nly his own languagc and thc`vriter hi1nself,and t。 bring thcrn togcthcr in s。 immcdiatc a rcla~ tionship as that bctⅥ 广 ccn a、 VritCr and his original rcadcr? Or if he、 Ⅴishes to giⅤ c

his readcrs Only thc samc undcrstanding and thc samc plcasurc、 Ⅴhich hc hirnsclf e句 oys,。 nc markc(l,t。 bc surc,with thc tlaccs。 f his eⅢ ° ⒒,and witll thc%cling ofthc f° reign adn1ixcd with it,h° 、 v can hc achicve eⅤ cn this,lct alone Pr。 Ⅴide thc undcrstanding and Plcasurc° f the original rcader, by thc mcans avaⅡ ablc to hirnP If his rcadcrs are to undcrstand, thcn thcy must grasP the gcnius of thc languagc that、vas natiⅤ e to thc vvritcr,thcy must bc ablc to。 bscrve his charactcristic rnanncr

°f thinking and sensibility; and all hc can o汉cr thcn)as a helP for achicⅤ ing thcse Vo thin思 s is thcir° vvn langua:c, c。 rrcsPonding in nonc。 f its Parts to thc othcr

t、

tongue,along vvith hin△ self,as hc has recognized his、 vriter no、 v thc m°rc,no、 v thc vriter’ s、 Ⅴ ork no、 v rn° rc,no、 v lcss Does not translati。 n aPPCar, ⅤicⅥ厂 ed in this vvay, an utterly f° ohsh undcrtaking?

less luci(lly,and as he adn1ircs and aPPlauds the、

Thereforc, in dcspair° f reaching this goal, or,if。 ne PrcfCrs, bcf。 rc the thought of a goal、 vas eⅤ en fully f° rmcd, t、 vo nc、 v mcthods 、 vcrc dcviscd f° r maklng the acquaintancc° ff° rcign 、 Ⅴorks~not f° r thc sakc of gcnuine artistic and linguistic virtuosity, but rathcr t。丘ll a sPiritual nccd, °n thc Onc hand, and t。 scrⅤ c a

48


spiritual art, on the othcr-_mcth。 ds that chn1inatc by forcc sOmc of thc dif⒔ cultics mcnti° nc|d ab° vc, cunningly circunlⅤ cnt others, and in any casc altogcther abando1△ the n° tion of translati° n、 vc havc bcen pr。 Posing;these n1cthods are para-

CrComc thc irrationahty oflanguages,

Phrasc and in1itation ParaPhrasc scts out to oⅤ

but only in a mcchanical、 vay Its aPPr。 ach

is t。

say∶ eⅤ cn

in my languagc to corrcsPond to thC Onc in thc original,I、

if I cann。 t丘 nd

a、 '。 rd

vill attcmpt to aPProxi^

matc its value by adding restricti、・ c and amPlil⒈ ing n1° di⒔ ers

Thus caught bctwecn

a burdcns° mc too1nuCh and a t° rmenting too~httlc,it laboriously、vorks its、 vay a8rcat n1ass of indiⅤ idual dctails, Tl、 r。 ugh this aPProach it can PerhaPs rroduce thc c° ntcnts of a、 vork、 vith s。 mc accuracy,but the imprcssion luadc by

thr° ugh

thc 、 vork luust bc dispcnsed 、ìth altogcthcr; f° r living sPeech hCrcb)i PeriShCs irrcvocably,it bcing clcar that all thcsc、

v。 rds

could:1° t havc sPrung originally thus

°m a human mind,Thc Parapl11ˉ ast trcats tlac clemcnts of thc tw° languagcs as Ⅴaluc by rncanS though thcy`Ⅳ crc Inathematical signs that can bc reduced to thc san1c 1i・

of additi° n and subtraction,and ncithcr thc gCnius of thc languagc bcing subjcctcd to transformation nor that of the original tonguc bccon1cs aPParCnt undcr this

ProcCdure If,rnorc。 vcr,ParaPhraSC sCeks to n1ark Psych° l。 gical】 y the traccs。 f the vhCreⅤ cr thcse arc indistinct and thrcatcn to disconncctions bct、 vcen thoughts一、

aPPCar~、 vith thc helP ofintcrP° latCd sCntenccs pounded in likc n° tice stakes,thcn in thc casc of rnorc dif⒒ cult vvorks it is striving at thc San1c tin△

c to takc thc Placc

of a colnrnentary,making it all thc lcss apt to bc c° nsidcrcd a form of translation In1itation,on thc° thcr hand,surrendcrs t° the irrationabty oflanguagcs;it conccdcs that one cannot poSsibly Pr° ducc in anothcr t° ngue a rhca of a、 vork of rhct° rioukl C0rresPond PcrfCctl〉 t。 thc indivi
n)any other(liffercnces arc esscntially caught uP,、 vc have no othcr rcc。 urse but t。 contrivc a copy, an cntirc、 vork comPriscd of Parts that diffcr n。 ticcably fr° 1thC l、

Ⅴhich in its cffcct comcs so closc to thc Original as thc Parts of the original, yct 、〈 hffercnccs in thc n1atcrial pcrn△ it, No、 /such a coPy is11o longcr the、 v° rk itsclf, and it lnakcs no prctensc to bc shovving us thc spirit of thc Original lan8uage as an c∶fective f° rcc in its o、 vn li思 ht,Particularly

as the foreignness this spirit11as Pr° duced

aPpcars、 vith ch旺 ercnt undcrpinnings; rathcr, a、 Ⅴork of this sOrt, takjng into thc dis龟 rcnces in language, n△ 。rals and cducation, strivcs to l)e fl)r its no、 V

rcaders,as far as P。 ssiblC,eⅤ crything t11e。

ri思 inal

ProⅤ idcd its original rcadcrs;f° r

thc sake of Prcserving thc unity()f the in1Prcssion madc l)y thc、 vork,its idcntity is sacrinced Thc in1itator,d1cn,considcring impossiblc any s° rt of unmediatcd rcla~ tionshiP bct、 vccn the 、 Ⅴriter and thc rcadcr of thc in1itati°

n, makcs no cff° rt

t。

bring the tⅥ ・ °t° gcthcr; rather, hc strivcs only to give thc rcadcr an i1nprcssion similar t° thc onc rcceiⅤ cd by rcadcrs、vh° shared a languagc and an age、 vith thc author 。f thc Origh1al ParaPhrasc is lnorc con11nonly f° und in the scicnces, and irnitation in thc Hnc arts; and as cvcrⅤ °nC、 vill conccde that a、 vork of art loscs its tone,its lustcr,indccd its Ⅴcry charactcr as art once it is paraPhrascd,surcly no one

has yct bccn so foohsh as to attemPt to ProducC an in1itation of a scienti⒔ c mastervevcr,、 Ⅴill fan Both thesc Proccdurcs,h° 、 iladon br tllc cx∝ llcncc° fa忆 l cl~gn m灬 ttSr v spcakcrs。 f his f its in∏ ucncc to include fcll。、 PiecC9、 viShes to enlargc thc sPhcre。

PiCcc that rendcrcd its c|。 to satis灯

some。 nc who,⒔

ntcnts l。。scly

lled witl△

language and has in n1ind a stricter notion of translati°

n,Neithcr ProcCdurc,thcn,

0N THE DlFFERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING

49

as thcy divcrgc frorll this noti° n,can reCciⅤ c1norc dctaⅡ cd considcration hcrc;thcy havc bccn namcd only aslandmarks sho、 ving thc boundarics。 fthc rcgion、 vith、 vhich vc shall conccrn oursclvcs 、

No、v as for the translat。 r proPcr、 vh° truly vvishes to bring togcthcr thcsc t、 vo quitc seParate PcrS。 ns, his vvritcr and his rcadcr, and to hclp thc reader, though

、△th° ut forcing hilll t°

leavc tl△ cl)ounds。 f his° 、 vn natiⅤ

c tongue bchind hhn,t。

acquirc as corrcct and c。 mPlctC an understanding of and takc as much Plcasurc in thc Ⅵ/ritcr as possible

vvhat s。 rts of paths n1ight hc set 。ff upon to d△ is cnd? In my oPini° n, thcrc arc Only t、 v° P° ssibⅡ itics Eithcr the translat° r leaⅤ cs thc auth° r in PcacC as rnuch as PosSiblC and m。 Ⅴcs the rcadcr t0、 vard hi1n;° r hc lcaⅤ cs thc reader in PcacC as much as possiblc and m° ves the vvritcr to、 vard hi1n, These t、 v° Paths arc s° vcry(liffcrcnt fr。 n△ 。nc anothcr that onc Or thc Othcr rnust ccrtainly bc f° ll° 、 vcd as st1ictly as P° ssiblc, any attCmPt to c° mbinc thcm bcing ccrtain to

producc a highly unrchablc rcsult and t°

carry、vith it thc dangCr that、vritcr and

rcadcr n1i:ht n1iss cach othcr comPlCtCly Thc diffcrcncc bctvvccn thcsc t、 vo mcth。 ds,as vvcll as thcir relati° nshiI)t° 。nc anothcr, should bc obⅤ ious at once F° r

in thc Hrst casc the translat° r is cndcav° ring, in his、 v。 rk, t。

thc rcadcr’ s inability to undcrstand thc°

c。

mPCnsatc for

riginal lan8uagc Hc sccks t。 imPart t。 the

rcadcr thc samc imagc,thc samc imprcssion that hc hirnsclf rcccivcd thanks to his kno、 vlcdgc of thc original language of the 、 v° rk as it 、 vas 、 Vrittcn, thus moving thc rcadcr to his °vvn P° Sition, onc in faCt forcign to hirn Yct if thc translati° n 、 Vants to makc its R° man author,say,sPeak as hc、 v° uld have sP。 kcn and Ⅵ/rittcn as a(Jcrman to Gcrmans,this、 v。 uld not lllcrcly rn。 vc thC auth° r as far as the P° si~ tion of thc translator_— for t。 hirn as、 vcll the author sPeakS n。

t German,but Latin

~but rathcr thrust hi1n(lircctlv into thc、 vorld ofthe German readers and turn hi1n into onc ofthcn1;this,thcn,is thc scc°

nd casc.The⒔ rst

translati° n、 Ⅴ ill bc Pcrfect

in its way if onc can say that f thc auth° r had lcarnc(l Gcrman just as wcll灬 thc tramslator has lcarncd Latin,thcn hc、

v° uld

haⅤc translatcd his、 vork,、 vrittcn orig~

inally in Latin, no diffcrcntly than thc translat° r has d。 nc, Thc Othcr mcth。 d, h° vvc vcr, sho、 ving

thc author n。 t as he hilnsclf、

v° uld

havc translatcd but thc vvay

that hc as a Gcrman、 vould haⅤ c、 vrittcn originally in Gcrman,can hardly haⅤ e any °ther standard。 f Pcrfccti° n than if onc c° ukl claIl,lf° r certain that,ifthc Gc1・ rnan rcaders、 vcre transformcd。 nc and allinto c。 nnoisscurs and conten】 lD° rarics of thc auth。 r,thc w° rk itsclf w。 tlld apPcar just thc samc to them as n° w,d1c auth° r having bccn transformcd int。 a Gcrman,thc translation docs This is n。 d° ubt thc method ima8ined by all thosc、 vho likc to say that onc should translate an author just as hc himsclf w° uld havc wHttcn in Gcrman From this juxtaP° siti° n it is in11ncdiatcly clear h° 、 Ⅴdiffcrcnt a Pr。 cCdurc is rcquircd in each Particular instancc, and h° vv,、vCrC Onc to tergiⅤ ersate、vithin a singlc、 vork,thc vvhole Ⅵ,° uld bcc。

mc

unintelligiblc and pr° ntless Yct I vvill c° ntinuc to insist that besidc thcsc t、

v。

mcth。 ds thcrc can cxist no third °nc that n1ight serve somc Particular cnd F° r t11crc are no othcr P。 ssible、 vays of Pr。 cecdin8,The t、 v° seParatC PartiCs lllust bc unitcd either at somc Point bct、 vccn thc t、 vo-— and that、vill al、 vays bc thc position 。f thc translator~or clsc thc Onc must bctakc itself t° thc Othcr,and° nlⅤ onc of thesc t、 v。 PossibⅡ ities hcs、 vithin thc rcallll of translati°

n,for thc。 thcr could。 ccur

only if,in our casc, the Gcrman readcrs vvcrc to achicvc c°

r11Pletc mastcry of thc

Roman tonguc or rather、 v。 uld themselⅤ cs bc mastcrcd by it to thc P° int° f

thchˉ

50

FRIEDRICH sCHLEIERMACHER

ultimatc mctamorphosis, so 、 vhatcvcr elsc Onc hcars said ab。

ut translati° ns that

adhcrc t° thc letter° r to thc mcaning ofa work,that arc Ω ⒒th§ Jl。 r仔 cc,and

what

cvcr othcr cxPrcsSi° ns n1ight n° 、 v bcin c° rnrnon usc~if thcsc t。 o are suPPosCd bc diffcrcnt1ncthods,it n1ust be possiblc t° dcriⅤ e thcm fl° rll thc Original t、

t°

v°

;

but if failings and Ⅴirtucs arc to l)c dcscribed in thcse , thcn、 vhat is faithful and truc-t。 lllcaning in the one rncthod,。 r tOo litcral° rt。 o frcc,、 vⅡ l

di∶tcr

in thc

°thcr It is thcrcf° rc my intention, setting to one side all the various qucstions regarding this subjcct that haⅤ c already bccn trcatcd by thc c。

。nly the m。 st gcneral charactcristics of thcsc t、

v。

gnoscenti,to exan1inc mcthods so as to Prarc for a

morc gcncral understanding of thc charactcristic adⅤ antagcs and dif⒖ cultics° f cach, thc cxtcnt to、vhich each1n° st fully achiCvCS thc goals of translation,and the lilnits

°f aPPhcability in cach casc After such a c° mPrehCnsivc survcy,thCrc、 vill remain t、

Vo matters to be trcatcd,for、 vhich this disc。 ursc is mcrcly thc introducti° n

For

each of thc t、 v。 mcthods Onc n1ight outhnc a sct of instructions rcfcrring to thc

dif%rcnt rhctorical gcnrcs,and onc mi￡ :ht comP扩 c and judgc tllc mOst irablc cff° rts that haⅤ c bccn lnadc according to both vicⅥ /s,and by thesc mcans elucidatc thc1natter cven ftlrthcr B。 th of thcsc tasks I n△ ust leaⅤ c to others, 。r at least to anothcr occasion

Thc mcth° d、 vh° sc ai111it is to givc thc rcadcr, thr° ugh thc translation, the irnprcssion hc、 v° uld haⅤ c recciⅤ cd as a German rcading thc、 vork in thc original languagc, must, to be surc, ⒔rst dccidc、 vhat s° rt。 f undcrstanding of the° riginal language it intends, as it、 vcrc, to in1itate. For thcrc is°

ne sort of understanding

that it rnay not il,litatc,and anothcr that it cannot,Thc Hrstis a schoolboyish undcr~ standing that bunglcs its、 vay、Ⅴith great eff° rt and alll)ut distaste through linc aRcr h° lc, a living grasP of its hne, and yet noⅥ fhere arriⅤ cs at a clcar surⅤ cy of thC、・ contcnts Asl° ng as the cducatcd Part of a nati° n still has,on thc、 vholc,n° cxPeri-

encc ofa dccr kn° vvlCdgc of forcign tongucs,thcn1nay eⅤ cn th° sc、 vho are furthcr advanced be Prcserved l)y thcir guardian sPirits from undcrtaking translati° ns of this sort For if thcy、 vishcd t。 takc thcir° 、 vn understandin8as a Standard,they thcIn~ sclvcs、 :° ul(l be littlc understood and、 v° uld achieⅤ e littlc;but if thei1・

translation

vork could n° t l)c airncd to rrescnt ordinary undcrstanding, thcn thc clumsy 、 bo° cd quickly cnough fron△ thc stage During such a pcriod,thcn,free in1itations sh。 uld Hrst a、 vakcn and、 vhct rcadcrs’ aPPctitcS f° r forcign vvorks,and ParaPhraSe Prare f° ram° rc gcncral undcrstanding, so as to paⅤ c thc vvay for futurc trans_ 、 vcvcr, that no translat。 r can in1itatc lati° ns,1 Thcrc is anothCr undcrstanding, h。 F° r let us c。 tin△

nsidcr th° sc cxtraordinarⅤ

mcn such as Naturc is in thc habit somc~

es of Pr° ducing,as ifto sho、v hcrsclf ablc to dcstroy cⅤ cn thc barricrs。 f nati。 nal

Particula1ity in individual cascs,】 ncn、 vho fccl such natural afnnity t。 a forcign statc 。f bcing that thcy il,llη crsc themsclvcs, in b。 th thcir liⅤ cs and thcir th° ughts,in a f°

rcign languagc and its、 vOrks,and as thcy occuPy thcmsclⅤ

Ⅵ。rld,thcy allovⅡ

thcir natiⅤ c、 vorkl

cs entircly、 vith a forcign

and thcir native tonguc to bccomc quitc forcign

to thcm; °r clse those °thcr mcn Ⅵ广 h0 arC dcstincd to rresCnt thc PoⅤ vcr °f sPCcch in all its glory and for、 vh。 m all the languagcs thcy can s。 mcho、 v acquirc arc equally scrⅤ iccable and suit thcn1as if rnadc f° P。

r thcn⒈ thcsc lucn stand upon a

int at、vhich thc valuc of translation aPProachcS7cr。 ;since thcy arc ablc t° grasP

f° reign、 vorks

oⅥ 厂 n

frcc Fr° lll thc influence of thcir m° thcr

tonguc,and to pcrccivc thcir

undcrstanding not in thcir rnothcr t° nguc l)ut、 vith Pcrfcctly natiⅤ c casc in thc

oN THE DIFF,ERENT METHODs OF TRANSLATING

51

original language of thc、 v° rk,and as they feel no incommc11surability at all bctvveen thcir thought and thc languagc thcy a】・ c rcad】 ng, n° translati° n can cⅤ cr attain or vatCr into thc sea, dict t11cir understanding And just as it、 Ⅳould mcan Pourin思、 or into、 vine,if onc、 vishcd to translatc for thcm,so too arc thcy、

vont to smilc in

ccrtainly n° t unjustiHcd c° ndescensi。 n, cvcn pity, at thc cxcrtions bcing madc in

bc sure,if the audicncc f。 r、 vhich thc translations arc bcing lnadc rcsemblcd thcm,thcsc efforts、 Ⅴould bc nccdlcss Translati。 n,thcn,conccrns a statc

dⅡ s arca F° r,t。

・ 0,and thc translator n1ust takc it as his goal to furnish his rcader、 vith just such an il△ lagc and just such cnjoyn1Cnt as reading thc 、 v° rk in thc。 riginal languagc、vould haⅤ e Pr° Ⅴ i(lCd thc vvcll cducatcd man vvh° m that lics】 uid、厂 ay bctⅥ/een thcse t、

、 vc arc in thc habit° f calling,in thc bcst sense ofthc、 vord,an amatcur and conn°

is~

scur,a man who is wcll acqu西 nted with thc fc,reign language,yct to whom it remains nonctheless forci8n,、vh° must no longcr think cach dctail through in his °thcr t。 nguc likc a sch° 。lb。 y bcforc hc is ablc to grasP thC、 vholc,yct、 vho,cvcn vvhcre hc can take plcasurc unhindcrcd it1 thc beauty of a 、 vork, rc n1ains cvcr

n】

conscious of thc(liffcrenccs bct、 :cen this language and his1uod△ cr tonguc. To bc surc,thc don1ain of this s° rt of translation and its purPosC reluain unccrtain cnough cⅤ cn aRcr thcsc P。 ints havc l)ccn setdcd Only this much do、、 c scc,that just as the inchnation to translatc cann。 t arise until a ccrtain forcign languagc abihty has bccn cstabhshcd alu° ng thc cducatcd,so too、 vill the art of translation gr。、 v and its

aim bc sct highcr and hghcr、 vhcn c° nnoisscurship and thc taste R)1ˉ

f°

reign、 vorks

bccomc morc ⅥidcsPrcad and morc advanced am。 ng thosc Ⅵˉ h° have traincd and cducatcd thcir ears,

vid1out, ho∽ 9c vcr, havi11gn△ adc thc study oΓ languages thcir 、

Prirnary occuPation Yct at thc san1c tin1c、 vc cann0t deny that thc ln° rc rcctiⅤ c the rcadcrs 、h° lnjgbt avail then△ sclvcs 。f such translad。 ns, thc m° rc to、 vcring bcc。 mc thc(hficultics of thc task, ab。 vc aⅡ if。 nc c。 nsiders thc most charactcristic、 vorks。 f

art and scicncc Produced am° ng a PcoPlc, thCsc naturally bcing thc F∝ j¨ t洲 h吒 u吃 ciS a h虻 c,llcal en‘ ty,№ ∞。ok i1nP。 sSiblc t。 aPPrcciatC it rightly、 ithout an aPPrCciation ofits history,Languages arc not invcntcd,and all arbitrary飞 Ⅳork° ne n】 ight undcrtakst t° l,crf。 rlt1。 n and in thcn1、 v。 ukl bc fc,lly;1ˉ ather,they arc gradually discoⅤ crcd,and scicncc and art arc thc f° rccs by n1cans of、 hich this disc0、 cry is furthcrcd and Pe1ˉ 丨ctcd Evcry Prcc∏ ⒈ incnt spirit in、 Ⅴ hom somc portion Of a nati° n’ s Ⅴic、 vs takcs characteristic shapc in °ne ofthese t、 Ⅱ o R〉 r∏1s luust nccessalily labor vvithin his languagc t° luakc this c° mc ’

transl菠 ∝ s Phn0PJ ol’ l∝ t⒏

t・

ab。 ut,

and the、 vorks hc Pr。 duces must thcrcforc als° c。 ntain Part。 f thc history of the languagc T11is, to bc sure, causcs the translator of scicntiHc vvorks consid~ crable, yca, oftcn i11surmountable dif⒔ cultics; for、 vh。 cvcr, arn1ed 、 vitl△ adcquatc kn。 ll:lcdgc,rcads a preen1incnt、 Ⅴork o⒈ this sOrt in its° riginal tonguc、 :ill not fail to notc thc inHucncc this、。rk has had。 11thc lan思

uagC He、

ill n。 te、 vhich、 Ⅴ ords

`ˇ

and ass。 ciations° fidcas aPPCar to11in1thcrc in thc丘 rst sPlend° r ofn。 vclty;hc、

sce ho、v they haⅤ c insinuatcd themsclⅤ cs int。 thc languagc by、・ ay

of・

vill

the sPcci竹 c

nccds。 f

this spirit and its cxPrcssiⅤ C po、 v crs;and、 vhat hc thus11。 tcs、 Ⅴ ill largcly detern1inc the impression hc rcceivcs Thcrcforc it bclon:s to thc task。 f transla~

tion t。 collllllunicatc just thcsc things to thc rcadcr;clse hc will l,e luissin8an°

RCn

hat、 vas intcndcd for hin△ quitc signiHcant Pa1・ t ofⅥ ′

Evcn° n a small scalc,how oRcn、 t()a ncⅥ ˉ、 vord in thc。 rigi11al、

vⅡ

iⅡ

But h° 、 v is this to bc achieⅤ cdP it haPPcn that thc tcr∏ 1bcst colTcsPonding

l bc° nc that in()ur la11guage is alrcady old and

52


、 vorn out, so that thc translat° r, 、 vould hc sho、 Ⅴthc 、 Ⅴork’

s c° ntribution

to the

dcvel° Pment° f thc language,、 vⅡ l be f° rced to intr。 duce f° rcign content into thc

agc,deviating into thc rcahn°

fi1nitati。

n!How° Ren,cvcn、 vhere

he is ablc t。

st sirndar in ctymology and form not give thc m° st faithful 。 f the mcaning, 丘nally obhging hi1nt° call uP °ther associations _if hc、 v° uld prcscrve thc immediatc c。 ntext! Hc、 vill havc t° rePlacC nc、 v、vith nevv, vvill thc tcrn1that is m。

consolc himsclf that hc、 vill bc ablc t。 makc uP f° r thc l° ss in。 ther agcs vvherc thc auth° r used only。 ld,fanlihar、 vords,and thus hc rnay still achicvc at largc、

vhat cannot be acc° mPhShCd in cach individual casc If、 vc c° nsidcr,ho、 vcvcr,a rnastcr’ s

ntcxt,his use° f rclatcd、v。 rds and thcir roots in grcat quantities of vvorks that1nake refercnce to onc another,ho、 'is thc Po、 vCr t。 shaPe the languagc in a larger c°

translator to Hnd bis、vay,givcn that thc systcm of ideas and thc si:ns f° r thcm in his languagc arc comPlctCly diffcrcnt than in thc ori8inal,and thc r。

instead of neatly corrcsPonding to onc anothcr,rather oⅤ

。ts° fthc、v。 rds,

crlaP in thc m° st curious

。f thc translator c° uld PattCrnsP It is thcrcforc i1nPossible that the langua8e use cohcrc cⅤ cry、 vhcrc in cxactly thc samc、Ⅴay as that of his author. Herc, thcn,hc 、 vⅡ l

haⅤ c t°

fhat hc cannot on thc、 vhole. bc contcnt to achicve in thc Particular、、

He、 vill stiPulate as a condition for his rcadcrs that thcy do not con1Pare cach、

vork

、 vith others by the same author、 vith thc samc rigor as`vould be aPPhcd by rcaders n ,indccd,that thcy °f the° riginal,but rather considcr cach morc。 n its o、厂 r cⅤ cn only、・ ithin sh。 uld Praise hilll、 vhcn he succeeds、 vithin individual、 vorks, ° thcir scvcral subscctions, in Prcscrving a ccrtain uniforn1ity in the intcntion of thc

morc imPortant。 l)jccts Pr。 xics,

°r the

inal c。 nHncd itsclf t。

f diⅢ crcnt that a givcn w° rd is n。 t matched with a ho哎。 n markcd by a miscellany of cxPrcSsi° ns vvhcre thc Origˉ

s°

translati。

a sclcct fc、 v Thesc dif6cultics arc f°

und abovc all in scicnti6c

、 Ⅴ°rks;。 ther difsculties,and ccrtainly n° t lCSsCr onCs,oCCur in the areas of Poctry and artistical Prose, in、 vhich thc musical clcmcnt° f language that rcⅤ cals itsclf in rhythm and altcrati° ns oft° nc is itsclf cxPrcssiⅤ C and holds a highcr mcaning, It is

Ⅴ v。 rks thcsc things arc disrcgardcd or dcstroycd,Whatcvcr,thcrcf° rc,strikcs

scnsil)lc to all that the丘 ncst sPirit,thc highcst rnagic of art in its rnost PCrfcct is l° st、 vhcn

thc judicious rcadcr of thc° riginal in this resPcct aS charactcristic, as intcntional, as haⅤ ing an inⅡ ucncc° n tonc and fcchng, as clccisiⅤ

c for thc n1imctic° r musical

accomPanirnCnt° fsPeech:all thcsc things Our translator1nustrcndcr But h。 vv oF】 en ’ ~indccd,that、 vc arc not ob1igcd tO say‘ ‘ alvvays’ borders。 n the n1iraculous~d。 cs °nc snd丘 dehty to rhythn△ and1ncl。 dy caught in irreconcilable c° n∏ ict、 vith⒖ dchty t° dialectic an(l grammar!H° w dimcult it is t° Prevcnt,in thc ctcrnal back and f° rth° f、 vhat is to bc sacri丘 ced hcrc and、vhat thcre, a result that° Rcn is PrcciSCly the lcast stting! Ho、 v cven morc difHcult that thc translator must al、

vays comPel

hiInsclf to rlacC imPartially, 、 vhercvcr thc 。Pportunity Prcscnts itsclf, that of 、 vhicl△ bc has had t。 dePrivc thc rcader,not lctting hirnsclf shP,cⅤ en unconsciously, into a Pertinaci。 us one-sidcdncss becausc his inchnations t)id him faⅤ

or〈 )nc artis~

tical elcmcnt aboⅤ c all thc° d1crs!For if、 vhat he l° Ⅴes in thc、 vork° f art is1norc thc cthical subjcct mattcr and its tlcatmcnt,tlacn hc will bc thc lcss hkdy to n° h。 w。 Rcn

hc h灬 donc an injusticc to the mctrical allcl muskd elemcn“

te

of tllc允 rm

and, rathcr than thinking of ho、 v to Compcnsatc for the l° ss, c° ntent hirllsclf、 vith a renderin8that tcnds cvcr lnorc to lightncss and,as it、 Ⅴerc,to ParaPhrasc Sh° uld it haPPcn, ho、 vCⅤ Cr, that thc translator is a musician or skilled in mctrical、 =crsc,

0N THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF TRANsLATING

53

then l)c、 vill ncglcct thc logical element so as tO seizc hokl。 f thc musical, and as he bec。 mcs cvcr rnorc clcly caught up in this onc~sidcdncss,he、

vⅡ l⒔ nd

hcn comParing his translation as a vvholc t° increasingly bootlcss;and、 Ⅴ

his lab° rs

thc。 riginal,

vill nnd that, 、 vid1out his1・ cmarking it, hc will havc appr° achcd ncarcr and onc 、 nearer to that schoolb° y inadcquacy that loscs sight of thc、

vh。 lc

f°

r thc sakc ofthc

⒒)r、 vhen in the intcrcst of t11c lnatcrial likcncss of tonc and rhyth111xx・ hat is Part’ CxPressCd in onc languagC 、 vith hghtness and naturalncss is rlaccd by clumsy, (lisPleasing exPrcssions in the othcr,then a quitc diffcrcnt° vcrall imPrcssi。 n lnust result

Yct othcr(hfhcultics cmcr:e 、 vhCn the translator c° nsidcrs his rclati。 nshiP t。 thc languagc in、 ˉ hich hc、vritcs and thc rclationshiP° f his translation t° his othcr 、 vorks Excting thosc cxtraordinary n1astcrs、 vho haⅤ c cqual con】 mand of several languagcs, or cvcn hnd that one thcy1】

avc lcarncd c。 mcs m° rc naturall)t。 thclu

than thcir m° thcr t。 nguC, mcn for vvhon、

as has bccn said, it is n° t PossiblC to

translate— —excePting thc∏ 1,all° ther Pc。 Plc,as flucntly as thcy1night rcad a lorcign vill yct retain、 tongue, 、 ing so a fcchng ofthe R,rcign, No、 v hoⅥ shall thc `hilc(l。 translator contriⅤ c to clisscn1inatc among11is rcadcrs this scnsc。 f cnc。 untcr"`g the

forcign、vhcn hc prcsc11ts thcn△

、 vith a translation in their0、 vn tongue7surcly one

can rly that the s° lution t。 this riddle has l。 n8bccn° bⅤ i° us,and that,rnorcovCr, it has been s。 lvcd, all too oRcn PcrhaPs, m° rc than 、 vcll enough; for the morc

the turns and⒖ gurcs° f thc Original, thc n△ 。rc PrcciSely thc translation adhcrcs t。 f° rcign it vvill sccn△ to its rcadcr By all 111eans, it is casy cnough to sn1ilc at this Practice h1gcncral Υet if one is、、ar〉 of Purchasing this PlCasurc too cheaPly, c)f t11ro、 Ⅴ ing out the n)° st lnasterful atten1Pts and thc vc° rst schoolb° y eff° rts、 Ⅴith thc d samcl)ath、vatcr,onc111ust adn】 it that an indisPcnsablc rcquircment for this n)cth。。f

translating is a(lisp。

sition° fthc languagc that n。 t only darts from the quotidian

but lcts。 nc PcrccivC that it、 Ⅴas not lcft to dcvcl。 p freely but rathcr、vas bcnt to a forei:n likCncss;and it n1ust bc confcsscd t11at achicⅤ

ing this、 vith art and mcasurc,

Ⅵ ith dctri111cnt ncithcr to oncsclf n。 rt。 thc languagc,is PcrhaPs thC grcatcst(lifhcult) °ur translat° r111ust Confront, This undcrtaking、 vould apPcar to bc thc m。 st cXtrtlordll△ ly hnn0f humiliat0n to which a、 iri∝ r of8omc qualky can stll)jcct hilnscl「 , ˇ Vh° would not hkc to makc his natiⅤ e tonguc aPPcar CvCrywhcre disPlaying thc n10st sPlcndid charactcristiC bcauty allo`vcd by each gcnrc7 、 Vho 、 v° ukl 110t prcfer to bcgct children 、 vho xsˉ 。 uld Purcly rrcsent thCir fathcrs’ .△

hncagc、 rathcr than n1。

ngrcls7Who xs° uld

suffer hilnscll t°

be sccn n1ovi11g、 ith

f、 Ⅴ hich he is caPable,and to aPPCar at least as to chsPlcasc thc readcr just enough to keeP hhn

far lcss hghtncss and g1・ acc than that° occasionally harsh and stilr s。

hat。 ne is aboutP Who vcould gladly conscnt tO be considcred ungainly conscious of、・ f° r

stri、

ing to adhcrc s° closely to the f° reign tongue as his o、 vn languagc allo、 vs,

and to bcing critici'cd,⒈ ke parcnts、 vho entrust thcir childrcn t。

tun11)lcrs f。 r their

cducatiOn, for haⅤ ing failcd t。 exercisc his lu。 d)er tonguc in thc sorts of gy11)nastics nati、

ct° it,instcad accuston1ing it to alicn,unnatural cont。 rtions! And、 vho,

、 vith ut1nost condcsccnsi° n by PrcciSely thc grcatest rnastcrs and conn。 isscurs,、 vho assure hiln that thcy、 vould bc cntircl):unal)lc to undcrstand his laborious,ill-c。 nsidcred Gcrrnan if thcy had not thcir kn0、 Ⅴledgc of Greck and Latin to con1c to thcir aid! Thcsc arc thc sacriices cⅤ ery translator° fthis sOrtis obhgcd t。 111akc,tbcsc thc dangcrs to、 Ⅴ hich hc cxPoses hnally, Ⅵ oul(l 、 vish t° scc hhnself smilcd upon

54

FRIEDR1cH sCHLEIERMACHER

hilnsclf if, in his attcmPt to PreserⅤ lati。

c a f。

rcign tonc in thc langua:c of1△ is trans_

n,hc(locs not° bserve that6ncst。 f liI1cs,and thcse arc dan8crs and sacri⒔

ccs

hc cannot l)oSSil)ly avoi(l outright, as every PcrsOn dra、 vs this line in a slightly (liffcrcnt sPot If hC thh1ks noⅥ 厂of the incvitablc in∏ uencc habit rnust havc~、 vcll,

thcn, may hc fear that cⅤ cn his 。、 vn Frcc‘ ly comPoScd, c)riginal、 ˉ ritings could l)e

invadcd by coarse and impr。 Pcr clen△ ents originating in his o、 vn translations, and his dchcatc scnsibnity f。 r the nativc、 ⅤcⅡ 丬)Cing of his oⅥ △ ) languagc l)lunted And sh。 ul(l

hc darc to considcr that grcat a】 ˉ n1y of illnitators and the ind。

lencc and

mcdi。 crity that PreⅤ ail in litcrary circlcs,thcn surcly11C luust l)e seized、 vith tcrr。 r at the thOught ofthc sl。、cnly clisrcgard for thc rulcs of euPh。

ny,thc gcnuinc、・ ood-

enncss and(hss。 nancc,thc clctrilnent to thc languagc in、 arious forms for、 vhich hc

may noⅥ ・bc hckl dy rcsPonsiblc; R)r ahnOst only thc Ⅴcry bcst and thc vcry Ⅴσ orst Ⅵ111110t

striⅤ C to Pro⒔

t佰 lscly【 onl l)is cfforts Thc crics that translation of

this sort1uust nccessarⅡ y11avc a dctri1△ 1ental c=`Qct fron1、、ithin。 n thc Purity0f thc

languagc and thc Pcaccf111c。 ursc of its dcvcloPn△ cnt haⅤ c。 ftcn bccn11eard EⅤ en if wc ch° osc to dismiss thcm忆

rd1cm° l)1cnt

with thc pcrhaPs CmP0P1ˉ °misc tlaat

advantages arc surc to accompany these dctrhnents,and that cⅤ

en as all:ood thin:s

come、 Vith an adn1ixturc of bad,the、 visc coursc of aCti。 n、、ill

alvvays be t。

as n1uc11as P0ssiblc ofthe l【

acquirc

Dr111Cr、 vhile takiI1g along as littlc as Possil)le° f thc latter,

the difH(lult task。 f rePresenting the forcign in。 nc’ so、 vn n10thcr to11guc、 vⅡ l rnOst

certainly bring、 vith it certain consequcnccs First, it is clcar that this mcth。 d of translating cannot Πourish cqually、 vcll in all t。 ngucs,but rathcr only in thosc that v bounds of a classical st、 lc bcⅤ 。nd、 vhich all clsc arc not conhncd、 vithin thc I1arr。、

is dcclned rePrchcnsible Let thcsc bounded languages scck to cxPand thchˉ

tcrri

requirc morc than thcir nativc to11guCs to spcak ^fh。 vhich these languagcs are n° (loubt adn1irably suitcd; and lct thcIll, son1ething t° 、 tories by inducin思

f°

reigncrs、

the∏ 1aPPr° PriatC f° rcign、vorks by mcans ofin1itations or PcrhaPs translati。 ns of that° ther s。 rt;but this s° rt of translation thcy must leaⅤ e t° the frecr languagcs

in 、 vhich dc、 iations and i11novations are n1orc rcadilv t。 lcratcd, sucb t11at thcse deⅤ iations

may, in d1C end, co1nbh1c t。 Pr。 ducc a nc`v charactcristic modc of ˉ f° llo、 s clCarly cn° ugh that this s。 rt° f translati° n has no valuc at all ifit is practiccd only rand。 n11y in indiⅤ idual cascs in a givcn tonguc For、 Ⅳhat is bcin8aimCd at is plainly hr morc tha11mcrcly causing somc indi∏ 。rcnt soⅡ °f ivCn an inkhng, foreign spiIˉ it to、 Ⅴ aft in thc reader’ s(hrcction;rathcr,hc is t° bc ε ・、 v。 hat thc rk。、 vcs t0 it, a1】 d if only a distant onc, of the 。riginal languagc and、 cxPrCssion It als。

thus s。 lne。 f、 vhat hc loscs for not undc1・ standing the original t。 nguc is hcrc c。

lll-

ihat hc is rcadi11g docs n° Λ pcnsatcd: hc is not only to haⅤ e a vaguc scnsc that Ⅰ

t

und unquestionably native to his

。、 vn tonguc; rather、 it should sound foreign in a quitc sPCci丘 c、 vay;this,ho、 vcvcr,is only Possible if hc is able t。 lη akc comPari_ sons on a largc scalc If hc laas rcad sc、 cral、 vorks that he kn° 、 vs、 VCrC translatcd s°

from lnodcrn languagcs、 and othcrs fron1ancient ones,and if all of thcn1、

vere trans-

latcd in this 、 vay, thcn surcly hc、vⅡ l dc、 cloP an car for thc diffcrcnccs bctvvccn

vever, thc ancicnt and thc m。 dcrn Hc、 vill havc to have read a great deal rn。 rc,h° 、 be儿 rc hc can diffcrcntiatc bctwcen Works of Hcllenic and R。 rnan origin,or Italian and sPanish, A11d yct cvcn this、 v° uld hardly l)e thc highcst goal;rather,thc readcr

°f thc translation、 vill be a match f° r thc l)cttcr rcadcr of thc° rigi11al、 vork only 、 vhen hc is ablc t° scnsc and eventually grasP、vith conHdcncc n° t only thc sPirit

0N THE DIFFERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING 。f the language but als。 thc aud△

or’

55

s characteristic sPirit,f° r、 vhich,to

be sure,the

talcnt° f intuitiⅤ e Percti° n is thc only P° ssil)lc Organ,yct to this end,t° o,a far grcater nun△ 1)cr of comParis° ns arc uttCrly ncccssary ThcSC c°

mParisOns cannot

be madc if only indiⅤ i(lua1 1nastcrPicccS in individual gcnrcs arc translatcd Evcn the mOst c(lucatcd readcrs will acquirc in this way only a highly imPer托 ct know~ lcdge of thc f° reign throu:h translati° n;it is inconcciⅤ ablc, thcn,that thcy Ⅱ1ight

d of brmll△ g actual judgmcnts,bc it ab。 ut transladons° ro1ˉ lginals This s° rt of translation, thcn, clcarly requircs a large~scalc ° n, the trans~ r^c to tl△ c lcⅤ

Perati。

:aluc planting of cntirc litcraturcs into a single tonguc, and it has meaning and 、 only in a natiOn 、 vhose PeoPlc arc faⅤ orably disPoscd t° aPProPriatc thc f° reign Individual 、、0rks °f this sort haⅤ c valuc 。nly as forcrunncrs of a morc gcncrally dcvcl。 ping and burgcOning inchnation If thcⅤ cann。 t arousc the desire to foll。、 v

this Practice,then thcrc must bc sOmcth】 ng against thcm in thc spirit ofthc language

and ofthe ume;thcy will aPPcar SimPly as F11ilcd attcmP“ ancl Cnjoy httlc or no succcss Yct cⅤ cn if this business PrCvails, it can hardly bc cxpcctcd that a、 vork of this s° rt,sPlcndid as it might be,will cnj。 y gCncr创 aPProbad。 n GiⅤ cn all that rnust bc taken int。

c° nsidcrati°

n,all thc dif丘 cultics t。

bc surmountcd,diffcrent

Ⅴic、 vs、 vill dcveloP as t。 ′ Ⅴhich Parts° f thc task arc t° be emPhasizCd and Ⅵ・ hich

dccmcd sub° rdnatc,And so(11fkrent schools,as it wcrc,wⅡ l brm among thc astcr Practitioncrs, and dⅡ 辶rcnt PartiCs of tl△ cir adhcrcnts among thc rcading Pubhc; and cvcn though it is the same mcthod that f° rms the basis 。f cach n△

ns ofthc samc、 vork n△ ade fr。 m diffcrcnt PointS。 f vie、・ Ⅵill bc ablc t° cocXist, and it Ⅵ,。 uld bc (lifHcuIt t。 say that any onc of thcn△ is as a 、 vholc m。 re PerfCct than the °thcrs or falls sh。 rt in mcrit; rathcr, ccrtain agcs、 vill Pr° vc m。 rc suCccssful in °nc vcrsion, and othcr agcs in anothcr vcrsion,and only thc sum of all thcsc takcn togcthcr and in rclation t° each othcr ~thc Ⅴ vay onc placcs Particular Ⅴaluc On apProxllllating thc original languagc,`Ⅴ hilc the。 ther rather insists that n。 Ⅴiolencc be d° nc t。 its o、 vn~、 Ⅴill ful⒔ ll thc task sch。 ol,diffcrent translati°

∞ mPlchtcly,cllld CaC・ h h its° Ⅵ=nH吵 t xslll dw刂 S haⅤ c onⅡ rdatl丈 alld su匀

cctiw

value Thcsc arc the dif⒒ cultics that° PPosC this rncthod of translating, and thc flavcs inherent in it, Yct eⅤ cn givcn thcsc, onc must stnl ackn。

、 vledgc the lcgitil11acy of

thc undcrtaking itsclf,vvhose achicⅤ cmcnts cannot bc dcnied It is foundcd° n tⅥ 广 0 basic c。 nditi° ns∶ that thc understanding of forcign texts bc aCkn。、 vlcdged as a kn。、 vn and dcsirablc statc, and that a ccrtain flexibihty bc grantcd to our natiⅤ

e

tonguc, 、 Ⅴhcrc both conditions arc1nct,translation° f this s。 rt、 vill aPPcar a quitc natural phcnomenon that inΠ ucnces thc cntirc intcllcctual dcⅤ cl。 Pmcnt° fa nauon, and evcn as it is givcn a ccrtain value,it、

But、 ˉ hat of the oPPositC lncthod,、

vill n。 t fail to giⅤ c Plcasurc as、

Ⅴcll

:hich,、 Ⅴishing to sPare its rcadcr all cxcr~

tion and toil,scts° uttO suInmon thc f° rcign author as ifby rnagic int。

his iΠ 11ncdiate

Ⅴthe、 v° rk as it、 voul(l bc had thc author hirnsclf vvrittcn it PrCsCncc and to sh。、 originally in thc rcadcr’ s t。 ngu This (lcmand has often bccn citcd as °nc that sh° uld bc madc of a truc translat° r,rrcscntin思 a far noblcr and morc Pcrfcct ai1n than the° ne Prcvi。 usly describcd;and indiⅤ idual attcmPtS haⅤ c bccn undcrtakcn, PCrhaps cⅤ cn mastcrPicccs, that have clcarly cnou∶ ::h assigned it as thcir goal Lct

us no、 v look at h°

、 Ⅴmattcrs stand、 Ⅴith regard to this。 thcr1ncth。 d,and、vhctl△ cr v indisPutably lcss common,

it n1ight n。 t pcrhaPs bc g。 od if this Practice, till no、

56

FRIEDR1cH sCHLEIERMACHER

、 vere to bc n10rc frequently Cnc° untcrcd and 、 verc t° rlacC the qucstionablc 。nc that is in s° 〗 ηany、vays lacking It is in、 rnediately

obvious that the translator’ s languagc has nothing at all to fear

△。m this mct11od Hi8忆 rcm° st rulc,要 t。

af。 rcign tonguc,rnust bc t。

in any。 righ1al、

v° rk°

`c11d1e reltltion in、

vhich his work sttn11(ls

、 vcd fthc samc genre、 vrittcn in his nativc tonguc h`dccd,as n△ uch allo、 v hi111sclf n° thi11g that、

voul(l not also be all°

as anyonc hc has thc duty to hccd at lcast thc same concern for thc Purity and Pcr~ f辶

cti° n° f

。f

his languagc and t。 attcmPt to achiCvc thc samc lightncss and naturalncss

stylc f° r、 vhich his auth°

rn1ight bc cxtollcd in thc° riginal This t。 °is certain∶ n】 akc clcar t° 。ur cornI)atri。 tS、 vhat a、 vritcr’ s、 vork mcant f° r thc languagc in、 Ⅴhich he、 vrotc it,、 vc can⒖ nd nol)cttcr f° rmula than t° introduce that if、 vc、 vish t。

°ur language sPeakin:in such a、 Ⅴay as 、 Ⅴc must assuluc hc 、 vould haⅤ c had° ur languagc bccn his。、・ n,Pa1ˉ ticularly if thc stagc of dcveloPIη cnt that his】 anguage()ccuPicd′ ′ hCn hc can)ct° it bears son1e silnilarity to thc onc currcntly °ccuPiCd l)y。 urs, In a ccrtai11scnsc, it is PosSil’ le f° r us to th"1k ofh。、 v Tacitus n1ight havc sPokcn had hc bccn Gcrn1an, °r, t。 bc m。 rc Precisc, ho、、a Gcrman 、 v。 ukl spcak、、 h。 sc rclati。 nship to our languagc`vas thc samc as that of Tacitus t。 his。 Ⅵ 广 n; and happy is hc、 vh。 is ablc to imaginc this so vividly that11c can rcally makc him sPcak!Yct whcthcr this Ⅵ=。 uld succccd if thc订 ansht° r ha(l hm say just hiln int。 SP° kCn

the same things as thc Roman Tacitus saklin Latin is quite a diffcrcnt question,onc

c. For it is onc thing to grasP corrcctly and someh。 xx:rrcsCnt thc innucncc that a rnan has had uPon hiS lan思 uagc,and an° thcr difHcult t。 ans、 vcr in thc afHrmatiⅤ

thing alt。 gethcr to gucss at thc turns that11is thoughts and their cxPrcssi°

havc takcn l,ad bc origi1】 ally been used t。 ot11er tonguc!Ⅳ Vhoc、

cr is c° nⅤ h1ced

n、 oukl

thi11ki11g and cⅩ PrcsSi11g hin、 self in sOn1c

ofthc inncr,csscntial idcntity l)ctxx:ccn thought

and cxPrcssi° n~and this c° mviction torms thc basis f° r thc cntirc art of undcr~ standing sPccch an(l thus。 f all订 anslatio11as、、cll~can hc wish t。 sc、 era man iom his natiⅤ c tonguc and still behcⅤ c that this man, or cⅤ cn so much as a train of thought, n1ight turn。 ut the same in tⅥ 广。 languagcsP C)r if thc train of thought is thcn in s° mc Ⅴ ￠ ay diffCrcnt, can hc PrCsumc to brcak do、 vn sPeech to its inlnost

corc so as tO seParatC。 ut that Part Playcd l)y lan8uagC and thcn thr。

ugh a ncxsˇ and, ccss con thc inncr corc of sPccch、 vith thc l)cing and f° rcc of anothcr tongueP For、 vouklit nOt secn△ that to carry out this task one】 nust as it、 vcrc, chcn1ical pr°

flrst ch111iL1atc c、

cxtcnt, thc in∏ childh。

crything in a n1an’

rittcn x1・ ork t1】 at sh。、 s、、 vcd,cⅤ

cn to the shghtcst

uencc 。f all he had sPoken and hcard in his 111other tonguc fron1

od on,and thcn add,as it、、cre, to his naked characteristic、 vay。 F thinkng

in its aPProach t。 a particular° bjcct all that、 v。 uld have rcsultcd h・ on1all hc、 vould

揶扣薛擀撒玉狨鞴冉乍谳溅 in assembhng organic Products through an artihcial chen1ical process h)dced, onc can say that thc goal of t】 anslating just as d1c auth。 r himsclf w° uld ha、 c writtcn originally in thc languagc of thc translati° itsclf null and 、。i(l;

f。 r、 vh。 cvcr

n is not only unattainable,but is also in

ackno、 vledgcs thc forn1ativc po、 vcr。 f lan思 uagC,

、 vhich is Onc Ⅵ ith thc Particular nature 。f a PcoPlC, must also conccde that the entirc knoⅥ =ledge of eⅤ en the most cxcti° nal1nan,as、 vcll as his abdity to rrc~ scnt it,has c。 mc to hi1n with and through languagc,and that n°

onc has his languagc

0N THE DIFFERENT M ETHODs OF TRANSLATING

57

n1cchanically attachcd to hi1n fr° lrll thc outsi(lc as if by straPS,s° that。 nc n1ight,as easⅡ y as° nc、vould

unharncss a tcan、 of horses and rePlacc it、 vith anothcr,harncss

uP a nC、 v language as it haPPcncd t。 Suit one’ s frame ofrnind;but rathcr that cach PerS° n

ProducCs。 riginally only in his1nothcr tonguc,and that thc qucstion of ho、 v

hc、 v。 uld havc、 vritten his、v° rks in an。 thcr languagc ought not cVcn to bc raised.

∏11nonly cn。 ugh n△ ct can be° ffcrcd hcrc to countcr my examplcs First,therc is clcarly such a thing as the ability to、 vritc in languagcs T° l)c surc,tvvo cascs that are c°

。thcr than onc’ s nativc tongue,cvcn in the arcas of phⅡ osoPhy and poctry,and this not only aPpears in is。 latcd cascs, although such cascs c° ntinuc to °ccur, 1)ut is

quitc common Why,thcn,sh° uld。 nc

n。 t,t。

aⅤ ail。 ncsclf

of a m。 re rehablc P° int

°f rcfcrcncc, suPPosC this ability in cⅤ cry auth° r° ne intends to translat What sPcaks against this is that thc abⅡ

ity is so constituted as t°

aPPcar only in th° sC cascs

in、 vhich the sa1ne thing c。 uld cithcr n。 t be said at allin a lnan’ at least n。 t by hi1n If、 vc go l)ack in tiIne to、

s native tongue or

Ⅴhcn thc R° mance languages`vcrc

beginning to cmcrge,、 Ⅴho could say vvhat language、 vas nativc to thc Pcoplc liⅤ ing thcn?And、・ h° 、 vould、 vant to deny that for th° se、 Ⅴith scholarly asPirations Latin 、 vas n△ ore a nativc tongue than thc Ⅴcrnacular?This gocs rnuch dcePcr for sPcci⒔ c intcllectual activitics and nccds As l。 ng as thc n△ 0thcr tonguc has n° t yet grovvn t。

st thesc nccds, thc languagc in、 Ⅴhich cndcaⅤ ors of thc spirit丘 rst announccd

t11cmsclvcs to a PC° PlC still undcrg° ing dcⅤ cloPn1cnt rcmains thcir partial rnothcr tongue Gr° tius and Lcibnitz could n° t,at lcast vvithout haⅤ ing bccn。 ther Pe。 Plc

c xl-rittcn phdosoPhy in Gcrman and Dutch. Indeed, eⅤ en if thc r。。t gcthcr and thc runncr bccn t。 rn a、 vay Rˉ 。n1 thc old trunk, 、:h。 cvcr is not hi1nsclf a bcing sin△ ultaneously engaged in shaPing and uPr。 otin8hiS cntircly, haⅤ

has shriⅤ cled uP alt。

language vvill oRcn bc forccd to cleavc t。

some f° reign lanε uagc either ch° scn arbi~

trarily or dictated by sccondary c° nsidcrations All thc n。 blcst and付 ncst th° ughts

°f° ur grcat kng2camc to him in a brcig111anguagc,which hc had madc his mOst inti1nate ProPCrty Hc could n° tP。 sSibly haⅤ c、 vrittcn in Gcrman thc philosoPhy and P° etry hc set do、 vn in French It is rcgrcttablc that thc grcat loⅤ

c ccrtain

mcmbcrs of his fan、 ily hcld for England di(ln。 t rcsult in his haⅤ ing bccn instructcd in English i。 lu an cady agc,a tonguc hr cl。 scr to Gcrman,and° nc wh。 sc la哎 as then in fuⅡ Ro、ver But Ⅵ・ c can Ccrtainly h° Pc thatifhc had cnj° ycd goldcn agc“ ・ a1norc rigorous sch。 larly Cducation,hc、 Ⅴould rather haⅤ c vvrittcn his phⅡ osophy

and poctry in Latin than in Frcnch, sincc, thc1ˉ this instancc, it bcing only in a Particular f°

cf° rc, spccial c° nditi。 ns adhcrc in rcign languagc and not in somc arbi-

trardy choscn onc that cach Person achicvcs sOmc particular airn that c。 uld not havc

bccn reahzcd in his mothcr tonguC, it cannot scrve as cⅤ idcncc f° r a mcth。 d 。f translation that lncans tO sh。、 v us ho、 vs° mc。 nc n)ight havc vvrittcn in some othcr languagc 、 vhat he in fact has 、 Ⅴritten in his m。 thcr ton思 uc ThC SCc。 nd case, h。 Ⅵ /cⅤ cr,、 Ⅴ hich c° nccrns rCading and、 vriting originally in f° reign languagcs,、 vould

appcar morc promising忆 r this mcthod F。 r who would wish to belitdc° ur courticrs and mcn of thc、vorld by dcnyin8that the Prctty sPccchcs that triP fr。 their tongucs in Ⅴarious languagcs、 vcrc not als。

c。 ncciⅤ

m

cd⒏ on1thc Outsct in thcsc

langua思 es and n。 t, say, 丘rst translatcd in their heads fron1 thc shabby GermanP

And ju哎 as tllcy茳 e

hmcd忆 r belng ablc to uttcr thesc汕 gtarPlumS。 f Cl【 ,quencc equally、vcll in vari。 us languagcs,they no doubt think thclla in aⅡ thesc lan思 uagcs 、 vith cquiⅤ alcnt casc, and cach。 f then△ 、 vⅡ l no doubt bc instantly in a Position to

58

FRIEDRIcH SCHLEIERMACHER

saⅤ how thc Othcr w。 uld haⅤ c忆 rmulatcd h Itahan what hc hasjust丘血shed sa” ng in French Yet thcse sPeeches,to be sure,d。 n。 t lic in a sPhcrC in、vhich th。 ughts sh° 。t uP f° rcefully fl o∏ 1the deeP r° ° ts °f a Particular languagc; thcy arc rathcr

hkc thc vvatcrcrcss that an artR11rnan causcs to sprout vvithout s°

il on a、 vhitc cloth

Thcsc sPccches rePrescnt language neither i11all its sacrcd gravity nor in its Plcasant,

Ⅳ vcⅡ lucasurcd Play; rathcr, just as thc Pc。 Plc of(⒈ fFcrcnt nations havc bcgun to

intcrn1inglc in a、 vay f° rmcrly not oftCn sccn,so do、 vc⒔ nd a rnarketPlacc aⅡ ar° und

us,and tllese conversations arc markct talk,be they Political°

r litcrary in contcnt,

or mcrcly conⅤ iⅤ ial, and they truly fall n° t、 vithin thc domain of the translator, but rathcr~shall、 Ⅴc savP~that° fthc intcrprctcr Now whcn sPccch° f this s。 rt, as somctirncs haPpCns, is intcr、 voⅤ cn into a PiCcC of、 vriting, such、 vriting, vvhich disP° rts itsclf cntircly in thC bright and gay rcachcs of hfc、

vithout dclⅤ ing int。 the

r caPturing thc charactcristic naturc of a pcoPlc, may Profunditics of existencc ° 、 vell be translated acc° rding to this rulc;but only、 vriting of this sort,f° r it alonc 1uightjust as wcll havc bccn sct down° riginally in anothcr languagc And this rulc may cxtcnd n。 furthcr than,say,thc prcfaccs and PreamblCs。 f rn° re sPlendid and found、 v。 rks, ˇ vhich。攵cn arc c。 nstructcd cntirely in thc rcahn of light social Pr° intcrcourse For thc morc thc sPcciHc naturc of a PcoplC lCavcs its mark on thc nl冫 etvvCCn thcn、 individual th。 ughts that apPcar in a、 vork and the c° nncctions draⅥ 厂 t。

、 vhich PerhaPs may CvCn bc added thc stamP of an agc long Past,thc m。

rc this

rulc、 vill ccasc to haⅤ c lncaning For,truc as it rcmains in luany resPects that° thr° ugh thc kn。 vvledge ofscvcrallanguagcs docs a lllan l)cc°

nly

mc educated in a ccrtain

scnsc and a cosm° P° lite,wc must aⅡ thc same c。n炙 ss thatjust as wc cannot acct as true cosmoPolitis1η onc that at critical momcnts suPPlantS a man’ sI° Ⅴc °f his fathcrland, s° too、Vith rcgard to languagcs is a gcncral love not thc ProPer,truly educati° nal sort if, in b。 th quotidian and noblcr contcxts, it、Ⅴould just as soon

substitutc somc othcr languagc, ancicnt or modcrn, f° r thc Paternal t° ngue 【,nc must bc loyal to° nc languagc or anothcr,just as to onc nation, or clsc drift disoricntcd in an unl° ⅤclⅤ in-bctⅥ`ccn rcahn It is stting that Latin should still be uscd among us忆 r。 mcial busincss,lcst wc forgct that ths was thc sacred scicntiic m° thcr ton思 uC° f our forcbcars;it is salutary,too,that this PracticC should c。 ntinue throughout the Eur。 pcan scicnti行 cc°∏11nunity so as to facilitatc intcrchangc; yet cⅤ cn

in this casc it、 vill succccd onlⅤ to thc cxtcnt that in thesc、 vorks thc subjcct

ie、 vs and spccial lnanner of luaking con~ 、 vritcr’ s Ⅴ lds truc。 fR。 mancc languages WhocⅤ cr is 允rccd to wⅡ tc such a language in so∏ 1c omoal caPa0ty will cert汪 nly bc wcll awarc that his th° ughts,as thcy a1・ C丑 rst conccivcd,arc Gcrman∶ hc rncrcly bcgins to trans-

mattcr is cvcrything and thc

nections count for littlc Thc samc h°

latc thcm vvhile thc embrv。

is still in an carly stagc of(lcvcl。

pmcnt; and、 vhocvcr

makcs thc sacrincc。 f、 vriting in anothcr languagc for thc sakc° f scientisc inquiry 、 Ⅴill be ablc t。、 vritc frcclⅤ and、 vithout constraint,rathcr than secrctly translating as hc gocs al° ng,only when hc can l。 sc himsclfin his su匀 cc・ t mattcr To bc surc, thcrc arc thosc、 Ⅴho、 Vritc in Latin and Frcnch f° r thcir oxxn amuscmcnt,and if the ity、 Ⅴ crc truly to、 vrite cqually as、 vcⅡ and as。 riginaⅡ y in thc f° rcign aiΠ òf this actiⅤ ickcd and v。 uld not hcsitatc to (lcclaIˉ c this a、 Ⅰ tonguc as in onc’ s oxsrn, thCn I 、 s magical art likc the trick° f doubhng oncsclf,an atten1Pt not。 nly to m。 ck thc laⅥ 厂。f nature but also t。

bc、 vdder

This,h。 vvcver,is clcarly n° t its design;rathcr,this

actoJtⅤ is onlⅤ a s。 rt of tastc,hl mimetic gamc th荻 allows one to Ⅵ△ilc away a

0N THE D1FF9ERENT METHODS OF TRANsLATING

59

pleasant hourin thc antcchambcrs ofscicncc and art What° nc ProducCSin a forcign tonguc is n。 t original; rather, 1ncmorics of sOmc Particular、 vritcr or PcrhaPs the

stylc of a ccrtain pcriod,rrcscnting, as it、 vcrc,somc gcncral Pcrs。 nagc,aPPcar bef° rc the1nind’ s cyc ahn。 st likc a living imagc in thc Outsidc、 Vorld,and the in1itation of this image guidcs and dc丘 ncs、 vhat onc Pr。 duccs,Thus rarcly docs anything Comc about by this l11eans that n1ight havc truc、 vorth beyond n1imctic precision; and one’ s PlCasurc in this PoPular trick is all the rn° illlitated is rcadily visiblc thr° ughout,But

re innocuous as thc pcrson bcing

ifsome° ne has turncd against naturc and

Custom and dcscrted, as it、 vcrc, his m。 ther t° ngue, devoting hilnself instead to anothcr,it nccd n° t bc affcctation or mockcry Ⅵ・ hcn hc assurcs us he is n。 longcr in a PoSition to movc frccly in his nativc languagc;rathcr,by this justiscation hc is sccking to convincc hhnsclf that his nature really is a natural vvondcr that subvcrts all hicrarchiCs and la、 vs,and to rcassure othcrs that hc is at lcast n° tˇvall0ng about d° uble

likc a ghost,

Yct too l° ng havc、 vc tarried over mattcrs forci8n to。 ur inquiry,crcating tllc irnprcssion that、 ve lncant to spcak of、 v° rks、 vrittcn in f° reign tongucs rathcr than

订anslati。 ns iom thcm In hct,it is as fDllows r it is imP。 in a f° rcign langua思

ssible t°

writc oⅡ 妒nally

es。 mCthin8that at oncc rcquircs and is、 v° rthy of translati° n,

insofar as translation is an art,or if this rnust at lcast bc sccn as a rarc and、 Ⅴ°ndrous

cxction,thcn onc cannot Put f° rth as a rulc for translation that it Fnust d1ink。

f

h。 w

s

thc auth。 r himself w° uld haⅤ e writtcn just thc samc thing h the translator’

thcre arc all t° 。 ft,w cxamPlcs° f hlhgual writcrs iom wh。 m wc might derive an analogy、 vhich thc translator might follo、 v; rather, in acc° rdancC 、 vitl△ thc f° rcgoing, he 、 vill havc littlc m。 re than his imagination t。 assist hin△ in dcahng Ⅵhth、vorks that rcscmblc ncither li8ht Cntcrtainmcnt nor thc style。 f busi_

tonguc;忆 r

ness tnnsacdons Indccd,what° 匀ettion can bc madc if a tlanslator says to his k asthc man、 v° uld have、 vrittcn it had hc、 vrittcn readcr∶ I△ crc I bring you thc b。。 in German;and thc rcadcr rcsPonds:I am just as obhgcd to you asifyou had br。 ught mc thc PicturC。 fa man thc、 Ⅴay hc、 vould l。 ok if his m。 thcr had concciⅤ cd hirn by a diffCrent father?For ifin all、

v。 rks

bclon思 ing in the higher sense to the rcahns

。f scicncc and art thc auth° r’ s charactcristic sPirit iS the rn° ther,thcn thc fathcr is his PatCrnal tonguc Each of thcsc artisccs、 v° uld lay claiFn t° mystcrious insights t。、 Ⅴ hich no。 ne is PriⅤ y, and° nly in play can° ne cnjoy thc onc° r thc Othcr of thcn1、vithout rcserⅤ c, That thc apphcability of this rncth。

d is g1・

catly lirnitcd,bcing indccd、 vcll_ni8h

zcro、 Ⅴhcrc translation is conccrncd,is bcst b。

rnc° ut、 vhcn° nc observcs thc insurmountablc dif⒔ culties、 vith、 Ⅴhich it so。 ften bccomcs cntanglcd in ccrtain branchcs of thc scicnccs and arts since onc must conccdc that cⅤ are only a vcry fcⅥ

f、 vords

cn in cveryday usage there vords

in any giⅤ en t。 nguc that corresPond PCrfcctly t0、

in any othcr such that thcse latter can bC emPl°

yed in any contcxt suitablc to thc

formcr,and that in corrcsPon由 ng contcx“ caCh will Producc just the same efect as the。 thcr,this is rn。 rc truc oftcrms thc m。 rc thcy haⅤ c a phⅡ osoPhical imPort,

、 vhich

is ab° vc all thc casc in PhiloS。

phy propcr Hcrc1norc than any、 vhcrc is it thc

case that any languagc, dcspitc thc diffcrcnt concurrcntly and consecutiⅤ

ely hcld

vicvvs cxPressCd in it, cncomcs ′ vithin itsclf a singlc systcm of idcas vvhich, PrCciscly bccause they are c° ntiguous, linkin: and c° mPlcmCnting onc anothcr wid△ n this languagc,brm a sin掣 e whole~wh° sc seⅤ eral Pa⒒ s,h° wCvcr,(l。 not

60


corresPond to th。 sc to bc f° und in c° mParablc systems in other lan思 uagcs,and this

‘

is scarcely cxcluding‘ CJod” and‘ F。 r cⅤ

‘

t°

bc/’

thc noun。 f nouns and thc verb° f verbs

cn uniⅤ ersals,、 vhich lic° utsidc thc rcall△ l。 f Particularity,arc illun△ ined and

col。 rcd

visd。 m。 f 、

by thc Particular This languagc systen1subsumes the

all indi~

viduals Each dra、 vs fron1、 vhat is PrCsCnt, and hclPs t° bring to light、 vhat is n°

t

yet present but only Prc丘 gurcd Only thus can thc、 visd° m of thc indiⅤ idual comc ahⅤ e,and° nly thus can it goⅤ crn his existencc,、 vhich hc sets do、 vn cntircly、 vithin

this languagc If, thcn, thc translat。 r。 f a philosophical auth。 r is not rcsolvcd t。 bcnd thc languagc of his translation t。 accord t° thc grcatcst PosSiblC extcnt、 vith thc languagc of the。 riginal so as to8iⅤ c aS full a scnsc as Possiblc° f thc syStC∏ 1。 f ideas inhcrcnt in this Othcr lan8uagC, if hc sccks,rathcr,to have his auth。 r sPcak as th。

ugh hc had originally f° rmed his th。 ughts and f。 rmulatcd his uttcrances in

anotller language,、vhat choicc、 vill this translat。 r haⅤ c,givcn thc unhkcness。 f thc elements in the t、

v。

lan8uagcs?Eithcr he must ParaPhrase一

、 vhich、 vill

his PurP° sc, for a ParaPhrasc can and vvill ncvcr aPPcar to haⅤ

originally h thc samc languagc~or clsc he musttransbrm hs man’

n。 t ful⒔

s cntirc wis

and kn0、 vlcdgc into thc systcm ofidcas in the othcr languagc,transforn△ Parts acc。 rdingly,inˇ vhich casc it is hard t。

ll

c bccn comPoscd

m

ing all its

scc h° 、 v the、vⅡ dest arbitrariness could

bc kePt、vithin bounds,Indccd,it rnust be said that、 vhocⅤ er has the shghtest resPect vill hardly l9c found engaging in f° r Phil° soPhical aspirati° ns and deⅤ cl。 PmcntS 、 such caⅤ ahcr play,Lct Plato ans、 ver for it ifI n° vv Pr°

cecd△ o∏1n△ y discussion of

phⅡ osophcrs to thc、 vriters of comcdics,;This litcrary genre lies,as rcgards its use

°f language,closcst to the rcalln。 dra、 vs

fs° cicty c。 nvCrsation

Thc cntirc rrcsCntation

its brcath fron1thc custoⅡ 1s of thc agc and of a particular nati。 n,and thcsc

in turn Find thcmsclⅤ cs mOst aPtly rCHCcted in its lan￡ :uagc Lightncss and naturalncss in gracc arc its principal Ⅴirtucs;and prcciscly for this rcason thc difEculties of

translation accordin8t。 thC method、 ve haⅤ e bcen considcring are forn1idablc F。

r

CⅤ Cry

attcmpt to aPprOxi1natc Onc’ s languagc to a f° rcign tonguc is dctrilncntal to thcsc virtucs as thcⅤ cxist、 Ⅴithin a、 vork And if thc translati° n novv scts out to makc a Playxsright sPcak as though he had、 vritten originally in the langua思 c ofthc translation,thcn thcrc、 Ⅴill bc many things hc cannot bc alloⅥ 厂 ed t° utter, as thcy arc not native to this particular nati。 n,for、 vhich rcas。 n thc languagc contains no signs to cxPrCsS thcm Thc translator,thcn,lnust cxcisc、 Vhole agcs,destr° ying thC Po、 vCr and forⅡ1° f the、vhole,° r clsc Placc OthCrs in their stead In this area, then, strictly foll°

、 ving this formula、 vill lcad, it sccms, either to in1itation Plain

and si1nPlc° rt。 an eⅤ en more disagrceably c° nsPicu° us and disc° nccrting llaixturc of translati。 n and in1itation,、 vhich rncrcilessly tosscs thc rcadcr back and f°

rth likc

a ball l)ct、 vccn

his、vorld and thc f° reign one, l,ct、 Ⅴccn thc invcntiⅤ c Po、 vCrs and 、 vit of the author, 。n thc Onc hand, and。 f thc translat。 r, 。n thc othcr, 、 Ⅴhich is ccrtain to bring hirrl no true Plcasurc but instcad rcsult,in thc cnd,in(lizzincss and fatiguc Thc translator、 vho vvorks acc。 rding to thc othcr mcth° d, l)y contrast,is not callcd uPon t。 undcrtakc such singlc-handed transf° rmati° ns, sincc his rcader is al、vaⅤ s

v° rld and 、 vr° tc in to rcmain a、 varc that thc author liⅤ ed in anothcr 、

an° ther t。 nguc

Hc is bound。 nly to thc adn1ittcdly difscult art of suPplying this knowIcdge of the忆 reign world by the swiRcst,m。 st eⅢ Caci° us mcans,whilc aⅡ 。、 ving

thc grcatcr lightncss and naturalncss of thc°

where These t、

,°

riginal t° shine thr° ugh eⅤ eryˉ

v cXamPlCs taken Ⅱom thc hrthcst reachcs。 f science and art sh° 、

0N THE DIF阝

ERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING

61

clcarly ho、 v littlc thc truc goal° f all translation,thc fullcst possil)lc unadultcratcd

cnjoymcnt of forci8nw° rks,can bc achicvcd through a method that insists on brcathing into thc translatcd、 Ⅴ°rk thc spirit of a languagc foreign to it. NIorc。 vcr, cⅤ ery languagc has its o、 vn charactcristic fcaturcs, including thc rhythms of its cll as its P° ctry,and ifthc sction is to be Put f° rth that thc author了 Pr。 SC as、 Ⅴ als° haⅤ c 、 vrittcn in the languagc of thc translat° r, onc、 vould haⅤ c t° makc

night

hirn

aPPCar in the rhythms° f this language,、 vhich、 v。 uld dis⒔ gurc his、 vork cvcn morc and lirnit to a far8reater cxtcnt thc kn。、 vledgc of his particular charactcr, 、 vhich thc translation、 vas to PrcscrvC・

And in fact this丘 cti。 n,vvhich al° nc pr。 Ⅴidcs the l)asis f° r thc the° ry° f trans~ lating Ⅵ:e are at PrcsCnt considcring, gocs far bcyond the ailn 。f this cndcav° r Translation as rcgar【 lcd iom thc hrst P° int° f vicw is a mattcr of ncccssity、 r

a PCoPlC。 f、 vhom only a small numbcr are able t° acquire sufncient knovvledgc of hreign languagcs,whilc a largcr numbcr are rcctive t° the c巧 °yment。 f brcign 、 vorks, If this latter grouP could bc subsumcd cntircly into thc f° rmcr, thcn all translation 、・ oul(l bc in vain and scarcely anyonc c。 ukl bc f° und、 vho n1ight bc 、 villing to undcrtakc s° thankless a task Not s。、 Ⅳith thc scc。 nd1uethod. It has n° thing to do、 vith nccd but rathcr is the、 v° rk。 f、 vant。 nncss and Presumption EⅤ cn

vvcrc thc kno、 dcd:C° ff° rcign languagcs as、 vidcly chstributcd as possiblc and

thcir noblcst、 vorks rcadily accessible t。

any caPablC Pers° n, still it、 v。 uld remain

a Pecuhar undcrtaking,one ccrtain to dra、 v all the rn。 re cagcr listcncrs,if s。 me。 ne

w us a work by Ciccr° or Plat° ”st aS thCsc gendcmen would havc 、 vrittcn it thcmsclvcs (hrcctlⅤ in Gcrman And if s。 mcOnc Ⅵ厂 CrC tO suCCced in Pr。 miSed to sh。

achieⅤ ing this not。 nly in his o、 vn native tongue butin° nc f° reign to hi1n,、vc vvould

certainly thcn hail hhu as a grcat Inaster of the difEcult, all but imP° ssible art of making the sPirits of diffcrcnt t。 ngues interl1ainglc,But。 nc can scc that this、 n。 t be translation in the strictest sensc,and its ailn、

v。 uld

vould not be to facⅡ itate thc

oftl△ ew° rk themsclⅤ cs;rathσ ,it w。 ld bccomc m。 rc and more an imitation,and only he`Ⅴ ho had acquircd(lircct kn0、 vlcdgc of the、 vriters m° st

dl1ˉ cct

el△ l。 ymcnt

t】

in quCstion by od△ cr lucans Ⅵ广 0uld bc in a P。 Sition to c"oy such、 v。 rks。 f art,° r

。fslcight of hand And its truc ain1could bc Only to rcⅤ

cal thc sin1ilarities l)et、

vccn

diffcrcnt tongucs in thc、 vay SPCcinc CxPrcssions and phrascs rclatc t° ccrtain csscn-

。f the languagc, and, in gcncral, t° illun1inc thc language using t11c fa允 rcign mastcr,who,howcⅤ cr,has bccn cntircly cut° ″【°m and saratCd i° m his languagc As thc formcr is1nercly an artful and agrccablc pasti1nc,and thc latter bascd uPon a付 ction that、 Ⅴould be all but imPosSil)lc t° bring ab° ut,° ne can undcrstand、 vhy translation° f this s° rt is Practiced only scldom,in CxPCliments、、hich themselves sh° 、 v clcarly cnough that this1nethod is in】 Practi^ tial f辶 aturcs

distinctivc sPirit°

cablc On a large scalc Onc lnight als。 say by`vay of cxPlanati° n that° nly thc ln。

accomplishcd masteⅡ wh。 mayjudge themsekcs caPal)lC。 to VCork aCCording t°

f mc△ rⅤ d°

this n△ cthod;and。 nly thoSC arc truly justi⒔

haⅤ c alrcady Paid thCir(lucs t。

us托 ats

st

arc ablc

ed in d。 ing so vvho

thc、 v。 rld and thus can alF° rd thcmsclⅤ cs thc lcisurc

。f this cbarrning and sOmcwhat dangcrous pastimc All thc m° rc c。 mprchensiblc is it that thcsc masters who kcl thcmsdvcs caPablC° f attcmPtlng such a thing sh° uld Ⅵ ith s。 n△ c(lcgree° f Pity look doxl n uPon thC activitics° f。 ther translators, For they beheve thcmsclvcs al。 nc t。 be engaged in that Hnc and free art,、 vhcrcas s、 vork,though it

thc。 thcrs, s。 they suPPosc,stand1uuch cl。 scr t° thc intcrPrctcr’

62

FRIEDRlCH SCHLEIERMACHER

ren△ ains truc that thcy t° o arc、 Ⅴ orbng

And thesc° thcrs

t° lulHll a nccd,all)cit a rathcr11igher c〉 nc

als。 aPPcar t° thCna、 v° rthy of Pity for thc rcas。

n that thcy cxpend

far m° re lab° r and art than is rncct uPon a l° 、 vly,thanklcss task For、 vhich rcas° n thcy havc al、 vays rcady at hand the counscl that。 nc sh。 uld,Ⅴ chcnevcr Possible,haⅤ c

rccoursc to ParaPhrasc such as intcrPrctcrs cmPloy in(lifhcult, c。

ntCntious cascs,

instead of translations of this s。 rt

And 、vhat n0、v? Sh° uld `vc ad° Pt this Ⅴic、 v and Iollo、v this c° unse17 Thc ancients,itˇ ￠ ould sccn】 ,translatcd ⅤcrⅤ littlc in this1nOst authcntic scnsc,and cvcn among thc modcrns, most have bccn (lisheartcncd by the difHculties of authcntic translation and contcnt thcmsclves、 vith inìtation and Paraphrasc Who、 voukl clairn

that anything has cver bccn translatcd, Ⅵˉ hcd△ cr

fr。

n1 an ancicnt or a Gcrmanic

tonguc,into Frcnch!But wc Gcrmans,while we might willin掣 y

giè car t° such

counsel,、 vill surely not follo、 v it An inner ncccssity,in vvhich a Pccuhar calling°

。ur PC。 Plc asserts itsclf clcarly cnough,has driven us to translation cn r” is no turning l)ack,vvc l)1ust kc forgi11g on Just as it iS pcrhaPs only thr°

f

tissc;thCrc

ugh thc

・ cultivation of f° rcign Plant lifC that。 ur soil has becomc】 iChcr and m° re fcrtiIc,and °ur chmatc morc Plcasing and lllildcr, s° too do、Ⅴc feel that our langua8e, sincc °ur lòrdic lassitude Prevents1】 s fron1cxcrcising it sufsciently,can m° st Ⅴigorously vith thc n st1・ cngth 。 nly thr。 ugh c∷ xtcnsiⅤ C 、 flourish and dcveloP its °、・

forcjgn And、 vc must add t° this,it sccn1s,that our Pc° PlC9becausc of its cstCCI11 br thc brcign and its° wn me(liating naturc,may bc dcst血 cd to unite allthcjewds 1ing,as 。ff° rcign sciencc and art t。 gethcr、 vith our ovVn in our oⅥ `n languagc,forΠ it、 vcrc, a great historical、・ hole that、vill l)c prcscrvcd at the centcr and hcart of

clp of our languagc,c`cryonC`Ⅴ ill bc ablc t。 cnj° y Eur° Pe,s° that no、 v,、 ith thc】、 all thc beautiI。 l things that thc m。 st diffcrcnt agcs haⅤ c giⅤ en us as Purcly and pcrfectly as PossiblC f° r° nc、 vho is f° rcign

to thcm Indccd,this sccms to be thc

truc historical g。 al。 f translation as a、 vholc,as it is no、 v natiⅤ c to us But this goal

is served onlv bv one1ncthod of translati。 n,thc。 ne、 ve

i1・

st notcd AI・ t1【aust learn

to conquer its difHcultics,° f、 `hich、 ve havc lnadc nO sccret,to thc grcatcst cxtcnt SsiblC・ Ag° od bcginning11as been madc,but thc grcatcr Part still rcmains,Many exPcriments and cxcrciscs wiⅡ sdll havc to pavc thc Ⅵay bc凡 rc a fk:w cxccllent 、 v° rks arc achicvcd; and much that initially glittcrs、 vⅡ l thcreaRcr bc surCd l)y t oⅤ crCon1c thcsc difh~ a bcttcr The cxtcnt to、 vhiCh indiⅤ idual artists haⅤ c in pa〗・

P°

cu】 tics, in Part skil】 eⅤ cn if s°

mc° f

fully cⅤ

lesser skⅡ l

aded thcΠ 1, can bc obscrvcd in Ⅴarious cxamplcs And als° w°rk in ths丘 cld,wc wnln。 t be so佰 inthcaltcd as

fcar that great harn1rllight comc to。 ur languagc through thcir cff° rts For it must srst° f all l)c cstabhshcd that in a languagc in 、 vhich translation is practiccd °ns° largc a scale thcrc111ust bc an arca of thc language rescrⅤ cd for translati。 ns, and to them ccrtain conccssions 、 vⅡ l bc 】 lnade that、vould n。 t be to】 erated clsc~ t°

whcrc,Hc who n。 ncthclcss

t1・

ansplants such novclucs with。 ut liccnsc will丘

or11o follo、 vcrs,and ifˇ vc agrcc not to tally uP thc acc°

nd kw

unts too soon,、 ve、 vnl be

ablc to rcly on the fact that thc assin1ilating l)1・ ocCss0f the language

、ill cast °ut cvcrything that、 vas takcn uP 。nly to ful⒔ ll a tcmporary nccd and is n° t truly in accordance、Ⅴith its naturc C)I1thc Othcr hand,、 vc lnust not fail t。 rcahze that rnuch vas dcvel° Pcd, °r rcstorcd from in our languagc that is bcautiful and str。 ng 、 Ve sPeak to° little and engagc in rclatiⅤ ely too °bhvion,° nly throu8h translati。 n 、 n1uch idle chattcr;and it cannot bc dcnicd that for s°

n△

e tirne n0、 v

cvcn0ur rnanncr

oN THE DIFFERENT METHODs OF TRANsLATING °f、vriting has(lisPlayCd this tcndcncy t。

far t。

has c。 ntributcd not a littlc to Pr。 moting

comcs、 vhcrcin vvc have a pubhc life that、。f

ru° rc

63

o grcat an cxtcnt_ and translation

a morc rigorous stylc WhCn thc tilnc vill giⅤ c

us, on thc°ne hand, as。 cicty

substancC morc attcntiⅤ e to languagc and, on thc Othcr, a frccr spacc for

thc talcnts。 f the sPcaker t° unR)ld,then vvill、 vc PcrhaPs haⅤ c lcss nccd of tlâns~ lati。 nf° r

the dcvclopn1ent of our language And may this tirne arrivc bcf° rc Ⅵ=c

haⅤ e c。 mc full circle in° ur survcⅤ of thc translator’ s traⅤ ails!

Notes This was,on thc wh。 le,thc condition。 fthc Gern△ ans at the ti1ne° f which G° cthc cl。 qucntly says that Pr° sc translati° ns,cⅤ en of Poctic、 vorks,and thcsc

、厂 ill

al、 Ⅴ aΥ

s havc to bc more or lcss ParaPhraScS, arc morc bcncscial for

cducating young PcoPlc,and thus far I can agrcc、

vith hirn cntircly;R)r in such

an agc forcign litcraturc Can bc madc comPrChCnsit)lc Only in its substancc,

and thcrc cannot Ⅴct bc anⅤ ackn。 wlcdgcmcnt of its mctrical and musical Ⅴaluc Yct I cannot bchcⅤ c that cⅤ cn now Voss’ s H。 mcr and Schlcgcl’

s

ShakcsPcarc Sh° uld scrⅤ c 。nly for thc cntcrtainmcnt of thc lcarncd among thcmsclvcs;and ju哎 as htdc that c、 :cn today a Prosc translation° f Homer n1ight aid in Pro1n。 ting tastc and an acsthctic scnsibⅡ ity;rathcr,thcrc should

ung and 。ld a 、 Vc PCrhaPs d。 not yct Possess; v nothing that n1ight Pr° 丘tably bc includcd, bct、 vccn thcsc t、 Vo, I kn。、

bc f° r childrcn an adaPtation like Becker’ s, and for adults y。

1nctrical translation such as, to be surc,

lSchlciCrmachcr is rc、 rring to Gocthc’ sc° mmcnts on translation in his autobiograPhical w。 rk D1cJlrunf und I9hJlrllciF (Po召 F-Ⅰ ` dnc/ Trurll丿 For an Enghsh translauon。 f thcsc c。 mments,scc Lckverc1992a:74-75Johann H。 nrich

1826)publi曲 cd translati。 ns of Homcr’ sJ为 dd(1793)and O￠ ”s⒐ (1781)in hcxamctcr verse~an unPrecCdcnted kat in Gcrman ThcⅤ werc

V° ss(1751—

much cliscussed,丘 rst、 vi(lcly laudCd butlater reviled August、 Vilhclrn schlcgcl

(1767— 1845)tranSlatcd scvcntccn of shakesPcarc’

s Plays,all but° nc bct、 vccn

1796and1800,Trans l IFrCdCrick II of Prussia (1712— 1786), kn° 、/n as Frederick the Grcat, vvas raiscd sPcaklng only French at the、 Ⅴill。 f his father,Fredcrick William I,and

c a grcat amatcur of Poctry and PhilosoPhy 、/oltairc 、 vas a frcquent gucst of his at sanssouci Casdc° utsidc Potsdam Trans】 bccan△

[schlcic1ˉ

machcr himsclf tlanslatcd the collected w。 rks of Plato into Gcrman

His translati。

ns were PubliShcd betwccn1804and1828 Trans】

Chaρ ter 5

JOhan"WoIfgangˇ On Goethe

TRANsLATIONS Tra/,s/aFed by S/larc,l,S/oa/,

t;`「

TT拄 PurP°

i佥 l几 sC・

1I;y三 r`:Vl犭

:淋

冱拄

Prose in and ofitsclf serves as thc bcst introducti°

i帮 r找尤 l喋

n:it comPlCtcly neutral~

sort of P。 ctic art and rcduccs cvCn thC mOst Ⅴatcr Thc plain PrOsc translation cxuberant、 vavCs of Poetic cnthusiasn1 to still 、 izcs thc formal charactcristics of anⅤ

surPrises us、ith⒒ )reign sPlend° rsin the n1idst of our national d° lncstic scnsibility; in our cⅤ eryday livcs,and、 vithout our rcahzing Ⅵ:hat is haPPcni11g to us— —by lcndin: our liⅤ cs

a noblcr air~it genuincly uphRs us Luther’

this kind。

feⅨ定ct

s Biblc translation、

vdl ProducC

ssith cach1・ cading,

″ ,`ε n had been sct in lNIuch Ⅵ ould l)avc bccn gaincd, for instancc, if the 、ibc丿【 good,sohd Prose at thc Outsct,and labclcd as P。 Pular literature Thcn thc brutal, dark, solcmn, and strangc scnSC of chivalry、 v。 uld Still haⅤ e sPokCn to us in its vcr VVhcdlcr this、 voukl still bc fcasiblc° r cⅤ en adⅤ isal,lc n0、 /is bcst dccidcd full P。、 vho have morc rigorously dcdicatcd thcmsclⅤ es t° thcsc n1attcrs of by those 、 antlquity,

A sccond och follo、 vs,in xs hich the translat。 r cndcavors to transport hirnsclf into thc forcign situation but actually only aPProPriates thc forei:n idea and rre~ scnts it as11is°

xx・

n I、 vould like t。 call such an och P夕

r°

disric,in the Purcst sensc

it wh。、cl drawn t° thc Parodistic.Thc °f that word,It is most oRcn mcn° f、・

Frcnch1nakc usc of this stⅤ lc in thc translation of all Poetic、 idC hundrcds ofcxatnPlCS・ lations Pr。 Ⅴ

1In thc samc、

nunciation,tl)cy adaPt、 Clings,tboughts,c、

允rC唿 n【 u⒒ thcre must bc a substitutc grown in thcir own soil 1819

Dehllc’ s trans-

ay t11at the French adaPt forcign ^ˉ

w or(ls to thcir Pr°

v。 rks∶

re、 cn ot● Jccts;l【 ’

・ cry

TRANsLATIONs Wicland’ s translations arc of t11is kind;2hc,t。

65

°,had his0、 vn Pecuhar under-

standing and tastc,、 Ⅴhich he adaPtCd to antiquity and forcign countrics Only to the cxtcnt that he f° und it c° nⅤ cnicnt, This suPcrb lnan can bc sccn as the rePrcscn^ tativc。 f his tiluc;hc cxcrciscd an in。 rdinatc amount ofinHucncc in that,no luattcr

、ˉ hat aPpcalcd t。 hi1n,n。 mattcr hovv hc absOrbcd and cd it on to his contcm_ P。 nriCs,it was rcccived by thcm as somcthing Plcasant and c丬 oyablc Bccause、 vc cannot lingcr for Ⅴcry long in cithcr a PerfCct or an imPerfcct state but rnust,aftcr all,undcrgo onc transformation aRcr an° thcr, 、 vc cxPerienccd thc third ° ch° f translation,、 vhich is thc⒔ nal and highest ofthe three In such Pcri° dS,

the goal of thc translation is to achicⅤ

c pcrfect identity 、 vith thc °riginal, so that

thc One d° es n。 t cxist instcad of thc。 thcr but in thc° thcr’ s Placc

This kind mct 、 Ⅴith thc m° st rcsistancc in its early stages, because thc trans~ idcnti⒔ cs s。 str。 ngly 、 vith the original that he m° re or lcss giⅤ Cs uP thc

lat。 r

vn nation,crcating this third l。 nd oftext f° rⅥ :hich the taste of uniqucncss of his。、 thc lnasses has to be dc、

cl°

Ped

At爿 rst thc Public was n。 t at all satisscd with V。 ss3(who will never bc hlly aPPrcciatcd)untd gradually thc Pubhc’ s car accustomcd itsclf to this nc、 v kind of translation and bccamc coluf° rtal)lc、 vith it N° Nxr anⅤ onc、 v11。 asscsscs the cXtent of、 Ⅳhat has haPPcncd,′Ⅴ hat Ⅴcrsatility has comc t° thc Gcrmans,、vhat rhythmical and n△ ctrical advantages arc availablc t。 thc sPirited,talcntcd bcg"1ncr,hoⅥ 广Ari。 st° and Tasso,shakcspcare and Calder。 n haⅤ c been br° ught to us tⅥ 广 0and thrcc tirncs ovcr as Gcrmanizcd f° rcigncrs,1nay hopc that litcrary history`vill oPenly ackn0、 v~ lcdgc、vho、 vas thc⒔ rst to ch° °sc this path in sPitc° f so luany and Ⅴaricd obstaclcs For thc InOst Part,thC、 v。 rks of v。 n HalrL△ rner indicate a si1nilar treatlnent of oricnta1 mastcrPiCcCs;4 hc su8gcsts that the translati。 n apProxi1natc as closCly as

PosSiblC thc cxtcrnal忆 rm ofd△ c Ori垂 nal w。 rk,H° w much morc conⅤ incing thc agcs of a translation。 f Firdausi ProⅤ c t。 bc、 vhcn ProducCd by。 ur friend hi1nself vh。 sc cxamplcs can bc rcad in thc coluparcd t。 th° sc rc、 vorkcd by an adaPt° r 、 fun句 rtlbcn s Di晶 gklring a Poet in this w叮 is,in。 ur o莎血on,thc saddcst mistake a diligcnt and quite caPable translator can lI1akc,

Sincc,ho、 vcⅤ cr,in CⅤ cry litCraturc all。 fthcsc thrcc ochs arc f° und t° rePcat and revcrse thcmsclⅤ cs, as、 vcll as cxist silalultanc。 usly, a Prose translation° f thc

刀口n,cz6and thcˇ ￠。rks of Nizan1i、 v。 uld stⅡ l bc in。 rdcr It could be used f。 ra ・ hich、。uld° Pcn up thC Csscntial lncaning of thc、 vork: 、 vc could quick rcading,`Ⅴ s乃 0乃

cnjoy thc11ist。 rical,thc lcgcndary, thc largcr cthical issucs,and、 Ⅴc vv° uld gradu~

ally bccomc%miliar with thc attitudcs and ways of thinl【

lng,until we could at last

fccl a kinship、 vith thcn△

Think。 nly of thc undisPutCd aPplausc vcc GCrmans havc attributcd t。

such

n° f thc sd大 unr口 Fd,7、 vh。 se succcss、 vc can m0St dc⒔ nitclⅤ ascril)c to its se, into、 vhich the Poem haS been dissolvcd No、 v、 v° uld be the ProPcr Plai11Pr° til,lc for a ne、・translati。 n of thc third tyPC that、 v。 uld n° t only corrcsPond t° thc a translati。

Ⅴarious dialccts,rhythn1s,ll△ ctcrs,and prosaic idioms in the original but、 voul(l in a pleasant and hmiliar manncr,rcncw thc Pocm in all of its distincti、

als°

,

:cncss ft)r

us sincc a manuscriPt of thiS Ctcrnal、 vork is aⅤ ailable in Paris, a Gcrn1an living thcrc c。 ukl carn undying gratitude f° r undcrtakin8such a、 v° rk ⒌miltarⅡ ,thC English tlanslat。 r of lfcss召 nJcr ofrhc cJouds:dcscrⅤ cs c、・ ery hon。 r, SilnPly becausc Our Hrst acquaintance 、 vith this kind 。fa、 v。 rk is al、 vays such a

Ⅵ/OLFGANG

66 JOHANN

∶ ∶耆Ⅲ1摁 (l;∫

l∶

VON GOETHE

C甜 ir丨 :ll∶

r】

∶ ∶⒒烹r`投 F紫 T\打:拈 Jl;∶

:f鼓黯苷旺忄冕磋莒 :f盛 a、

ll萑1k茔 1晏

置辇f 1【

扌烈拉镙r;攒;嘿 l;tiJl忿捶

e|扌

R:琛

Ft甜

J∶

din8

’ :i芽 ∵ ∶ `吧扌 : § 括Ψ出 Jl默莲 ∶ 扌 r∷ ∶ :L盂苫』￡・

lnatclV Comcs closc to an intcrhncar vcrsion and greatly facilitatcs our undcrsta1△

茸歪

lr捍lⅠ

and由 c unkn0、

1

l:i丨

(∶

{∶

n constantly1n° vc,is⒔ nally con1PlCtC

点 r|3浦遐宕l品 :;∵ 叫 r弑社 :,r钅。 rr鞘 l℃ 甚兮丬 1∶

:攵

∶槲鞲

:忄 1爸

l、

:氵

f∶

∶姊萎;t∷I1iJ 己∶ !∶

i}∶ {ii∶

cxametcrs

wrotc in Pcrsian,is thc author of IdlFd dn‘ :〃叫nun

7

Thc st,大 unr口

: yI:l叫 9

`tt is a versc・dran1a in Sanskrit b)the Indian Poct and dran1atist M、。n pu⒒ 违ed脉 h吵血 Ⅴσ“αd图讪 d邡 Γs 以 :r∶ 生

甜

![:甘

J。 h∶ Ff乏oIll∶ ∶

univcrsity of Jena Rˉ

:l∶

{〖

∷∶ 箝

言6。)w⒊San O1・ lcntah哎 tlt thc Jri午 1;夕 ∫

°m1817to1824

Chapter 6

Friedrich Nietzsche

TRANSLATIONS TJ/a/,s/arec/by V/a/古 er KaLlf/,,a刀刀

HE DEGREE0F THE HIsΓ

oRICAL sENsE ofm))=agC】

in宓 rred⒒ 。m thc manncrin xs'hich d1is agc makes rIdns`‘ f°

uay bc

IFions and trics t。 abs。 rb

rmcr agcs and b。 oks In thc agc of Corncillel and eⅤ cn 。f thc Revoluti° n, thc

Frcnch took P。 sscsSi° n of Roman antiquity in a、 vay for、 vhich、 vc、vould n。 haⅤ c

1°

ngcr

couragc cn。 ugh_ˉ thanks to our more highly dcⅤ cloPcd hist° rical scnsc And

Ⅱforcibly and at thc samc ti1ne ho`Ⅴ naiⅤ clⅤ it t。 ok Roman antiquity itself: h。 Ⅴ hold。

f cⅤ crythi11g

good and loRy of Grcck antlquity,which was rnorc ancicnt!I△

they translatcd thiI1gsinto thc Roman PrCSent!Ho、

o、v

v dchbcratcly and1・ ccklessly they

brushcd thc dust or thc、 :ings of tbc butter∏ Ⅴthat is callcd momc11t!Thus H° racc now and d1cn translatcd Alcacus or Archilochus;and PI・ oPcrtius did thc samc Ⅵ ith Callimachus a11d Philetas(pocts of t11c samc mnk as ThcOc1ˉ

itus,if、 `cr,,‘

XlVhat、 vas it to thclu that thc rcal crcator had expericnced this and that and、

1I・

judgc)2 vritten

thc signs of it into his P° clla?As pocts, thcy had no symPathy f° r thc andquarian inquiSitiⅤ cncss that PrCccdcs thc hist° th° sc

rical scnsc;as PoCts,thcy had no ti1nc for all

vcry Pcrs° nal things and namcs and、 vhatcⅤ er rnight be considered the costumc

and mask。 f a city, ac。 ast, or a ccntury: quickly, thcy rlaccd it、 vith、vhat、 Ⅳas ‘ ‘

contcmpora1・ y and Ro】 ηan They seclyl to ask us: sh。 uld 、、c not naakc nc、 v f° r ourselvcs、 vhatis old and⒔ nd ourselvcs iI1itP shoukl vvc not havc thc right to l9rcathc our o、vn sOul into this dcad b。 dⅤ P For it is dead after all; ho、 v ugly is cverything

dcadr9They did not knoⅥ :thc dchghts of the hist°

rical sense; ss hat、 vas past and

alicn was an embarrassment fc,r thcm;an(l bcing R° mans,thcy saw lt as an inccntivc f°

raR° n1an

conquest, Indccd, translation、 vas a forn1° fc° nqucst N。 t only

(lid° nc° n1it、 Λhat、 Ⅴ as historical;one als° added allusi。 ns to thc l冫 rcscnt

1882

and,aboⅤ c

68

FRIEDRIcH N1ETZSCH E

all,struck° ut thc namc ofthe P。 et and rePlaccd it、 vith one’ s0、 vn-ˉ not Ⅵith any scnsc of thcft but、 vith thc Ⅴcry bCSt conscicnce of the imPcrium Romdnurl,,

Editor’ s notcs

1

Thc Frcnch P° ct and dramatist Picrrc Corncillc(1606-1684)based many°

f

his plays on classical themes

2

Alcacus(c 600Bc), Archilochus (Hc 650Bc), Callilnachus (nc 26o:c), and Philctas(c 330-275BC)wcrC Greek lyllc PoctS wh。 se wⅡ ting wt△ s illlitatcd and in s。

mc cascs frccly translatcd by such Roman Pocts as Catullus,

H° racc,Ovid,and ProPcrtius The Grcek Poet ThC。

wrotc Pastoral Ⅴcrsc that、 vas in1itatcd by Vir8il

c1・

ItuS(C 310-250Bc)

s0ε 61-s0061

HE MAIN TRENDs intrans|ation theOry during this period are rooted in German "terary and ph"osophica| traditions` in ROmanticism` hermeneutics`

and existentia|phenomeno|ogy.They assume that|anguage is notsO much cOmmunicative as constitutiVe in its representation of thought and rea"ty` and so trans|a-

tion is seen as an interpretation Ⅵ/hich necessar"y reconstitutes and transforms the foreign text, N ineteenth-century theorists and practitioners "ke Friedrich sch|eiermacher and VV"he|lnn von H umbo|dt treated trans|ation as a Creative force in

、

c trans|ation strategies might serve a variety of cu|tura| and sOcia|

^/hiCh speci雨

functions` bui|ding |anguages` }iteratures` and nations。

At the start of the tⅥ /entieth

century` these ideas are rethought from the vantage point of modernist moVements XAlhiCh prize eXperiments xvith "terary form as a Ⅵ/ay of reVita"zing cu|ture, Trans|ation is a focus of theoretica| specu|ation and forma| innOvation,

An innportant assulmption in this deve|opment is the autonOmy Of trans|ation` its status as a text丨 n its oⅥ/n right`derivative but nonethe|ess|ndependent as a、 Λ /ork of cat丨。n。 In VVa|ter Benjamin′ s1923essay(induded

in this vo ume)à trans

(t/be'/ebe/,) of the foreign text` enacting an interpretation that is informed by a history of reCeption (、、 the age of its fame″ |ation participates in the \\after"fe〃

)。

This interpretation does

丨 more than transnη it messages氵 it recreates the va|ues that accrued to the fore丨 gn teXt OVer t"me. And insofar as the "nguistiC differences of this teXt are s丨 gnaHed in the trans|ating |anguage` they u|tirnate|y cOnVey a ph"o冖

\pure |anguage`″ sophica| cOncept` 、

a sense of how the \′ mutuaHy exc|usive〃

differences among |anguages coexist Ⅵ/ith\\Comp|ementary〃 intentions to Communicate and to refer` intentions that are dera"ed by the differences. FOr Benjamin`

、 \harmony/′ trans|ation offers a utopian vision of 丨 inguistic

72

19oos-1930s This speculative approach is|inked to a particu|ar discursive strategy The pure

|anguage is re{eased in the trans|ation through "tera"sms` especia"y in syntax`

which resu t in departures from current standard usage Benjamin is reViving Sch|eier|η acher′ s notion of foreigniz"η g trans|ation`wherein the reader of the trans-

|ated text is brought as c|ose as possib|e to the foreign one thrOugh c|ose renderings

Benjamin quotes Rudo f Pannwitz′ s|ike-

that transform the trans|ating|anguage。

minded cOm|mentary on the German trans|ation tradition` 、 Ⅳhich cOmp|ains about trans|ations that \、 germanize hindu greek eng"sh instead of hinduiz丨 ng grecizing an9"cizing german〃

(PannⅥ tz 1917∶ 240氵 trans. JOhn Z"COsky), Pannks/itz sees /丨

trans|ation as an experimenta| |iterary practice`xVhere the trans|ator\、

must broaden

_just as Pannwitz′ s oWn rose ρ tampers ltlith con∨ entiona| Ger man syntax` caρ ita"zation` and punctuation.

and deepen his oWn|anguage with the foreign one〃

Ezra Pound′ s trans|ation theories and practices share the Gernη an interest in ηost|y unfavorab|e connments on German poetry "terary experimenta"sm. His for rare`丨 nonethe|ess丨 nc|ude praise Rudo|f BOrchardt′ s innovative version of Dante`llvhich

begins to appear in 1908 (POund 1934∶

55), BOrChardt′ s use of archaiC German

/ith another thirteenth-century Ita"an poet` dia|ects resemb|es POund′ s oⅥ/n\Ⅳ ork、 Λ Guido Cava|canti。 In the 1929 essay reprinted here` POund sees arGhaism as a discursive strategy that m丨 ght go some l/。 ay toⅥ /ard ing the "terary and histor丨

ca| differences of Cava{canti′ s Ita"an.

The exρ eriment ansⅥ/ers to Pound′ s search for a sty"stic eq uiVa|ent Or ana|ogue` \、

/eight about equa|to that of the origina|.〃 a verba|、、

the trans|ation discourse he chose for Cava|canti-′

But he is perfect|y aware that ′ pre¨ E"zabethan〃

E ngIish poetry

_ doesn′ t llnatch nnedieva| Tuscan in any Chrono|ogica| sense。

冂冂η e re|ation POund

estab"shes betxveen his trans|ations and the foreign text is partia|` both 丨 ncOmp|ete \We are preserving one va|ue of ear|y Ita"an and s|anted tovAlard What interests him 、、 Ⅳork`〃 he observes of one rendering`

、、 the Cantab"e.〃

In POund′ s VieⅥ /` the autonomy of trans|ation takes tⅥ /o forms A trans|ated 、 text might be、 interpretive`〃 a critica|′ 、 accompanirnent/〃 usuaHy printed next to the fOreign poem and cOmposed of linguistic peCu"arities that direCt the reader across the page to foreign textua| features` |ike a |exiGa| choice or a prosodic effect. Or a trans{ation might be\\orig丨

na|、 Λ /riting`″ in xVhich "terary\、 standards″ in the trans-

|ating cu|ture guide the relA/r丨 ting of the foreign poenη so decisive|y asto seem a′

、 neⅥ /

poem′ ′in that|anguage.The re|ation bet、 Λ /een the txA/o teXts doesn′ t disappear氵 just masked by an"usion of origina|ityà丨 though in target angua9e ,

it is

POund′ s standards are lmodernist丿

they inc|ude phHOsoρ hica| and poetic va|ues

"ke pOsitivism so he trans|ates recOver foreign poetries that might and|inguistic advance these precision.And va|ues in En9"sh。 POund′ sto experimenta| versions of

Cava|canti cha"enge previous Eng"sh attempts`

∨ictorian trans|ations、、 /hiCh seem

、 obfuscated〃 by pre-Raphae"te medieva"sm He a|so Ⅵ/ants to invigorate to h"m 、 \six centuries of derivative conVention and the Eng"sh |anguage by Overco|η ing the 、

have Obscured the exact CanCes 0f such phrases as∶ 〃 (Anderson 1983∶ 12), death of the heart/and、 The departure of the sou′ |oose usage Ethat彐

Trans|ation theory and practice in the ear|y t、 tⅥ

、 The

^/entieth century are marked by

/o cOmpeting tendencies∶ on the one handà forma"st interest in techniqueùsua"y

1900s-1930s

73

expressed as innovative trans|ation strategies that match neⅥ / interpretations of foreign texts氵 and On the other hand` a strong funct|ona"s nη

` a reCurrent yoking of

trans|ation projects tO cu|tura| and po"tica| agendas, During the 192os A/artin Buber and Franz Rosenz、 Λ /eig hope tO cOntribute to a renaissance Of German Jewish

Cu|ture through a c|ose rendering of the Hebrew Bib|e that eVokes the Ora| qua"ty of the Hebrellv。 To distinguish the丨 r Jelvish reading of the text from the nuency of Luther′ s Christian Vers丨 on`they deviate from standard usage`not on丨

ing the syntax of their German` but a丨 (e.g, Buber′

s\、 Le丨 tlvorte`〃

y by Hebraiciz-

so by inserting archaisms and sty"st丨

c devices

comparab|e to the modernist technique of creating recur\\|eitmotifs〃

rent patterns in a wOrk of art∶

).

NOt every of these tendencies is enthusiastic` even XlVithin the German

tradition In 1925 the phi|osopher Kar|

∨oss|er argues that trans|ation is instru-

menta| in the preservation and deve|opment of nationa| |anguagesèspecia"y high|y |iterary projects|ike BOrchardt′

s experimenta r,eu古

sC沟 e

Da刀古 e`Where\、 the sense of

|anguage produces its fna| and rarest nox/vers〃 (∨ oss|er 1932∶ 177), But ∨oss|er a|so sees an、 \aesthetic imperia|ism〃丨 n these projects which casts doubt on their c|aims tO the fore丨 gnness of the foreign text in the trans|ating |anguage. 、 \are the The artisticaHy perfect trans|ations in a nationa| |iterature`〃 \、

he xlvrites`

means by Ⅵ√ hich the|inguistic genius of a nation defends itse|f against What is foreign by cunning|y stea"ng fronl it as |η uch as possib|e〃 (LefeVere 1977∶ 97). In the German tradition` foreignizing strategies are intense|y nationa"stic` a fortincati。 n

of the |anguage against such forces as French cu|tura| dominat|on during the N apo|eonic、 Ⅳars, ∨oss|er recOgn丨 zes that imperia"sm might be the dark underside

of trans|ation driven by a Vernacu|ar nationa"sm. MOre cOnserVatiVe theorists who reject sty|istica y innovat|Ve trans ations stⅢ irnagine a sOcia|function for trans|ating。

In Hi|aire Be"oc′

s1931Tay|orian|ecture

since the at Oxford` \\any hint of foreignness in the trans|ated version is a b|emish″ 、 \our cu|tura| unity in the west`〃 \\soCia| irnportanCe of trans|ation〃

is to preserve

current|y threatened because \、

the tradition of Latin〃

C0lTl|mon bond of cOmprehension〃

has \\|ost its effcacy〃 as

、 \a

(BeHOc 1931∶ 9` 22).

During the 192os` the

∨HamOVV/itz-Nq。 eHendOrff urged ρh"o|ogist U|rich VOn ˇ 、、 trans|ators of c|assica| |iterature to spurn the |etter and fo"oⅥ /the spirit〃 sO as \、

to |et the anc丨 ent poet speak to us c|ear|y and in a manner as ilmmediate|y inte|-

(Lefevere 1992a∶ 34` 169). This suggests` not "gib|e as he did his olt/n time〃 the "tera"sm of inGerman trans|ation` but the freedom so esteemed in the French

and Enghsh traditions` not H0|der"n` but D′ Ab|ancOurt` Dryden` and N冂 attheⅥ / Arno|d. In ˇ ∨ s Case` c|arity and inteHigib"丨 ty are important because he "amoxvitz′Of the \\Greek idea|′ ′can \\check the mora| and spiritua| fee|s that trans|ations dec"ne our nation is moving toⅥ /ard〃

(ibid。

∶167).

ter JOrge Luis BOrges`these theoretica| issues undergo

ˇ ∨ith the Argentine、 ^/r丨

a subt|e and incisiVe deve|opment. H is1935essay on the trans|ators of the^rabà/l /V`9/,古 s(reprinted

here) shows that |iterary trans|ations produce varying represen-

tations Of the same foreign text and cu|ture/ and their

、、 veracity〃 or degree of

equiVa|ence is ah^/ays in doubt` regard|ess of their ilnpact or innuence, AntOine Ga"and′ se丨 ghteenth-century Vers丨

on is \′ the

|east faithfu1〃

but \、

the most|y、 ^/ide|y

74

19oos-1930s

read〃

for the next two hundred years。

Such facts of trans|ation are not to be

丨 amented` holA/eVer` but ce|ebrated` studied historica"y` and interrogated for their ideo|ogica| imp"cations, BOrges argues that \、

it is

匚 the trans|ator′ s彐 innde"ty` his

happy and creative innde"ty/that must matter to us,〃 Of course` not a" in品 de"ties are equa| tO BOrges In his deta"ed discussion of the different trans丨 ations` he performs ideo|ogica| critiques that exρ

ose their invest-

ment in various cu|tura| va|ues and po"tica| interests` Orienta"st and anti-selllitic` mascu"nist and puritanica|`midd|e-c|ass and acadenη

ic. His approach is exemp|ary∶

he ana|yzes textua|features`such as|exicon and syntax`prosody and discOurseànd exp丨

ains thenn 、

s

、 \|iterary habits″

and the "terary

^/ith reference to the trans|ator′ traditions丨 n the trans|ating丨 anguage BOrges nnOst appreciates trans|ations that are kAlritten \\in the

Ⅵ/ake of a "terature〃

and therefore \\presuppose a rich (prior)

prOcess.〃 This|eads him to va丨 ue\\heterogeneous〃 tion〃

g|orious hybridiza|anguageà、、

that mixes archaism and s丨 ang` neo|ogism and foreign borroⅥ /ings. ˇ ∨hat he

misses in a scho|ar|y German trans|ation is precise|y the foreignizing impu|se of the ROmantic tradition` \\the Germanic distortion`the t/l,l,e|m″ chke`古 of /′ At the end of the1930s`trans|ation is regarded as a distinctive |inguistiC practice` \\a|iterary genre apart`〃

、、、

`/ith its oⅥ

vllrites the Spanish ph"osopher Joso Ortega y Gasset/

/n norms and its oxA/n endS〃 (Ortega y Gasset1992∶ 109) It attracts

the attention of |eading

Ⅵ/riters and thinkers/ "terary cr|tics and ph"o|ogists。

It

becomes the topic of scho|ar|y monographs that surVey trans|ation theory and praCtice in particu|ar periods and|anguages(e。

Amos1920` Allatthiessen1931` Bates

9。

1936). And it generates a range of theoretica| issues that are st"| debated today, 、 In 1937 0rtega takes up these issues |n 、 The M丨 sery and the sp|endor of Trans|ation`〃 a str丨 king phHOsOphica| dia|ogue that argues for the GOntinu丨

importance of the German trans|ation tradition, The \、

ng

m isery〃 of trans|ation is its

impossib"ity` because of 丨 rreducib|e differences 、、 /hich are not on|y "nguistic` but Cu|turaìncommensurabi|ities that stem from、 \different menta|ρ ictures`from 、 The 、 sp|endor″ of trans|ation 丨 s its manipu|ation 、、 of these differences to force the reader from his "nguistic habits and ob"ge him disparate inte"ectua丨

systems,〃

、 foreign彐 author″ (Ortega y Gasset 1992∶ 108) FOr to move 、 /ithin those of the 匚 Orte9a` trans|ating is usefu| in cha"enging the comρ |acenc丨 es of cOntemporary cu|ture because it fosters a\\historiCa|consCiousness〃 the mathernatica| and phys丨

ca| sciences。

de9ree that they are dissimi|ar to us`〃

\、

(ibid∶

(ibid∶

110)that is|acking in

ˇ ∨e need the ancients preCise|y to the 111) he xlvrites`so that trans|ating can

introduce a critiGa| difference into the present。

Further reading Benjamin 1989` B|anchot 1997` Jacobs 1975` KeHy 1979` Krista1 2002` N ouss ∨enuti 1995 1997` ReiChert1996/ Robinson 1991` Steiner1975`

Chapter 7

Waker Be丬 amin THE TASK OF THE TRANSLATOR∶

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRANSLATION OF BAUDELAIRE′ S Γ/⒋ ￡ 3LE/⒋ t/XP/⒋ fPfSf￡F/VS Trz刀 s/a‘ ed

by〃 arry

zo/l刀

eJ上 1[∶lJ∶ l:)c、 l`∶暹 FJJ∶ l1∶ :Jt浔 ;.\、:土品1∶ 丨 |;l:1FΙ Ι ∶F∶ ∶:l∶ 去

l∶

or its rrcscntatiⅤ cs rnisleading,but cⅤ cn thc conct ofan“ idcar’ rcccivcr is dctri-

mcntal in thc thcorctical considcration of art,sincc all it P°

sitS iS thc cxistcncc and

naturc of l1,an as such Art, in thc samc、 vay, Posits lnan’ s Physical and sPiritual cxistcncc,but in n° ne。 f its、 v。 rks is it conccrncd、 Vith his rcsPonsc, No Pocnn is intendcd for thc rcadcr,n。

Picturc for thc l)eholder,n。 symPhony fc)r thc listcncr Is a translati° n meant f。 r rcadcrs 、 vho d。 n° t undcrstand the ori:inal? This

Ⅵ:。 uld scclm to cxPlain adequately the divergence° f thcir standing in the rcaln△ °f art M° rcOvcr,itsccms to be the° nly concciⅤ ablc rcason for saying“ thc samc thing” ‘ rCatCdly。 For 、 vhat does a litcrary 、 vork‘ say” P What d。 cs it con△ n1unicat It ‘ ‘ ’ tclls’ Ⅴ cry littlc to th。 sc、 vho undcrstand it, Its cssential quahty is n。 t statcmcnt or thc imparting of in忆 rmation Yet any translau。 n whch htcnds t。 Pcrbrm a transIlaitting function cannot transrllit anything l)ut inf° rmati° n-ˉ hencc,sonrlcthing inesscntlal,This is thc hallmark of bad translati° ns Butd。、 Ⅴc not gcncrally rcgard as thc csscntial substancc° f a litcrarⅤ 、 vork、 vhat it c° ntains in additi° n to information as cⅤ cn a Poor translator、 vill adn1it__thc unfath° mable,thc rnystcrious,thc “ Poetic/’ Somcthing that a translat° r can rr° ducc。 nly if hc is als° aP。 et?This, actually,is thc causc。 f anothcr charactcristic of infcrior translati° n,、 vhich conscqucntly vvc rnay dcHne as the inaccuratc transrnission of an incsscntial contcnt This vill bc true、 vhcncvcr a translation undertakes t° scrvc thc rcader, H° 、、 vc、 Cr,if it

、 Ⅴcrc intended f° r thc rcader,thc same、 vould have to aPPly t° thc。 rigina1,If the 1923

76

Ⅵ/ALTER

BENJAMIN

original d。 es n。 t cxist for thc rcadcr’ s sakC,h。、 vc。 uld the translation bc undcr~ st。 ° d° n

thc basis。 f this Prcn1isC?

Translatlon is a rnode To c。 mPrChCnd it as rnodc° nc rnust g。 back t。 the° rigˉ inal, f° r that c。 ntains thc la、 v 8° Ⅴ erning the translation∶

its translatabⅡ ity, The v° rk is translatable has a dual meaning. Eithcr∶ Will an qucstlon °f、 vhcther a 、 adcquatc translat° r cⅤ cr bc f° und am。 ng thc totahty ofits readcrsP Or,rnorc pcrtincntly: Does its naturc lcnd itsclf t。 translati° n and, thcreforc, in vic、 v of thc signiHcancc。 fthc m° dc, call for itP In I)rinciPlc,thC hrst questi。 n can bc dccidcd only contingcntly; thc sccond, ho、 vcⅤ cr, aPodictically only suPerscial dainking v√ ill dcny thc indcndent meaning of the lattcr and declarc both qucstions to be

of cqual signiHcancc

It should be Pointcd out that ccrtain correlative concts

rctain thcir n△ eaning, and possibly thcir forcmost cancc, if thcy arc rcfcrrcd

cxclusivcly t° man, ()nc n1ight, for cxamPlc, sPCak of an unf° rgcttablc hfc 。r 1nomcnt cVcn if all mcn had f° rgotten it If the nature of such a lifc Or momcnt rcquircd that it bc unforgottcn, that Predicatc Ⅵ广 0uld not irnPly a falschood

but lncrcly a clain1n。 tR】 lnllcd by mcn, and probably als。

a referencc to a rcahn

in 、 vhich it 1s ful丘 lled: God’ s remcmbrancc Analogously, the translatability of linguistic crcations ought to bc considcrcd evcn if n△ latc then△

Given a strict conct of translation,、

cn should proⅤ e unable to trans_

v。 uld

thcy n° t rcally bc translatablc

to sOn1e dcgre Thc qucsti° n as to 、 vhcthcr thc translation

°f ccrtain linguistic u8ht iS Ⅴahd here∶ If translation is a modc,translatabⅡ ity must be an csscntial fcaturc° f certain、 vorks Translatability is an csscntial quahty of ccrtain、 Ⅴorks,、 vhich is n° tt° say that creations is called f° r ought to bc PosCd in this sense For this th°

it is csscntial that thcy bc translated; it mcans rathcr that a sPeciJ⒈ iic cancc inhcrcnt in thc Original manifcsts itsclf in its translatability, It is Plausil)lc that no

translation,h° 、 vcⅤ er good it rnay l冫 c,can havc any Signihcancc as rcgards thc Origˉ inal, Yct, by Ⅴirtuc of its translatability thc original is cl° scly connected Ⅵ1th thc translation;in fact,this conncction is all thc closcr sincc it is no longcr。 fimP。 rt~ ancc to thc original a

Ⅴ itd

、 Vc rnay call this connection a natural onc,。

r,rnorc sPcci丘 caⅡ y,

connccuon.Just t・ S the mamkstati。 ns of hfc arc indmatdy connectcd with

the Phen° menon of hfc、 vithout being° filnportance to it,a translation issues from thc。 h垫 nal-not s。

muCh△ 。m its hk as△ 。m its aRedik F° ra订 ansl敲 i° n comes nd

latcr than thc Original,and sincc the ilnPortant、v。 rks of、v° rld litcraturc ncver⒔ thcir ch。 scn translators at thc thnc ofthcir。

rigin,their translation1narks their stagc

°fc° ntinucd lifc Thc idea。 f hfe and aRcrhfc in、 v。 rks of art with an entirely unmetaPhorical° bjccdⅤ ity EⅤ cn in umcs。 f

sh°

uld bc rcgardcd

narr。 w|Pr句 udicCd

thought therc、 vas an inkhng that lifc、 vas n。 t lirnitcd to organic corPorcahty But it cannot bc a rnatter of cxtcnding its don1ini。 n undcr the feeb1c sctCr ofthc s° ul,

as Fcchner tricd t° d° , °r, c。 nvcrscly, of l)asing its dcnniti。 n 。n thc cvcn lcss conclusiⅤ e factors。 f anin△ ahty,such as scnsation,、 vhich charactcrizc lifc Only。 cca~

sionally.Thc concePt° its o、 vn,and

f hfC is giⅤ en its cluc only if eⅤ crything that has a hist°

is not rnercly thc sctting for hist。

ry of ry,is credited、 vith lifc.In thc hnal

analysis,thc rangc()f hfc rnust bc dctcrn1incd by hist。

°f all by such tcnu。 us

fact。

ry rathcr than by naturc,lcast

rs as scnsation and soul,Thc PhilosoPhcr’ s task c° nsists

in comprchcnding all of natural life thr°

ugh thc more cncoming life of history

And indecd, is n° t thc continucd lifc。 f、 vorks of art far casier to rccognizc山

an

the continual liF辶 Of anin1al sPcciCsP The hist° ry of the grcat、 vorks of art tclls us

THE TASK OF TH∈ TRANsLATOR

77

ˉantcccdents, thcir rcahzation in thc agc of thc a1・ tist, thcir P。 tentiaⅡ y 、 Vhcre thjs last n1anifcsts itself,it is callcd ctcrnal aRcr"fc in succcCding gcncrations hmc TraI1slations that are morc than Jal、 smissions of subicd mattcr comc into being、 vhcn in the coursc of its surⅤ ival a、 vork has 1・ cac11ed thc agc ofits famc, Contrary, theref° rc, to tbc clailns 。f bad translat° rs, such translations do not so al)。

ut thci】

much scrxc t11e Work as oxxe thcir cxistcncc to it Thc l"、

of thc oH要 nals att缸 ns

iI1thcn1to its ever-renc、 vcd latCst and mOst abundant n°、 vcri118

Bcing a sPccial and high for1n。 f lif辶 , this Πo、veri11g is govcrncd by a spccial, ˉ high Purposivcncss Thc rclati° nshiP bct、 ′ cCn lifC and PurP° sefulncss, scCn△ ingly 。bⅤ i。 us yCt al1nOst bcyond the grasp of the intellcct,rcⅤ cals itsclf only if thc ultimatC Purposc to、・ ard、Vhich all singlc functions tcnd is sOught not in its oⅥ n sPhere butin a highcr onc All PurP° Scft11rnanifestations oflifc,including thcir vcry PurP° ~ sivcncss, in thc⒔ nal analysis haⅤ c thch・ end n° t in lifc,but in thc cxPressi。 n ofits nature, in thc rrcscntation of its signiHcance Translation thus ulti1natcly serⅤ cs the Purposc of exPrcssing thc ccntral reciProcal rclati。 nshiP bct、vccn languagcs It cannot Possibly rcvcal or estabhsh this hi(ldcn relati°

nsh")itsCl凡 but it can rre~

cahzing it in cn1bryonic or iI1tcnsivc form T11is rrcsCntation of isil)lc is °fs° hidden signiicancc through an cn1bry。 nic atten△ pt at n1akiI】 g it 、 sent it by 1・

singular a naturc that it is rarcly met`Ⅳ

id1in the sPhCrc of n° nhnguistic lifc This,

in its analogics and symbols, can draⅥ /on other、 vays of suggcsting mcaning than intensive-— that is,anticiPatiⅤ C,inti1natin8 -reahzation,As f° r thc positcd central

kinshiP° f languages,it is11narked by a disti11ctiⅤ c convergcncc Languages arc not strangers to onc anothcr,but arc,a Priori and aPart9orn all11istorica】 rclationshiPs, inter1ˉ

clatcd in vvhat thcy lsˉ ant to cxPress

Wid△ this attemPt哎

an cxplication our sttldy aPPears t。

r㈣ oln,aRcr

htile

dctours, thc traditi。 nal thcOry of translation If thc kinship of languagcs is to bc

nc but by conveying thc form ˇ and lneaning of thc o1・ iginal as accuratcl)as P。 ssiblc?To bc surc,that the° ry、 ould

dcm。 nstrated by translations,hovv clsc can this be d。

bc11ard Put tO dCnnc thc11ature of this accuracy and thcrcF。

rc c。 uId shcd11°

light

Cvcr,thc kinshiP of languages °n、 vhat is important in a translation, Actually,h° Ⅵ厂 is br° u8ht()ut by a translati°

n far1norc Profoundly and clearly than im thc suPcr⒔

~

v0rks of literaturc To grasp tl△ c gcnuinc cial and i11dc丘 nablc shunarity 。f tⅥ ・ o 、 rclatlonshil)bct、 vcCn an original and a translation rcquircs an inⅤ gous t。 thc argumcntation by `vhich a critiquc of cognition、

:°

cstiε ation

ukl have t°

analol)lˉ

oⅤ c

thc in1possibdity° f an iluagc thcory T11e1ˉ c itis a n△ atter of sh。、 ving that in c° gnition thcⅡ could bc no objediⅤ ity,not evcn a daim to k,if k dcalt with images of rcahty;hcrc it can be de】 nonstratcd that no translati。 n、vould bc P° ssiblC if in its ultin1atc csscncc it strove f° r likcness to thc °riginal For in its aRerhfe~

、 vhich

could n。 t bc callcd tl)at if it、 vere not a transf° rmation and a rene、 val of son1cthing

、・ ords 、ith Hxcd n1caning can ・「 hc obvious tcndcncy of a、 ritcr’ s literary style luay

livi11g ~ the original undcr思 oCS a changc Evcn undcrgo a rnaturin{::ProcCss

in tiluc 、 vither a、 :ay, 。nly to giⅤ c rise to hnmanent tcndcncics in the htcrary

、 Ⅴhat 、 vas oncc crcation What sOundcd flesh oncc may sound hackncycd later; current rna〉 somcday sound quaint T。 scck thc cssence of suCh changcs, as vvell as thc cqually constant changcs in mcani11g, in the subicctiⅤ ity of Postcrity rad1cr than in thc、 cry lifc of langua8c and itS、 vorks,、 voul(ln1can~ even allo、 ving l。 r the crudcst I)sych。 logism~to confuSe thc1・ oot causc of a thin思、 vith its Csscncc.More

78 WALTER BENJAMIN Pertinently,it、 vould mcan dcnying,by an imP。 tCncc of thought,one ofthe n1ost po、 vcrful and fruitful historical Pr° cesses

last strokc of the Pcn int°

thc ccluP d召

And even if。 ne tricd to turn an author’

cc。 f his、 v° rk, this still、 voul(ln° t Jr犭

s

saⅤ c

that dcad thc° ry of translati。 n,F。 rjust as thc tcnor and thc signiicance。 f the grcat ss Orks

。f litcraturc undcrgo a con1Pletc transforluati° n ovcr the ccnturics, thc 厂、 11ilc a P。 ct’ S、Ⅴ 。rds endurc 、

n10thcr t。 nguc oft11c translat° r is transforn1cd as vvcll i11his o、 vn

langua8e,e′ en thc grcatcst t1・ al)slati。 n is(lcstincd to bec° mc Part ofthC

gro、 vd1ofits。

、 vn language and cvcntuaⅡ

is so far rcn△ ovcd fr。

y t°

be absorbcd l)Ⅴ its rcnc、 val Translati°

n11)cing the sterile cquation。

ft、 vo

n

dcad languages that of all

hterary forms it is thc Onc chargcd Ⅵ:id1thc sPecial rnission of、 vatching ovcr the maturing Process of thc Original languagc and thc birth Panε s of its0、 vn If thc kinshiP °f languagcs manifcsts itsc】 f in traI1slati° ns, this is not accornPhshCd thr° ugh a Ⅴaguc ahkcncss bct、 vccn adaPtation and()riginal It that kinshiP docs not ncccssarⅡ y involvc likcness Thc c° nct of hcrc is in accord、 vith its rnOre restricted con11non usagc:in b。 th bc dc⒔ ncd adcquatcly by idcntity of origin,although in dc‖ ning thc

usage thc concePt。 f° ri8i11rCmains indisPcnsablc・ of t、 v。

stands to rcason

kinshiP as usCd cascs, it cannot m° rc rcstricted

Whcrcin rcsklcs thc rclatcdncss

languagcs,aPart frorn hist。 ical considcrations7Ce1ˉ tainlv not in t11e silnilar1・

Ⅴords Rathcr, all suPrahist° rical kinshil, of Vorks of litcrature or 、 vccn 、 languagcs rcsts in thc intention undcrlying cach language as a、 Ⅴhole ˉan intcntion, hich is rcahzcd()nly by ho、 vcver,、vhich n。 single languagc can attain by itsclf but、 Ⅴ itv bct、

thc totahty of thcir intcnti。 ns supplcmcnting cach od△ cr:Purc indiⅤ

language WhⅡ e

all

idual clcmcnts oF forcign languagcs- “ords,sentences,structurc_ are mutu-

ally exclusive,these languages suPPlement onc another in thcir intcntions X/Xlithout (listinguishing the i11tendcd° bject ion1t11em。 dc° f intcntioI),no⒔ basic la、 v

“

rm εrasP

oftllis

vords Bror and`口 of a PhilosoPhy °f languagc can bC achicⅤ cd. Thc 、

ct,but thc intcnd” thc same obj〈 ⒉ o、 :ing to these modcs that thc w。

jn

modcs° f this intcntion arc not the same It is 1・

(l Broε

mcans sOmcthing ch∏ trcnt t° a German

ords arc not intcrchangcable for than thc vv° rd PcIin t。 a Frenchman, that thesc、 Ⅴ thcn1, that,in fact, thcv st1・ iⅤ C to cxcludc cach othcr As to thc intcndcd objcct, ho、 vcvcr, tbc t、 v°

、 v° rds mean thc、

er、

「、 11ile same thing 、

thc l))°

dcs° f intcntion

in thcsc tw° Words a1ˉ c in conHict,intcnJon and oblect of intcntlon complcmcnt ccach of tl△ c two languagCs分 om which tl△ ey arc der卜 ed;thcrc tllc° 匀ed iS c° mPlc mcntarⅤ to thc intcntion,In thc individual,unsuPPlCmcntcd languages,1ncaning is ne、 er Found in rclative indendcnce,as in indiⅤ idual、 v。 rds Or scntcnccs;rather, it is i11a constant statc・

of flux-until it is ablc t° emergc as Pure languagc frona thc

harluonv oF all thc、 arious luodcs of intcnti。 n until thcn,it rcn1aiI1s hiddcn in thc

languages If,ho、vc、 cr,these languagcs c。 ntinuc to gro、 v in this manner until thc cnd。 f thcir tirne,it is translation、 vhich catchcs⒔ rc on the eternal hfe of thc Ⅵc° rks and thc PcrPctual renc、 val of langua8e Translati。 n kcs Puttin8 thc halloⅥ ˉ ed gro、 vtl△ of languages to thc tcst∶

How hr rcm。 Ⅴcd

is the△

hiddcn meaning△ om

cl。 sc can it bc brought by thC kno、 vledge° f this rcm° tcness7 This,t° bc surc,is to adn1it that all translati。 n is° nly a sOnlc、 vhat Pr° visi° nal

rcⅤ elati。 n,hovv

kn instant and丘 nal rathcr 、 vay of corning to tern1s、 vith thc f° rcignness oflanguagcs 卢 than a temP° rary and ProⅤ isi° nal soluti。 n of this f° reignncss rcmains out of tbc

rcach of lnankind; at any rate, it eludcs any dirCct attcmPt Indirectly, ho、

vcⅤ er,

thc gro、vth 。f rcligions ripcns thc hiddcn sccd imt。 a higher dcⅤ cloPment of

THE TAsK OF THE TRANsLATOR

79

langua8c. Alth° ugh translati° n, unhkc art, cannot Clairn Pcrmanence for its Products,its goalis undeniably a Hnal,c° nclusivc,decisiⅤ c stagc of all linguistic creauon

vcrc It

In translation thc original riscs into a higher and Purcr linguistic air, as it、 cannot liⅤ

c thcrc pcrmancntly,t° bc surc, and it ccrtainly docs not rcach it in its

cntlrcty Yct,in a singularly imprcssiⅤ c manncr, at lcast it points thc vvay to this region∶ thc Predestincd,hithcrto inaccessiblc rcalrn° f rcconcⅡ iation amd fulhlln△ cnt

of languagcs The transfcr can ncⅤ cr be total, but、 vhat rcaches this rcgion is that elcmcnt h a translati。 n which gocs beyond transmittal° f sublect mattt・ r,This nuclcus is bcst de⒖ ncd as the clcment that d° cs not lcnd itself to translati。 n,EⅤ en vhcn all the surfacc c。 ntcnt has bcen cxtractcd and transn1ittcd, thc Pri1nary 、 conccrn ofthc gcnuine translat° r remains clusiⅤ c unhke the vv° rds of the original, it is not translatablc,bccausc thc rclati。 nshiP bctvvCen content and languagc is quite (hffcrcnt in thc original and thc translati°

n Whilc contcnt and languagc form a n

ccrtain unity in thc original,likc a6・ uit and its skin,thc languagc of thc translati°

cnveloPs itS c。 ntcnt hke a r。 yal robc、 vith amPle f° lds F° r it signi丘 cs a rn° rc cxaltcd

languagc than its o、 vn and thus rcmains unsuitcd to its c° ntcnt,ovcrPo′ vCrin8and

ahen This disjunctl。 n PrCvCnts translati° n and at thc st△ mc tirllc1nakcs it suPc1ˉ

Huous For any translauon。 fa、 vork originating in a sPecisc stage of hn:uiStic history rePresents, in rcgard to a spcci⒖ c asPcct °f itS content, translation into all othcr langua思 cs Thus translation, ironically, transPlantS the° riginal into a morc dcnni~ tiⅤ

c linguistic rcahn sincc it can no longcr be disPlaced by a sccondary rcndcring

The。 riginal can° nly bc raiscd there aneⅥ 厂and at° thcr P。 ints° f ti1nc,It is no lllcrC ‘ ‘ coincidcnce that thc 、 Ⅴord ir° nic” hcre brings thc Romanticists to n1ind Thcy,

morc than any° thcrs,wcrc giRcd with an insight int。

the li、。f hterary w。 rks 、 vhich has its hiε hest tcstimony in translation. T。 bc surc, thcy hardly rcc。 gnizcd translation in this scnse,but dcⅤ 。tcd their entirc attcntion to criticis∏ 、 another,if vorks But evcn though thc a lesscr, fact。 r in the c。 ntinued hfe 。f litcrary 、、 Ⅴritings, thcir。 ˇ vn n in tbcir thcOrctical Romanticists virtually ign。 rcd translati°

8rCat translations tcsti、

,to thCir scnse of thc csscntial naturc and thc dignity of this

hterarⅤ luodc, Thcrc is al)undant cvidencc that this scnsc is not ncCcssarilⅤ

Pron。 unccd in a PoCt;in fact,hc lnay bc lcaSt oPCn to it Not c、

most

cn litcrary history

suggcsts thc traditi° nal noti° n that grcat pocts havc bccn cn1incnt translators and

ˉ

lcsscr P° ctS haⅤ c bccn imdi± fcSrcnt translators,A nun△ 1)cr° ft11c1n° st eluincnt° ncs,

such as Luthcr,、厂。ss,and SChlcgcl,arc incomParably morc important as translators than as crcativc、 vritcrs;soluC ofthc grcat among thcrll,such as H。 ldcrhn and stc%n

George, cannot bc sirnPly subsumcd as poets, and quite particularly not if`vc 、 vn, thc task of thc translator,t° °,n△ ay bC rcgardcd as(listinct and clcarly di〔 fcrcntiatcd frolll the task °f thc poct The task of thc translat° rc° nsists in丘 nding that intcnded cffcct[JnrcnFj。 nl uPon thc languagc int° 、 Ⅴhich he is translating、 vhich pr° duccs in it thc cch。。f the。 ri~ consi(lcr thc∏ 1as translators. As translation is a mode of its°

ginal,This is a fcature of translad° n、vhich basically diffcrcntiatcs it fi° m the P° et’ vv。 rk,

s

bccausc thc cff° rt。 f thc lattcr is ncvcr(lircctcd at thc lan:uage as such, at

its totahty, but solely and iFnn1ediately at sPccisc hnguistic contextual asPccts

Ⅴ。rk unhkc a 、

of litcraturc, t1ˉ

anslation docs not ⒔nd itsclf in thc ccntcr 。f thc

languagc forcst but。 n thc outsidc facing thc、 voodcd ridgc;it calls int° cntcring, ain1ing at that single sPot

it、 vith° ut

、 vhcrc thc echO is ablc to givc, in its o、 vn

80

Ⅵ/ALTER

8ENJAMIN

languagc,thc rcⅤ crbcrati。 n ofthe、 v° rk in thc ahcn onc Not。 nly(locs thc ahn° f translation diffcr from that。 f a litcrary、 vork— it intcnds languagc as a、 vh° lc,taking an indiⅤ idual、v。 rk in an ahen languagc as a Point° f deParture~but it is a diffcrcnt eff°

rt alto8cthcr ThC intcntion of thc P° ct is sPontanCOus,pri1nary,graPhic; that

。f the translator is dcrivatiⅤ e,ulti1natc,idcational,For thc grcat rn° tif of h1tcgrating many tongues into onc truc lan8uage is at、 vork,This language is° nc in“ ・ hich the indePcndcnt scntences,works ofliterature,critical ju(lgmcnts,will nc、 cr c。 mmunicatc— —for thcy rcmain dendent on translation;but in it thc languagcs thcmsclvcs, suPPlCmcnted and rcc。 nciled in thcir rnodc of signi丘 such a thing as a languagc of truth,thc tcnsi°

cati° n,harm°

nizc If thcre is

nlcss and eⅤ en silcnt deP° sitory of the

ulti1nate truth、 vhich all thought strives for,thcn this languagc of truth is~_thc truc

language. And this

Ⅴery lan:uage, 、 Ⅴhose divinati。 n and descriPti° n is thc only n a philosoPhCr can hoPe f° r,is conccalcd in c。 ncentratcd fashion in transPcrfCcti。 lati。

ns Thcrcis no musc ofPhⅡ 。soPhy,nor iS thCrc。 nc of translation.But desPitc

the clairns of scnthη cntal artists, thcsc t、

v。

arC not banausic, For thcrc is a Phil° _

SoPhical gcnius that is charactcrizcd l)y a ycarning for that language、 itself in translatlons.“

Ιcs Fdnfucs1mP口

jF乙

Pcnser犭 rdnr莒 crⅠ rε sdns dcccssoir召 s,ni cJluchor召 menr IlltIis FtIc1Fe cnCor召 d1Γ crsir犭

,sur'rrc,dcs1dion,召 dP`召 unΙ qu色

Ⅴhich manifests

ircs cn ccfd que PF1Isicu心 , mdnquc Fd s1IPrε mc∶ F’

s召 IllPε chc Pc阝 °nnc dc Pr?∫ 犭rcF′ cs I,,ors q1Ι

imilaorrCFFe P￠

i,sinon sc″

ro′ c,f口

@LIΓ Cr口

ienr,

” 召 ff← mε mc m'泌 ri召 fFcmcI,F Fd Γ JⅡ 泌米 If what Mallarmo eⅤ 。 kcs

hcrcuncJ。 is fully fathomablc to a Phil。 `dr

s° Pher,translati。 n,、vith its rudilncnts of such a languagc, is n1id、 vay bCtvvcCn p° etry and doctrinc. Its products arc less sharPly

dcnncd,but it lcavcs no lcss of a lllark。 n history lf thc task of the translat°

r is vic、

vcd in this light,thc roads t。、 vard a soluti。 n

seen1to l)c all thc1η °re obscurc and impcnctrablc Indccd,thc problcn1of riPcning thc sccd of Pure languagc in a translati°

n seen△ s to bc insolublc,(lctern1inablc in no

soluti° n

F。 r is not the ground cut fr。 m undcr such a soluti。 n if the repr。 duction of thc scnsc ccases to bc(lccisiⅤ c?Vic、 Ⅴcd ncgatiⅤ ely, this is actually the mcaning 。f all thc forcgoing, The traditi。 nal concts in any discussi。 n of translati° ns arc ⒖dchty and liccnsc~thc frccd° n)of faithful rr° duction and,in its servicc,⒔ dchty t。 the、 v。 rd Thcsc idcas seen1to bc no l° ngcr scrviccable to a thc° ry that looks f° r othcr things in a translati° n than rroducti° n° f1ncaning To bc surc, traditional usage makes thcsc tcrms apPcar as if in constant conHict、 vith each° thcr

What can sdchty rcally(l。

。f

indiⅤ idual

f°

r the rendcring of rncaningP Fidchty in thc translation

vvords can ahnost ncvcr fully rroducc thc lucaning they haⅤ

original F° r scnsc in its Poetic cancc is not lhnitcd t。

c in thc

meaning, but dcriⅤ cs

fr° rll the c° nnotations convcycd by thc、 vord ch° scn to cxprcssit VVc say of、 vords that thcy have cm° tional c。 nnotations A htcral rcndcring of thc syntax complctcly

dcnnohshcs thc thcory of rroduction。 f rneaping and is a direct threat t° comPrchcnsibility Thc nineteenth ccntury considered H。 ldcrhn’ s translations of soPh° clCS as rnonstrous cxamPlcs of such litcralncss Finally, it is sel土

cⅤ ident h。、 v grcatly sdchty in reProducing thc form irnpcdes thc rcndcring of the scnse.Thus n。 case f°

r litcralncss can bc based° n a dcsirc to rctain thc tlncaning Meanin:iS Servcd far

better— —and litcrature and languagc far worsc~by thc unrestrained liccnse of bad

tmnslat0邝 Of ncccs“ ty,tlaσ cfo父 ,tllc dcmand for hterahⅡ s,wh“ e ju虻 Ⅲcadon is。 bvi。 us,、 vhosc legiti1natc ground is quitc°

mcaningful contcxt. Fragmcnts of a vcsscl

bscure,rnust be undcrst° 。d in a1norc

、 Vhich arc t。 bc glued t° gcthcr must


81

t bC hkc °nc n1atch one anothcr in thc slllallCSt dctails, although thcy nccd n。 f rcscmbhng thc mcaning of thc n, instead。 anothcr In thc samc vvay a translati° 。ri思 inal,must lovin81y and in dctailincorP° rate thc Originars1n。 dc of signi⒔ cati。 n, thus making both the °riginal and thc translation rccognizablc as fragments of a grCatcr languagc,just as△ agmen“ are pa⒒ of a vcssel For this Ⅴcry rcas° n trans lati° n

mustin largc mea~sure rc⒏ ain分 °m wanting to communicatc somcthing,△

rendcring thc scnsc,and in this thc°

om

riginal is imP。 rtant to it only insofar as it has

already rchcvcd thc translat° r and his translati。 n °fthe e【 F° rt °f asscmbhng and

CxPrCSSing 、 vhat is t° be conveyed In the reahn ° f translati。 n, t° o, thc 、 v。 rds v aQxη nv♂ λ 宫 oγ og Iin thc beginning was thc worcl]aPPly,On tlac Othcr hand,as rcgards thc mcaning, thc language° f a translation can~in fact, must ~let itself go, so that it giⅤ cs voicc to thc iz,rcnFio of the o1ˉ

iginal n。 t as rroducti。 n but as

vn

harm° ny, as a supplcmcnt to thc languagc in、 vhich it cxpresses itsclf, as its o、 kind of inFenF1o Thcrcf° rc it is not thc highcst PraisC°

f a translation,Particularly

in thc a8c ofits origin,to say that it rcads as ifit had originally bcen、

lan8ua:e Rathcr,the cancc。

f⒔ dchty

vrittcn in that

as cnsurcd by litcralncss is that thc、

re∏ ccts the grcat longing for linguistic corllPlcmcntation '1rcal translati。

vork

n is trans-

vs the Pure Parcnt;it d。 cs n。 t covcr thc original,docs n° t black its light,but all° 、 language,as though reinforccd by its° vvn luedium t。 shinc uPon the° riginal all the

m。re fully This may bc achicⅤ cd, aboⅤ c all, by a litcral rcndcring of thc syntax 、 vhich Pr° ves、 v° rds rather than scntcnces to be thc Prirnary clcmCnt of the trans_ lat° r

For if tbc scntcncc is the、 vall bef° re thc language。 f the° riginal, litcralncss

is thc arcade,

Fidchty and frccdom in translation haⅤ c traditi。 nally becn rcgardcd as c。 nnicting

tcndcncics, This dcePcr intcrpretation of the one aPParcndy doCs n。

t

°;in%ct,it see∏ 1s to dcny the。 thcr all justincauon F。 r serve to reConcilc thc t、 ˇ ⒖・ hat is lueant by frccdom but that the rendcring。 f thc sensc is no longer to bc

rcgardcd as all important7(Dnly if thc sensc of a linguistic crcation may bc cquatcd Ⅴith thc inf° rmation it conveys docs some ultiIη atc,dccisiⅤ c clcmcnt rcmain bcy。 nd 、 - quite closc and yct in⒔ nitcly remote, conccalcd or distin_ guishablc, fragmcntcd or po、 vcrful In all languagc and hnguistic crcations thcrc rcluains in additi。 nt0、 vhat can bc c。 nⅤ cycd sOmething that cannot be co∏ 11nunicatcd;dcnding on thc contcxtin、 vhich it aPPCars,it is somcthing that symbohzCs or son1cthin思 syn△ b。 hZcd It is thc f° rmcr only in thc⒔ nite products° f language, all c° Π1Inunication

the lattcr in thc cⅤ °lving ofthe languages thcmsclⅤ cs And that vvhich sccks t°

rrC^

scnt, to Producc itsclf in the cv° lving of languagcs, is that Ⅴcry nuclcus 。f Purc

language Though concealcd and iagmcntary, it is an actiⅤ c forcc in hf辶

as tl△ c

syn△ bohzcd thing itsclf, 、 vhercas it inhabits linguistic creations only in syn△ 1)ohzed /hilc that ulti1uatc csscncc, Pure languagc, in the various tongues is tied f° rm, 、、 vcightcd 。nly t。 linguistic clcmcnts and their chan8cs, in linguistic crcations it is、 Ⅵˉ ith a heavy,ahen mcaning To rchcⅤ c it ofthis,to turn the symbohzing into the

sylnb° hzed,t。 rcgain Purc languagc fully f° rmCd in thc linguistic flux,is the tremen~ d° us

hich n。 longcr lncans

and° nly caPacity of translation,In this Purc language— `Ⅴ

°r CxPresses anything but is, as cxPrcssionlcss and crcativc Word, that、 vhch is 1ucant in all languagcs— —all inf° rn1ation,all scnsc,and allintention Hnally enc° umtcr a stratum in、 vhich thcy arc(lcstincd to be extinguishcd This vcry stratum furnishcs

a ncw and highcr justi⒔

cati°

n br△ ce△ anslation;this

justi6cadon d。 cs not dchⅤ c

82

Ⅵ/ALTER

BENJAMIN

°m the scnsc of what is to bc con、 Ⅰ cyed,ft,r thc cmanciPati° ni。 m this scnse is thc task of⒔ dehty Rather, f° r thc sakc of Purc languagc, a flce translati° n bascs thc test。 n its oxl'n language It is thc task of the translator to rclcasc in his f1・

°、 vn Ianguagc that Purc languagc、 vhich is under thc spcll。 languagc imprisoned in a 、 vork in his rc~crcation of that

f an° d△ cr,to

liberatc thc

vork, For thc sakc 、

°f

PurC language hc brcaks thr° ugh dccaycd barriers ofhis。 sx n languagc.Luthcr,Ⅴ °ss, H♂ ldcrhn, and Gcorgc havc cxtcndcd the b° undarics of thc Gcrman languagc ~ And、 vhat° f thc sense in its imPortancc for thc rclati° nshiP bet、 vCCn translati。 n and o1・

lginalP A s山 nile may hclP here.Just as a tangcnt touches a c△ cle hghtly and at but

one l)° int,vvith this t。 uch rathcr than、 vith thc P° int setting the laⅥ f according to

、 vhich

it is t。 c° ntinuc on its straight Path to in丘

nity,a translation touchcs thc。

ri_

思inal lightly and only at thc in⒔ nitcly small Point° f thc scnsc,thcrcuPon Pursuing

coursc accordh】 g to t11c laⅥ ∶ s of idchty in thc frccd。 n1° f linguistic flux 、Vid△ 。ut cxPhcitly nan1ing or substantiating it, Rudoll’ Pann、 vitz has cha1ˉ actcrizcd thc truc signi⒔ cancc° f this frcedom.⒈ Iis。 bscrvations arc containcd in D1e Kr1sis dcr

its oⅥ /n

euroP。 isc/lcn KuJrur and rank、 vith Gocthc’ s N。 tes

to thc "%sFⅡ FFichε r

D1Ⅰ `dr, as the

bcst con1ment on thc thc° ry of translation that has bccn Pubhshed in Gcrluany “ m a 、T° ng Pannwjtz 、 vritCs: Our t】・ anslatl° ns, cVcn d1c bcst oncs, ProccCd Ⅱ。 Thcy want to turn Hindi,Gl^cck,English into Gcrman instead oF′ turnin思 PremisC・ rs ha、 c、 c a hr greatcr Iˉ crcncc Gcrluan into Hindi, G1・ cck, Enghsh Our translat。 f° r thc usagc of thcir。、 vn languagc than f° r thc spirit° t thc f° rcign、 vorks . Thc basic crror of the translator is that hc PrcsCrⅤ es thc statc in Ⅵ厂 hich11is ovvn langua:e happcns to be instcad of alloxx:ing his lan思 uagc to l)。、 vcrfully affcctcd by tbc f° rcign t。 nguc Pa1ˉ ticularly、 vhen translating f⒈ 。m a lanεuage、 cry l~cn10tc fro1u his。、 Ⅴn hc n1ust go l)ack t° thc prirnal clements of languagc itself and Pcnctratc to the P° int、 vhcrc 、 Ⅴ。rk, image, and tonc converge He must cxpand and dccn his language by means of thc forcign languagc. It is n°

t generally reahzcd

、 Ⅴhat cxtent this is l)ossiblc, t0、 vhat extcnt any language can bc trans丨。rlllcd, h° 、∴language differs ∫ i° n△ 1anguagc ahnost thc 、 Ⅴay dialect diffcrs 分。】 n dialcct; t°

ho、 vevcr,

this last is truc o111) if one takcs languagc scriously cn° ugh, n。 t if° nc

takes it lightly′

’

Thc cxtcnt to、Ⅴhich a translati° nn1anagcs to bc in kcing、 vith thc naturc° f 。f tl・ C° r砘要nal・ Tlk l。 wcr vhich it is thc quahty and distincti° n of its languagc, thc largcr thc cxtent to 、 information, thc lcss fcrtilc a Hcld is it f° r translati。 n, until the uttcr Pr° ndCr~ aI1ce of contcnt,hr△ 。ml,cing thc lcⅤ cr忆 rat1ˉ anslati。 n Of distinctiv(J Iuodc, this m(妃 c is dctcrmhcd o匀 cctivCly by thc translatabni”

renders it imPossiblC Thc highcr thc lcvcl of a、 v。 rk,t11c111。 rc docs it rcn1ain trans-

n。 nly ncetingly This,of coursc,aPPhcs °n thc Othcr hand, Pr。 Ⅴc t。 bC untranslatablc n° t bccausc° f any inherent difnculty,but bccause of the l。 °scncss、 Ⅴith vvhich n1caning ・ attachcs t° them Con⒔ r】 nation of this as、 Λ ell as。 f evcry other imP。 rtant asPcct is suPPlicd by Holdcrhn’ s translations, Particularly thosc 。f thc t、 vo tragcdies by latablc cⅤ cn if its rncaning is touchcd uP°

to originals only Translations,

soPhoclCS・ In them thc11arm° ny ofthe languagcs is so Prof。 und that sense is t。

uchcd

by languagc only thc`vay an acohan harP is t。 uchcd by thc、 vind H♂ ldcrhn’ s translati。 ns

arc PrototyPCs()f thcir kind; thcy are to cⅤ cn thC mOst Pcrfect rcndcrings

。ftheir tcxts as a PrototyPc is t。 a modcl This can l)e dcn)° nstratcd by coluParing H♂ l(lcrhn’ s and Rud。 lf Borchardt’ s translations。 f Pindar’ s1冂 1ird Pvthian()dc F° r

THE TASK OF THE TRANSLATOR dⅡ s

83

vcry rcason H♂ ldcrhn’ s translati° ns in particular arc subjcct to thc cnorn1ous

dangcr inhcrent in all translations∶ thc gatcs of a languagc thus cxPandcd and modi_ ncd luaⅤ

slan△

cncc I1♂

shut and cnclosc thc translator vvith sⅡ

klcrlin’

s translations

on1abyss to abyss in thcn1111caning PlungCs⒒ ・ until it threatens to bccome lost in t11c bottornlCss dths °f languagc, T11crc is, h° Ⅵˉ cvcr,a stoP Itis、。uchsafed t° Holy Writ al。 nc,in、 hich lncaning has ccascd t° bc thc、 Ⅴ atcrshcd for thc rl。、 Ⅴ。f languagc and thc fl。、 v()f rcⅤ clati° n, Whcrc a tcxt is idcntical、 Ⅴith truth。 rd° gma,、Ⅴ here it is suPP。 scd t。 l)c“ thc truc language” in all its literalncss and 、 vith° ut thc mcdiati。 n of lncaning, this tcxt is unc° nditionallⅤ translatable In such casc translations arc callcd f。 r 。nlⅤ becausc of thc Plurahty of1an思 uagcs JuSt as, in thc °riginal, language and rcⅤ clati° n arc 。nc 、 Ⅴithout any tcnsion, so thc translation Illust bc onc、 vith thc original in d1c⒒ )rm somc °f thc intcrhncar Ⅴcrsion,in vvhich litcrah)css and frccdorll arc unitcd For t° ccn the lincs; this is degrcc all grcat tcxts c0ntain thcir P。 tcntial translation bctⅥ 厂 truc to the highcst dcgree of sacrcd 、`t1tings Thc interhncar Ⅴcrsion of thc fr。 n1 s。

Ph。 cles、 verc11is last、vork;

ScrilDturcs is thc Prot。 typc or ideal of all translati。

n

A note on IIarry zohn’ s translation s‘

cvcn Rendσ

FΙ

In1968Harry Z°

l△

ll lDtlbhshc・

d a uonce1・ tng订 anslauc,nt,f Wakerl3cnjamh’

des Ubc1ˉ sctzCrs,” entidcd“ Thc

Task。 f

thc Translatoi∷

”

s“

Dk Au唿 alDC

Bccausc of coPyright rcstrictions,

m in“ ・ hich Bclllan1iI1’ s hmous essay is△ 1own Thcsc notes exan、 inc ccrtain ProblCms raiscd by Zohn’ s

Z° 111)’ s、 crsi()n col`ti11ucs to bc the maln ll)1・

to Enghsh languagc 1ˉ cadcrs

Thc n10st obⅤ ious arc R)ur glaring o1nissions C)11c ofthcse has been n°

ted by a numbcr

of critics∶

gc、

`'issc Relati°

nsb(、

sie nicht vo11、 °rne

:Jlrc11gutcn,ja Ⅱcllcicht bcstcn Sinn bchalten,wcnn berein ausschhcsshch auf dcn Mcnschen bczogcn Ⅵ/crdcn

g【 1竹

(Benjamin192⒊ 10) certain corrclatiⅤ e concts rctain their n1eaning, and P° sSj1)ly thcir f° remost signi丘 cancc, if thc〉

arc rcfcrrcd cxclusi、 ely to n1an

(BCnjaluin1968:70) Herc tllc omissi° n ofd,e ncgati、 in1Possil)lc to foll。

c cOI1△

Pletcly in、 erts Bc11jamin’

s mcaning and n1akcs it

Ⅵ・thc logic of his argun1cnt at this Point Paul(lc Man,in his c。 n1n1cn-

tary on Z。 hn’ s translatl° n,regardcd this。 n1ission as particularly crucial bccausc it conccals 、 vhat dc Man saⅥ ,as BenjaΠ1in’ s asscrtion ofthc inhuman,1neChanical° peratio11oflanguagc, of thc cssentlal jn乃 vm口 ni,

of languagc(de lMan1986)

A sccoI1d omission I11a、 c11ot sCCn mcntioncd l)v critics()ccurs Iater in the essaⅤ

、 Vcnn abcr dicsc derart bis ans111cssianischc Ende ihrcr Gcschichtc

Ⅵ・ achscn

(Benjamin1923:1+l If,ho、 vcⅤ cr,thCsc languagcs continuc to gr。

、 v in

d△ is

n1anner until thc end of

their tilnc

(BClllamin196⒏ 74)

∶

\^/ALTER BENJAMIN

84

Ⅵ 骂e印 uⅢξ I瑟扩占t1W【 ” e,∶

n1cssianism in Bc犭 an1in’

j:n∶

FllFc111∶

∶ ∶ 琛“ ∶ ∶

:袈 1翌 \∶ I`茫

s th° ught in gencral and in this essay in palticular,

The third on1ission, xx=hich als°

sccms to haVe cd unnoticed, occurs in thc crucial

age whcrc Bcl△ lan1in is discussing d`c“ wesenhaRc Kcrn” that is thc truc translator’ s chicf Conccrn, and xx!hosc ripening Points to、、 fards thc (mCssianic)‘ ‘ rcalnl of reconciliation and

fulhllment° f languages” 、 vithout cⅤ cr quite reaching or reahzing it: Den erre|Fht CS lllCht mit sttlmPf u11(l sticl,aber in ihm stcht dasjcnigc,was an cincr ubersetzung mehr ist als Nlitteilung Gclàucr10sst sich dieser wcscn-

haftc Kcrn aIs dasjcnigc bcstimmen,was an ihr sdb虻

nicht、 vicdcrum

tIbcrsetzbar is

(BC11jami11192⒊ 15) Thc transfcr can never bc t。 tal,but xk hat rcachcs this rcgion is that clcn1ent h、 a translati。

n、「 hich gocs bcyond t1・ ansmittal。 f

bcst dcnncd as the elen1cnt that d。

sul冫 jcct

n△ atter

This nuclcus is

es n。 t lcnd1tself t。 translation

(BCnjamin196⒏ 75) v° rds“ an ihr” and“ 、 Ⅴicdcrun1’ ’ in the second sentence, 】 lt that it seems Bcltlamin is suggesbng tllat thc ot,lect of thC translator’ s chief 辶

In this casc,Zohn fails to translatc the、

Ⅵ・ ith

thc r邙

Conccrn lics comPlCtCly outsidc his reach Although in()nc sensc this ll,ay l)e truc(as Paul

dc卜Ι an I1as argucd),the Point here is surely that、 vhate、 cr asPcct of thc“ 、 vcsenhaRc Kcrn” is cchocd in a translatlon(“ an ihr” clcarly rcfcrs l)ack to“ die Llbcrsctzung” in thc Preceding scntcn ce) canl)。 t be translatcd again This PresuPPoSC′

“

that thc 、 vesenhaftc Kcrn” can bc translatcd a Hrst tirne Thc reason it cannot bc translated a8ain-that is,thc , of(∶ oVrse,

a;∶

∶ s梵菡丨 I:;℃ ⒒ i翼扌妻泵us∶ ∶ &扌丨 JT只 J∶ ∶ ∶ I/}l;号 ;甚 ∶ 刂 ea瑟 1r找 yl1∶ 翌累 :愚喙T:甯 T∶ 砝〗 ∶秕拌 a泔、甯捕 FΙ

|l;∶

:∶

}‘

:∶l∶

l∶

l、

;c∶

;,∶

舞蝌时丨擀槭蝌滩骅 lil嚣肼 I凳

A ft)urth(,n1ission,飞 VhiCh alsO secn】 s to have gonc tlnnoticcd,c×

Bcnjal△ lin is discussil)g the traditional concts°

∴urs (∶

in a agc、

vhcrc

f frccdom and丘 dchty in translation∶

ssen 、 Vicdergabc und in i11rem Ⅴort~sind die akhergcbrad1tcn Bcg1・ l∏ 、 in jcdcr

Trcuc und Freihcit ~ Frciheit dcr sinngclv莶 Dicnst T】 ℃ue gsgcn das、

Diskussion von Ubcrsctzungen

(Bcnjamin192⒊ 17) The traditional concts in any discvssion of translations arc hdclitv and liccnsc

~thc△ ccd° m° f

hith凡 hˉ r° dutti° n,and ll△ lts scrXlcc,⒔ dclity忆 (BCnjami1】

Zohn’ s translatlon o】 ηits the words si氵 meanlllg” ),tllus maklng lt h扩

is tbe frccdom~dc111aI1dcd bⅤ

d杨 r

lnε emJss召 n

thc rcader t。

111cJ召

cw。 rd 1968:77~78) tl△

c(‘ icndcring in accord with thc 叨口卜 ecdom” Bcnjamh rc宓 rb t。

sce that thc“

l1・

translation thcorists fron1Horacc to Drvdcn and bcⅤ

ond-

to deviate ion1thc lettcr of the tcxt in ordcr to rendcr its sPirit

This °n1ission is apparcndy conncctcd

Ⅵˉ ith a Rlndan1ental n1isunderstanding of

Benjan1in’ s text reΠ cctcd in zohn’ s translati° n of thc follo、 vin8age∶

k


85

严、、 enn Trcuc und Freihcit dcr Llbersctzung scit jehcr als xslderstrebcndc Tcndcnzcn betlâchtet、 vurden,so schcillt auch dicsc ticfere Dcutung dcr eincn

bcidc nicht7u、 crsl,hncn, sondcrn inl Gcgcntcil alles Rccht(ler andern abzu~ enn nicht auf die、 Vicdcrgabe sprcchcn Denn vvorauf bezicht Frciheit sich,、・ dcs sinnes,die aulhorcn s。 ll,gesetzgcgcbcnd zu heissen? (Bcl△ lamin192⒊

18-19)

Fidchty and frccdon1haⅤ e traditionally l)een regarded as c° nflicting tcndcncics This(leeper intcrPrctation of thc()nc aPParcntly docs not serVe to reconcile

°;in hct,it sccms to dcny thc。 thcr alljusu丘 cati。 n F。 r whatis mcant by frecdom but that thc rendcri11g ofthe se11se is no longer to be rcgarded as the t“

all in△

Portant?

(Bcnjamin196⒏ 79)

Zohn’ s rcndcri11gn△ akes it aPPcar that thc rcintcrPreted conct is frecdon1,and that thc rcintcrPrctation clepriⅤ

es thc c° nct of ndChty。 f any justi丘 cation This is precisely thc

reverse of vvhat Bcnjamin’ s tcxt says The Prcccding age has offt・

red a rcintcrPrctation

of丘 dchty t° the、 v° rd(II0rr′ jc乃芡 eir)that disc° nnccts it froll1the translatjon of rncaning,and lt is clcarly this rcintcrPretati° n to which Benjall△ ln is rckrllng hcrc Thus thc concept that

is dePrived° f any justi且 cati° n by this rcinterPrctatlon is frccd° sh° uld rcad∶

、 vhich

is n°

“ For、vhat ca11thc Point of frccdon1bc,if n° ’ rmatiⅤ c?’

l。

rn, and thc last sentcnce

t the repr° duction of Fucani11g,

ngcr to bc rcgarded as n。

Notc “

The imPcrfCcti。 n of languagcs consists in thcir Plurahty,thc suPrcmC°

ne is

vhisPcring, thc vithout acccssOrieS or cvcn 、 vriting 、 thinking is 、 ilnmortal 、 Ⅴord still remains silcnt;thc divcrsity of idioms° n earth prcvcnts vords 、 vhich 。ther、 visc, at one singlc str° kc, cvcrybody fr。 n1 uttering thc 、 lacking∶

、 vould matcriahzc as truth,”

Chapter 8

Ezra POund

GUIDO'S RELATIONS

Tェ

rJa;FⅥ

rⅠ

⒒ a;a∶ i￡扌拈 t昱衤岔 ‰ 茫讠点 Ja厶 J∶ f1R品 focus attention uPon matter of intcrest that、 Ⅴoul(l other、 vise haⅤ e cd、 vithout vlcdgc or 、 vhen hc has any rCally 8cncral kn° 、 ˉ ⒔ nds 、 ith rcgard to other cate his iR or other), l。 (s`丙

noticc; hc may, in the rare cases

“

PercePtion 。f relati°

ns’

’

htcrary invcntions;hc luay,thirdly,。 r as you1η ight say,con、 crsCly and as l)art and ・ hich suPPlcIncnt of his actiⅤ ity, construct cloacac to carry off thC`vastc mattcr,、 ork,and、 vhich is continuously being hcapcd up and causcd stagnatcs about thc rcal、 Ⅴ

。bcsc pubhshing houscs, and c。 mbinations of botb,such as thc Ox允 rd Prcss (、 Vc n。 tc thcir Partictlla1ˉ h1hmy in a rcccnt rc to staEl1atC by acadcI△ 1ic b。 dics, 蚰飞iⅠ∶∶1s∶ ∶F?uns“ 涮

bl。

tˉ

hK on山

c ccln△

mon

ω℃ 吧

R献 yl△ ●as

h≮ W

汪H摺 ;1省群唧冕 FJ黥吧 ⒒i甜 T;捃 ⒊ F弘土扣 ‰ ⒒ i茧 ∶ ∶ ⒒ 打误犭拈容嚯谳1絮 T扛 |廴紧 T社置 y骷 lh、茁宁 Ⅰ 丨点喙 r甜l:劈 :1忠 ,扰甘骂甘 1r1扌浓￡ yr】

:氵

C(淼

芰毖

暴

f1扌 ,廴 T、

:n三

J∶

:⒒

;蕊 :l∶

lΙ

:∶

;

:℃

:.;牯 fr芏 ;甜氵If丨憔扌抚褒苒罗磊

汛 Lt眇暇 1珊黯黼牒 1929

1i′

GUID0′ s RELATIONS

87

Thc litcraturc of thc Meditcrrancan races continucd in a steady dcscending 厂 ard Πuctuations.The best pcriod of v onc cxCcllcnt Itahan tcnnisItahan poctry cnds in thc yCar1321 so far as I kn。、

curⅤ c of renaissanccis1n.Thcrc arc n1inor uP、

cal litcrature Player and n。 knovvn Itahan、 vritcr has thought of considcring thC l。 in rclation to thc rcst of the、 vorld

LCoPardi rcad,and in1itatcd ShakcsPcarC The Princc of Montc l`cvOs° has bcen ablc to build his uniquc contemPorary position bccausc 。f barbarian s, 、 vhethcr c。 nsciously, and vi口 visual sti1nulus from any Printcd Pagcs, °r siluPly 厂 ning If vas a、 vare of, lct us say, the existcncc of Wagncr and Br° Ⅵ bccausc hc 、 Nostro Gal,riclc startcd somcthng ncw in Italian Hating Barbarism,tcutolllsm, neⅤ cr lncntioning thc existcnce of thc ultirllatc Britons,unsurroundcd by any s。

of socicty or lylilicu,hc ends as a sohtary,supcr⒔

rt

cially ecccntric,but、 vith a surpris-

ingly sound standard °f valucs, valucs, that is, as t。 thc rclativc ss,orth0f a fc、 v ‘ ntrasted to a grcat dcal° f flub~dub and‘ action” PCrfCct lincs of、 Ⅴriting,as c。 Thc Only liⅤ ing author、 vh° has cⅤ cr takcn a city or hcld uP thC diPlomatic .

craPulc at thc point ofmachinc-guns,hcisin a P。 than a batch。 f ncurasthenic incomPctcnts or of、

sition to sPcak、 vith

l11° rc

iom thcir jobs,might be,or carc,suPPoscd by thc scicntists and thc P。 bc incapablc of action Likc other scrious charactcrs、 t°

hⅤ c

authority

vritcrs、 vho never haⅤ ing s、vcrvcd

and to learn to livc, hc has ed thr°

pulacc to

vho haⅤ c takcn scⅤ cnty yCars

ugh pCri。 ds vvhercin hc hⅤ cd

(or wr。 tC)wC Should n° t quite Say“ lcss ably” ,but with less immedately dcm。 n strablc rcsult

”

This Pcriod“ ncl rnezz。 ,this age° f thc“ SelⅤ a oscura” takes rncn in diffcrcnt Ⅴays, so diffcrcnt indecd that con1Paris° n is morc likcly to bring ridicule on thc 、 comparcr than to focus attcntion on the anal° gy— oRcn adn1ittcdly far-fctchcd

In many cascs thc c° mPlctC man makcs a

‘ ‘ Ⅴ cry

’

pron1ising start’ , and then

aPPcars t。 n。 undcr f° r tcn years,or for t、 vcnty or thirty(cf, Henry mc solt of dcm° nstration, JameS’ s mi(ltlle Peri。 d)to en(l,if he sur“ vc,with s。 n。 undcrs。 r

disc。 Ⅴ cry,。 r othcr justi⒔

cation° f his having gonc by thC routc hc has(aPParCntly)

stumblcd on,

‘ 厂、、 hcn I‘ translated” Guido cightccn ycars ago I did no∠ scc Guido at all I sa、 v ”F￠卜 Juovd,jn somc Places that R° ssetti had madc a rcmarkablc translation of thc in1Pr°

“ scnt”

ving (or at least enriching) thC

vas undubitably thc man °riginal; that he 、

,or“ Choscn” 忆r that Particular job,and that thcre was s° mcthing in Guido

that escaPed him OI・ that was,at any ratc,abscnt仔

。m his

translati。 ns A robusε cz'虿

,

a rnascuhnity, I had a grcat enthusiasn1 (PCrfcctly justiscd), but I did m。 t clcarly scc exterior demarcations-— Euchd insi(lc his cubc,、 vith n° Prcm。 nition of Carteslan axes

My Pcrction xx:as not obfuscatcd by Guido’ s Itahan, difncult as it thcn、 vas 亿r me to rcad I was° bhscatcd bⅤ thc Victo1・ lan langua8e rIha【 ln9t bccn,I very uldn’ t haⅤ c d。 nc P° sSibly c°

thc job at all I should have seen thc to。

great rnulti~

phcity of Problems containcd in thc。 nc Pr。 blcm bcforc mc Id。 n’ t rncan that I didn’ t sec dull spots in thc sonncts I sa、

Ⅰthat Rossctd had

takcn most ofthc bcst s。 nnCts,that。 nc c° uldn’ t rnakc a comPlete Cdit1on of Guido si1nPly by takng Rossctti’ s translations and⒔ lling in tlle gaPs,it、 vould haⅤ e been t。

。drcary a job EⅤ cn th° ugh I saw that Rossctti had madc bcttcr English Pocms

88

EzRA POuND

than I 、 vas likcly t。 111akc by (in intCntion) sticking cl。 scr t° d1c (hrccti。 n of thc original I l冫 Cgan l)y meaning lucrely t° 8ivc PrOSc t1ˉ anslati° n so that thc rcader ignorant° f Itahan could sec、 vhat thc lnelodic original n】 cant It is, h° Ⅵ广 cvCr, an illusion to suPPoSC that1nore than° nc Pers° n in cvcry300,0OO has thc Paticncc Or

vhat are the intcⅡ igcncc to rCad a foreign t° nguc f° r its sound, 。r cⅤ cn to rcad 、 knovvn to bc thc1)1aster、vorks of forcign mcl° dy,in° rdcr t° lcarn the quahties。

f

that mel。 dy, 。r to scc、 vhere0nc’ s oⅥ n falls sh° rt,

What。 bfuscatcd111c、vaS

n0t thc Itahan but the crust of dcad En:hsh,thc scdi~

lncnt prcscnt in111yo、 Ⅴn aⅤ ailablc vocabulary一、 vhich I, let us h。 Pc,g° t rid of a

、'ou can’ t8or° und this s。 rt of thing It takcs six or cight years t°

fCⅥ

`years latcr get cducatcd in one’ s art,and an° ther tcn to gct rid of that education

Neither can anyonC lcarn Enghsh, 。nc can °nly learn a series of Enghshes Rossctti lnadc his ovvn languagc l hadn’ t in19101uadc a language,I don’ t rncan a

language to usc,but cvcn a languagc to think in It is stuPid t。

ovCrlook the lingual inèntions of Prccurrcnt authors,evcn、

vhcn

thcy arc f。 ols or flaPd。。dlCs。 r Tenn)sons It is s° mctirncs advisable to s° rt out

hat and、 vhy they are thcse languagcs and invcntions,and to kn0、 Ⅴ、・ Kcats,out of Ehzabcthans, S、vinburnc Out of a larger set° f Ehzabcthans and a ⅡⅡxcd bag(GrcCks,und so″ c1tCIl,Rossctti out of shccts,Kclly,and co Plus carly ling Kin召 ⒎ 姥nccslt’ s,baIlads and Italia11s(written and P缸 nted);and S° bⅡ h,indt】【 carols

Lct mc not(liscouragc a possiblc readcl、 °r spoil any。

nc’ s nai、

・ ce巧 oyment,by

saying that ruy carly、 'crsi。 ns of Guid。 arc boggcd in Dantc Gabriel and in Algcrnon It is true, but let us by it in silcncc,

严、 hcrc b。 tb Rossctti and I、 Ⅴent° ff thc 、

rails、 vas in takJ11g an Enghsh sonnct as thc cquivalcnt f°

r a sonnetin Itahan I d°

mcan in ovcrlooki11g thc rnild(liffcrcncc jn thc rhymc schcme Thc rnistakc is“

n’ t

quite

natural” ,Ⅴ ery fe、 ˉrnistakcs arc“ unnatural” ri1ncs off a g。 °d sonnct,and thcrc is a

Rimc l。 oks vcry i】 nPortant,Take dlc Ⅴacuum And l)esidcs thc m。 Ⅴcmcnt ofsomc

cry likc thatin sOme sonnetsin Enghsh Thc fcn1ininc rhymc gocs agai11for。 bⅤ i° us rcasons It had gonc by thc board,quitc° ftcn, i11Provcngal Thc Frcnch Π1ade an ecclcsiastical la`Ⅴ about11sing it50/50 Itahan s° nnets is、

by the b° ard

As a bad anal° gy,imaginc a Giotto or simonc Martl11i⒒ esc°

° ils

by“ sir

,“ translate(l” i11t°

J。 shua” ,° r sir Frederick Lcighton.somcthing is lost,s° n)cthing is somc~

、 vhat dcnaturcd, VC haⅤ c a Cirllabuc d° nc in oil, not by Holbcin, but by suPP。 se, h° 、 vcvcr, 、

some contcmporary。 f Holbein wh°

can’

tP缸 nt as well as Cimabuc

・ Thcrc are ab° ut scⅤ cn reasons、、 hy thc anal° gy is incorrcct, and six m。 rc t° ・ cc thc rcadcr’ s rnind fron1prcc。 nccivcd notions about the Enghsh of‘ Ehzabcth’ and hcr British思 ardcn° fsongˉ birds ~And to considcr languagc as a mcdium of cxPrcssion

supposc it invcrtcd,but it rnay scrve to f、

‘

・

(BrCton f。 rgiⅤ cs Flaubert° n hcaring that Fathcr(]ustavc was trying only to思 ive

η’ 而 PK雨 oll dc,h∞ dctlr

jat】 lle”

(№ 屮 ,P12))

Dr schcⅡ ing has lccturcd about thc Itahanate Enghshman of ShakcsPcarc’ I丘 nd t、 v°

S day

ShakcsPcarc plots、 vithin tcn Pages of each° thcr in a f° rgottcn hist° ry

。f Bol° gna,PrintCd in 1596 Wc havc heard° f thc effccts。 fthe t1ˉ avclling Itahan thcatre c° mPanies,c。 n2n2召 did dc`F’ drr召 ,etc VVhat haPpcns、 vhcn you idly attcη nPt to

G UIDO′ s RELATIONs

89

translatc carly Itahan into Enghsh,unclogged by the Victorian era,frccd fr° ms。 nnet

。bscssi° n,but trying1ncrcly t。 sing and t° lCave out thc dull bits in thc Itahan,° r thc bits Ⅴou don’ t undcrstand? ‘ Guido in C° dcx I 。ffcr y° u a Poen1 that‘ don’ t mattcr” , it is attributcd t。 Barbcriniano Lat 3953 Alacci Prints it as Guido’

s;Silnonc OcChi in1740says that vithout PrinciPlCs,and WhocⅤ cr、 vrotc it, it is,

Alacci is a f° ol。 r、 v。 rds to that cffcct and a carcless man、 Pr。 cCCds to Print thC P。

indubitably,not a cdPo′

‘ ‘

Mad。 nma

vVith th° se of Cino Pist。 ia,

dr° rcl

la v° stra bclta cnf° h°

si li rnei° chi

chc mcnan lo corc

A la bataglia ovc l’

Che(lcl、

cll△

'°

MS・

oJJli

anosc amore

stro Placcr armato uscio;

usΙ o

Si che ncl priln。 asalto chc asah。。 dcntr° la rncntc e fa signorc, E PrCSC l’ alma chc fuzia di fore

Planzcnd° cli dolor chc vi scntio Pcr♂ A/1°

Ⅴcdctc chc Ⅴ。stra bcltatc ha und c il cor morto

ssc la f°

Et a lnc nc conⅤ icn clamar PictatC,

Non Per calnpar,lna Per aⅤ Cr conforto Ne la mortc crudel chc hr min htc ” Et o rason sel non Ⅴinzessc il t° rt。 Is it

Ⅵ,orth an cdit°

attractiⅤ c∶

r’

s、 vhilc

to include it am° ng dubious attrit)utions?It is not

Ⅴcry

until onc starts Playing、 vith thC sirnPlest Enghsh Cquivalent,

“

Lady thy bcauty d。 th SO mad ll,inc eycs,

Drixlng my hcart to strifcS whcrcin hc dics” sing it of coursc,don’ t try tO sPcak it It thor。 ughly faIsi⒔ cs thc m。 vcmcnt oF thc Itahan, it is an oPCning quitc g。。d Cnough for Hcrrick° r CamPion, It、 vⅡ l helP

you to undcr哎 and just why Hcrhck,and CamPi° n,and Possibly D。 nnc are still Ⅵ:ith

us.

The ncxt linc is rathcr a chch芑 ;thc line aftcr lη orc Or less lackln思 in intCrcst

Wc puⅡ uP on: “

Whcrcby th。 u

sccst ho、 v fair thy l)cauty is

To com d° °n△

’ ’

That、 Ⅴ°ukl bc Ⅴcry nicc,but it is hardly translati° n

Takc thcsc scraps, and thc ahnOst imPossiblC c° nclusi° n, a tag of Pr° Ⅴen♀ al vⅡ l help you to undcrstand somc。 fA/1, dc schl° ezcr’ s rcmarks ab° ut stravinsky’ s trcnd to、 vard luelody,And you、 Ⅴill als。

rhythn、 and luake them int。 a Plenum,It、

sCC、Vhat the best Ehzabcthan lyricists did,as vvcll as vvhat thcy didn’

t,

90

EzRA POuND My tⅥ 厂 o lincs takc dlc° pcning and t、

v。

and a half of thc Itahan, Enghsh more

concisc;and thc octave gets too light for thc scstct, Lighten thc scstct

“

so unto Pity1nust I cry

N。 tf° r safcty,but to dic Crucl Dcatl△

is n°

w mine ease

If that he d】 inc cnⅤ oⅤ

is,”

Wc arc Prcscrving onc valuc of carly Itahan、

v° rk,thc

cantabilc;and、 vc arc losing

anothcr,that is thc sPccinc、 vcight.And if、 Ⅴc n。 ticc it、 vc fall on a root(liffcrcncc

‘ ‘

Thc Phil° S° Phic sch° 。l con1ing out of Bol° gna” , and tllc Ehzabcthan lyric 「or in thcsc t、 v° couplcts,and in attacking this sonnct,I havc lct vcrc all I, rathcr bhndly, had to carry Ⅴhich 、 go thc fcrvour and thc intcnsity, 、 through Iny attcmPt of t、 vCnty years gone And I tl△ ink tl△ t if any。 nc now lay,or if wc assumc tl△ 荻 tlley mostly Fh召 n(in thc exPansiⅤ C days)laid,灬 idc carc允 r叩 coHc statcmcnt of emoton,a dogmatic vhonl it rnattcrcd、 vhcther hc statcmcnt,lnadc、 vith the scriousncss of somc。 nc t。、 had thrcc s° uls,onc in thc hcad,° nc in thc hcart,° nc P。 Ssibly in his abdomen,or bct、 vccn

carly Itahan,

t△

lungs,。 r、 vhcrcⅤ cr Plat。 ,。 r Galcn,had l° catcd it;if thc ani1na is still brcad、 if the re scrious than it St° PPed bcart is a dead hcart, and if it is all scrious, much m°

v Hcrrick,thc imaginary invCstigator Ⅵìll see m。 rc or lcss11。、 thc Ehzabcthan m。 dcs camc into bcing Let hirn try it for hi1nscl∴ 。n any Tuscan author。 f that tirnc,taking thc`Ⅳ ords, n。 t thinking grcatly of thcir signiHcancc,n。 t baulking at chch。 s,but bcing grcatly intent on the melody, 。n thc singlc uninterruPtCd n。 w 。f syllables~as 。pCn as PossiblC,that can bc sung Prettily,that arc not Ⅴcry intcresting if spokcn,that don’ t cⅤ cn、 Ⅴ ork int。 a PCri° d。 r an cven mctrc if spokcn, kcn,as And t1△ c mastcry,a minor mastcry,will hC in kcing this linc unbr。 ’

vvould havc l冫 ccn t°

unbr。 kcn in s° und as a line in° nc of Mir。 s latcst dra、 vings is on papcr;and giⅤ ing it PCrfCct balancc,、 vith no breaks,no bits sticking intly。 ut,and no losscs t° thC forcc° f individual Phrascs

“ Whcrcby thou sccst ho、 v fair thy bCauty is ’ T°

c°

m doom

厂、 ery P° ssiblc

‘

t° °regularly‘ ian11)ic”

to丘 t in thc Hnishcd P°

em

There is oPP° Sition, not only bct`vccn、 vhat M dc schl。 czcr distinguishcs as musical and P。 ctic lyricisΠ 、 but in thc、vriting itsclf thcrc is a(listincti° n bct、 vecn f thc Ⅴcrbal m。 Ⅴcmcnt, and thc meloPα Cic P° ctic lyricislu, thc cmotional force ° lyricisΠ 、 thc letting thc、 vords fl。

、 v on a mclodic currcnt, rcahzcd° rn° t,rcahz-

ablc° r not,if thc linc is supposcd to bc sung on a scqucncC of n°

tes of diffcrcnt

Pitch・

But by tahng thcsc Itaham sonncts,、 VhiCh arc n。 t rnetriCaⅡ y thc cquiⅤ alcnt。 f thc Enghsh sonnct,by sacri⒔ cing,or losing,or sirnPly n° t fcchng and understanding thcir c° gcncy, their sobricty, and by sccking sirnPly that far from quickly or s° casilyˉ

as it-looks attainable thng,thc pcrfect1nclody,carclcss°

~

f cxactitudc。 f idca,

or carcless as t0、 vhiCh Profound and fundamcntalidca you,at that ln°

ment,uttcr,

GUID0′ s RELATIONs

91

vay thc aPParently non-functi° ning

pcrhaps in prccisc cnough Phrascs,by cutting a、

phrascs(、 vhoSC appcarancc deccivcs)you丘 nd yoursclf in thc Enghsh scic召

nFO songˉ

b° ° ks

Dcath has bcc。 mc mclodi° us; sorro、 v is as scrious as thc ni8htingalc’ s,t° mb~ stoncs are shelⅤ cs f° r thc rcction of rosc lcaⅤ cs, And therc is, quitc oftcn, a

M° zartian PCrfcction of rnclody, a、 visdol1R, alrnost PcrhaPs an ultirnate、 visdon、 dlorably lacking in guts. a匹 y phrasc is, shall、 vc say, Ⅴulgar Exactly,bccausc it R疝 ls in Prccisi。

n,Guts in surgcry rc托 rs to a Ⅴery hmitcd rangc° f intcrnal忆 rnish~

ings.A thirteenth-ccntury exactitude in scarch for thc cxact。

rgan bcst i1lustrating

thc lack,、 vould haⅤ c savcd lnc that Plungc Wc rnust turn again t°

the Latins When

thc latc T Ro° sevelt was interⅤ iewed in Francc° n his return⒒ orll thc jungle,hc uscd a phrasc、 vhich、 vas translatcd(thc Pubhcati。 n of the intervie、 v rather ann° yed him)ThC French at thc P° intI mcntion mn:“ Ils Ont voulu me briscr les r。 ns mais je lcs ai s° lidcs”

‘ And n。 vv the readcr n△ ay, if hc likc, rcturn to thc problcm。 f thc‘ cycs that lcad thc hcart t。 batdc whcrc hi1n loⅤ c kills” This was not%lt as an inⅤ crsion It

was1280,Italian was sull in thc statc that Gcrman is to-day How can you haⅤ c “ PROSE” in a country whcrc thc chambcrmaid comcsinto your r。 om and cxclmms: “

Sch。 n ist das Hcmdr’

Continue:who is armcc1with tlly dclight,is comc忆 ⒒hs。 that at thc Hrst assault the1nind,and lords it there,and catchcs thc brcath àrd t° (s° ul)that`vas Π ccing, lamcnting the grief I fecl “ ⅣVhcrcby th° u seest ho、v thy bcauty ln° veS the Iuadness,、 Ⅴhencc is the hcart

hc assads,hc es in、

dead(st° Pped)and I must cry。 n Pity,not to bc savcd but to havc easc ofthe crucl (lt,ath th。 u PuttC哎。 n mc,AndIam r蟪 ht(0saⅤ c tlae wr。 ng him conquCrctll”

厂、、 hcn thc rcadcr 、 vⅡ l accePt this littlc pr。

blcn△

in mcloP∝ ia aS Substitutc for

thc cr° ss-、V0rd PuzzlC I a∏ 1unablc t° Prcdict・ I lcavc it on thc suPP° sition that thc

philosoPhcr Should try aln△ °st cverything oncc As second cxcrcise,、 Ⅴc n1ay t1・ y thC s° nnct by Guido(Drlando、 vhich is suPposCd t°

haⅤ c invitcd CaⅤ alcanti’ s Don,,d mi Pr召 f￠

“

Say、 vhat is Lovc,、 vhcncc d。 th hc start

?

Thr。 ugh、 Ⅴhat be his c° urses bent N】

? ?

cnaory,substancc,accidcnt

A chancc of eⅤ e° r、vill of hcart \、

7

/hence he statc Or rna(lncss Icadcth

?

Burns hc、 vith c。 nsun△ ing Pain

?

Tcll mc,白 △cnd,° n

P

what hc kc(lcth

How,whcrc,and° ’ cr

wh。 ln d° th

hc rcign

say、 ˉ hat is LoⅤ c,hath hc a facc Truc f° rm or、 :ain sillailitudc Is thc L。 Ⅴc lifc,or is hc death Th。 u sh° uldst kn0、 Ⅴfor rum° ur saith: scrvant shoukl kn0、 ˉhis rnastcr’ s1η ood~ Oft art thou ta’ cn in his dwcllingˉ placc,”

7 7 ?

?

92 EzRA POuND I giⅤ

e the Itahan t。

sh。 Ⅵ /that

there is n。 decePti° n,I havc invented nothing,I

havc:ivcn a vcrb￠

f thc °riginal, and arrj、 cd at this

about cqual to cquahty by droPping `xl=cight a couplc of syllablcs pcrthat° linc,Thc grcat Past-luastcr of Pastiche has,it Ⅵ'ould sccn1,p灬 scd this xlày bc亿 rc me A hne ortxl'°

of this,a kw more

llom Lorc11zo Medici,and he has c。 ncoctcd onc ofthc氵 ncst gcms in our language, “ (Dndc si n1ovc c(l0ndC nascc Aluot・ c qual心 su° Pr° Prio lu° go,ov’

ei din△

0ra

sustanza,o accidcntc,o ci rncmoraP E cagion d’ 。cchi,° 志v。 lcr di cu° re/ Da che ProcedC su。 stato o furor

Comc fuoc。 si sente che div° raP Di chc si nutrc d°

lnaand’ i° ancora, Colnc,c qual`(lo,c di cui si【 a signc)r

Chc cosa志 ,dico,amor?ac flguraP

A PCrsC R)rma。 Pur son1iglia altrui/ E Ⅴlta qucsto amorc oⅤ Ⅴcro C m0rtc/ Ch‘ l

serⅤ e(lCc

savcr(li sua natura:

Io nc d° n1ando Ⅴ oi,Guid° ,di lu⒈ Od。 chc m° lto usatc in la sua cortc”

、 Vc arc n。 t in a rcal1n of Pr° o久 , I suggcst, si111Ply, thc 、-ay in 、 vhich early ltahan poctry has bCcn utilizcd in England Thc Itahan° f Pctrarch and his succcssors is of no intcrcst to thC practising dynan1ics in languagc,thc collcct。

、 vriter or to thc student 。fc° mParative

rs of bIˉ ic~⒊ ~brac

Thcrc is n° qucstion of givin8Gui(l。

arc Outsi(lc。 ur d° main

in an En思 hsh co11temP° ral^y to hin1scl∴

thc ulti1natc Britons、 vcrc at d1at datc unbrecched,PaintCd in、

voad,and gruntin:

in am i山 oln hr m。 re diⅢ cult hr us to mastcr than thc Languc d′ Plantagcncts or thc1¨ iIagua(li si,

Oc° f

the

・ If,ho、、 'c rcach back to Prc_Ehzabcthan Enghsh, or a pcriod 、 cⅤ Cr, 、 Λ vhcn thc 、 Ⅴritcrs Ⅵ`crc still intcnt° n clarity and cxPlicitness,still PrCfCrring thcm to rnagniloqucncc and thc thundering Phrase,our trial,or nlinc at lcast,rcsults in∶

“

XVh。 is shc that comcs,lnakying turn eⅤ cry man’ s cyc ・ And n1akying the air to trcmble、、 ith a bright clcarencssc That leaded1、 vid1hcr L。、c,in such ncarness

No man may IDroffCr°

f sIDCCch morc than a sigh?

Ab GOd,what s11c is hkc、・ hen hcr° wne cyc turncth,is Fit R)r Amort。 sPcakc,hr I can11ot at all; Such is hcr luodcsty,I EⅤ cr、

Ⅵ ould call

、 Ⅴ°man elsc but an uselcss uncaslness

No one c。 ukl cvcr tell all° f hcr Pleasauntncss In that cⅤ cry high noble、 'ertu lCancth t° her、 vard,

so BcautⅤ shclylcth hCr forth as her Godhcdc;

s RELATIONs

2丿

GUID0′

o,

・

Nc、 ,cr bcbrc so high was our mind lcd,

N。 r havc wc sO muCh° f hcal as will aford That our lnind rnav takc hcr imn1cdiatc in its cmbracc,” The objcctions t° suCh a mcthod arc:thc doubt as t0、 vhcther° nc has thc right to ‘ takc a scrious Pocln and turn it into a mcrc cxercisc in quaintncss;thc‘ rnisrePrcscntation” not ofthc P° ern’ s antiquity,but。 fthc proportionatc fccl。 fthat antiquity, by、vhich I mean that Guido’ s thirtcenth_century languagc is to t、 vcnticth_ccntury

Itahan scnsc much less archaic than any fourteenth-,HRccnth~, ccntury Enghsh is f° r us Itis cvcn d。 ubtful、 vhct11cr rny bunghng years back isn’ t morc‘ fcrⅤ ° ur in tll。

‘

faithful’

’

。r early sixtcenth~ Ⅴcrsion oft、 venty

, in thc scnsc at lcast that it tried t° Preserve the t occur in Enghsh Poetry of the original And as this fcrvour sirllPly does n。

sc ccnttlrics tbcrc is no rcady madc verl)al ugmcl・ t br止 s otDlccd⒔ caJ° n,

In thc long run thc translator is in all Probabdity impotcnt to do czF丿 f°

r the linguistically lazy rcader Hc can sho、

v、 vhcre

of thc、 vork

thc treasurc lics,hc can guidc

the rcadcr in choicc 。f、 vhat t° ngue is to bc studied, and hc can Ⅴcry matcrially assist thc hurricd studcnt、 Ⅳho has a smattering of a languagc and thc cncrgy to rcad the ori8inal tCxt al。 n8side thc mctrical gl° zc

This rc、 rs to“ intcrPrctatiⅤ c translatl。 n” Thc“ othcr sort” , I mcan in cascs 、ihcrc thc“ translatcr” is dc丘 nitcly lnakin8a ncⅥ 厂pocm,falls sirnPly in thc domain °f original、 vriting, or ifit d。 es not it must be ccnsured acc° rding to cqual stand~ ards,and PraisCd、vith sOmc sOrt ofjust(lcduction,asscssablc。 nly in the Particular casc

C hapter 9

JOrge Luis BOrges

THE TRANSLATORs OF TFfr9t丿 s/⒋

Γ

s/a古 eC/by

/V￡ 9/⒋

Γ″f

A/D OJV￡ F/VfG∫ 亻TS

fsr/ler A〃

e刀

`'a刀

1 Captain Burton

A谌V碌

I氵 ∶l蛋 htnaWⅠ∶

∶ Ⅰ 氵

∷

tnc:Ⅰ 1J1∶ t酣 ir苫 n a famoust1ˉ ansCaPtain Richard Francis Burton,the Enghsh consul~cn11)arkcd° lation of the(:2!。 Iirdb￠ FyFdi`虿 tId F口 iFd,whi山 thc roum沁 know” tllC udc,TJ,c TJ,o口 sdnd 。rk、vas thc annihilati。 n。 f anotbcr dnd Onc NifJ’ ‘ s Onc of thc sccrct aillls of his、 Ⅴ gentlcman(also weatherbeaten,and with a dark M。。rish bcarcl)who w灬 c。 mPiling a Ⅴ ast dicdonary in England and vvh° dicd l。 ng bcforc he、 vas annihⅡ ated by Burton

Ii廴 s∫

That思 Cntlcman、 Ⅴas Ⅴcrsion of「hc

)∶ c∶

Ed、 vard

r/,。 usdnd口 nd

Lanc, the Oricntahst, author of a hi8bly ScruPulous

Onc i\JiJhFs that had suPPlantcd a Ⅴcrsi。 n by Galland

Lane translatcd against GaⅡ and,Burt° n against Lanc;to undCrstand Burt。 n、vc1nust undcrstand this h° sulc dⅤ nastⅤ

,

n witll tllc bun(lcr,As is kn。 wn,Jcan Ant° inc Galland was a Frcnch Arabist、 vh° camc back△ on△ Istanbul 、 vith a diligcnt collccti。 n ofc° ins, I shall l)e妒

an1onograPh on thc sPrcad。 f

coi￡ cc,a coPy ofthc N^男 JlFs in Arabic,and a supplcn1cntary Maronitc、 vhosc mcmory、vas no lcss insPircd than schchcrazadc’ s T。 this °bscurc consultant~whosc namc I cl。 not wish to brgct;it was Hanna,thcy say~ wc owc cCrtain fundamcntal talcs unkn° wn to the ori8ina⒈ thC st。 rics of

Aladdin;thc Forty Thicvcs;Princc Ahmad and the Fairy Pcri-Banu;Abu al Hasan, the sleePer altd waker;the ni妒 t advellturc of CahlDll Harun al R邡 hd;tlac txl,o sistcrs、 vh。 enⅤ icd

1935

thcir youngcr sistcr, Thc mcre mcntion of thcsc namcs amPly

T″

f TL|OUs∠

Ⅳ D∠ Ⅳ D

OⅣ f rvlrG〃 Ts

95

dcm。 nstratcs that GaⅡ and estabhshcd thc can° n, incorPorating storics that ti1nc voukl comc -his cnen1ies一、、 vould rcndcr indisPcnSal)lc and that thc translators t。 n° t

darc° n1it

undcniablc. Thc luost hmous and cloqucnt Cnc。 rniums lcri(lgc,Thomas De Q“ nccy,stendhal, Tcnnyson,Edgar Allan P° c,Ncwman~arc fl。 m readcrs of Galland’ s translatlon. An° thcr hct is als°

°f fllc FJ,ousdnd dnd One NiJhFs~by C° T、、 f。

hundrcd ycars and tcn bcttcr translati。 ns havc cd,but thc luan in Eur° Pc

or thc Amcricas 、 Ⅴho thinks of rl,召 of this sr虻 translati。

n Thc spani曲

Tfl。

口 sdnd dnd Onc ^∴ Jhrs thinks, invahably,

a曲 ccstiⅤ e mi夕 un虿 n。 chcsco Ithouˉqand

and onc

n蟪hts CSquc]— mi夕 un口 n。 c为 cro is to° Argcnunc,m∫ 夕 undnocrurn° overly variant~has n° thing to do、 vith thc cruditc obsccnitics of Burton or NIardrus, and everything to do with Ant° inc Gdland’ sb刂 oux and sorcerics,

、 V。 rd R)rw。 r(l,Galland’

s

Ⅴcrsion is thc m°

rly st P。。

writtcn of dacm all,thc

lcast faithftll,and thc wcakcst,but it was thc m。

st wi(lcly rcad,Thosc xx∴

intilnate、 vith it cxpcricnccd haPPincsS and ast°

nishmcnt Its Oricntahslu,

h。

8rcw 、 vhich

sccms仔 ugal to us now,w邡 bedazzling to mcn who to° k snuf and composcd aPPcarcd△ 。ln1707to1717,t、 vclⅤ c volumcs that 、 vcrc innumerably read and that ed int° various languagcs,

tragcdics in⒔ vc acts T、 vclve exquisitc Ⅴolumcs

、Vc,thcir rncre anachronistic rcadcrs° fthc t、 vcnticth ccntury,PcrcCiⅤ c only thc cl° ying ΠaⅤ °r° f thc cightccnth ccntury in thcn】 and not thc cⅤ aporatcd ar° ma° fthc Orient、 vhich t、 vo hundred years ago、 vas thcir n° Ⅴ clty and tllcir glo叮 ,N。。nc is to blamc br this disjunction,Gallan(l lcast。 f all At timcs,shiRs in thc languagc work against him In thc Prchcc t。 a Gcrman trans /Cil recorded that thc merchants。 f ctor、、 lati。 n。 f Tllc「 ll° us口 ncl虿 IQd O,ae iⅤ 】 JflFs,D° ’ thc incxcusablC Galland equiP thcmSClves、 vith a“ Ⅴahsc full。 f datcs’ cach tilnc thc including Hindi and Arabic

talc obhgcs thcn1to crOss thc dcsert It c° uld bc argucd that in 1710thc mcntion

口丿 is召 ahsc,but that is unnecessary∶ Γ °f datcs alonc sufnccd t。 crasc the imagc of a、 ˉ

,

then,、vas a sub-spccics of saddlcbag Therc 11aⅤ e becn othcr attacks In a bcfuddlcd PanCgyric that surⅤ

iⅤ

es in his

Gide Ⅴitupcratcs thc liccnscs。 f Ant。 inc Ga11and,al1 thc bcttcr to crasc(Ⅵ /ith a cand° r dlat cntircly surcs his rutation)thc n。 ti° n 。 f tl△ eh∞ ralness。 fM泸 drus,who is灬歹n dc"爸 c灬 Gallall【 hs0ghtccntl△ centtlry, 1921 J∫ orccdux cll° isis, Andr造

c′

and much m。 re Galland’ d。

unfaithful

s (hscrcdons arc urbanc, inspircd by dcc。 run】 , not】 uorahty I coPy thc tl△ ird pagc of his N匆为Fs:“ 刀口 d阳 iF a F%PPdr‘ cla,cnF dc

wn a、 w hnes i。 m

`勋 s。 n Jir un dcs dε rnicrs ccFrc Pr1nccsse, tlui, ne s’ drFcnddnF P日 s氵 fc rcvoir, 口Γ召iF rcfu tfcIns

?莎。crs dc sd md1s。 n”

[Hc wCnt由

κ

cdy to thc chambσ

°f

that PrincCsS,Wl⑽ ,not

cxpccting to scc him a思 ain,had rccciⅤ cd in hcr bcd onc° fthc l° 、 vhcst scrVants of his h。 usehold]BuⅡ

。 nc。nσ t,t立 cs tl△ 厶ncbulous叻 qci∈

r∶

、black cook ofloatllsomc

Ⅵ・ ay,diSt。 rts:thc Ori~ 8inal is lCss ccrcmonious than Galland and lcss greasy than Burt° n (EffcctS of dec° rum∶ in Gallan(l’ s measurcd prosc,、 cccroir d虿 ns son Fir” has a brutal"ng,) asPect and f° ul、 vith kitchen grease and griInc” Each,in his

Ninety years aftcr Ant° inc Galland’ s dcath,an alternate translator of thc^几 JJ,rs is b。 rn:Ed、厂 ard

Lanc ⒈ Iis biograPhcrs ncⅤ cr fail to rePeat that hc is thc sOn of Dr

Thc。 Philus Lane,a Hcrcf° rd Prcl)cndary,This gcncrativc datun1(and thC tCr1・ F。 rm。 fh° ly

cow thatit cⅤ okcs)may bC aⅡ

lblc

wc nccd.Thc Arabizcd Lane hⅤ ed nvc

studious ycars in Cairo,“ alln。 st exclusivcly among Moslcms,spcaking and listcnin思

96 JORGE LuIs BORGEs to飞 heir

languagc,conforn1ing to their custon△

s、 vith

the grcatest carc,and rcccivcd

ofthcm as an equal” Yct ncithcr thc hi8h EgyPtian nights n° r thc black and °PulCnt c° ⒒。c Ⅵith cardam° m sccd nor frcqucnt htcrary discussions 、 vith tllc D° ct。 rs of thc LaⅥ 厂n° r thc Ⅴcncrablc mushn turban nor the mcals catcn Ⅵ-ith his by aⅡ

nngcrs luadc hi1n f° r思 ct his British reticcnce, thc dchcatc ccntral sohtude of thc

Ⅴcrsion of thc`山 JJ,rs

n1asters of the carth, Conscqucntly,his cxcccdingly cruditc (°

r sCCms to bc)a lnere cncycloPcdia of cⅤ

asi。

n The ori8inal is not Pr°

is

fcSsi° nally

。bsccne; GaⅡ and c。 rrccts occasional indchcacics bccausc hc l)chcⅤ cs thcrn t°

l冫

C in

bad tastc Lanc sccks thcⅡ 1° ut and Pcrsccutcs thcm likc an inquisitor,⒈ Ι is Pr° bity

makcs no pact、 vith qtlPPlCmcntary

sⅡ

cncc: hc prefers an alarmcd ch。 rus of n° tcs in a cramped h mtl1mW thlll罗 hkc∶ J shd″ or召 ròo炎￠nGˉ P^。 d召 of Fhe

Ⅴolumc,wh沁

I,,osF rrehensjbfe sorr;Js″ PPrcss u rePuJndn∠ cxPFdndri° n;Ffcr召 ,口乃冖eˇ rF° ° codrsCJ0r /乙 r口 nsFdF立 on;J musF犭 ncccss氵 ε :y su`Pr召 ss rh召 °Fher口 nccd° Fc;HcrcdfFcr,召 sc” cs?∫ om】 ssions;

Hcre,ε hc

sε

o丿 o/r乃 cs′ 虿Γ召 BLzJ虿 ir,”伪oF’ =indP″ o`ridrε lor芒 rdnxfdri° n Mutilati。

not cxcludc dcath∶ somc tales are rcjectcd in thcir cntirctⅤ PuriHed、 vith。 ut

dcst1ˉ uction,”

“

nd° es

bccausc thcⅤ cann° t bc

This responsible and total rePudiati。

n docs n° t strikc

mc as illogica⒈ 、 vhat I c° ndcmn is thc Puritan subterfuge, Lane is a virtuoso of the

subterfuge, an undoubted precurs。 r of thc still 1110rc bizar1ˉ c rcticcnccs of Hollywood My n° tes ftlrnish me with a Palr。 f Cxamplcs In night391,a⒔ shcrman °ffcrs a丘 sh is t° ld

t°

thc king ofl。 ngs, `Ⅴ h。 Ⅵ・ ishcs to know ifit is n△ alc Or托 n1alc, and

itis a hcrmaPhr。 ditc Lanc suCCcCds in tallling this inadn1issiblc colloquy by

translating that thc king asks`Ⅳ

hat sPccics thc⒔ sh in qucstion bcl。 ngs to, and thc

astutc丘 shcrman rhcs that it is of a lalixcd sPCciCs, Thc talc of night217sPCaks of a king、 ith t、v。、 viⅤ cs,、 Ⅳ ho lay onc night vvith d△ c丘 rst and thc f° ll。、ing night 、 vith d△ c scc。 nd, and so thcy all、 vere haPPy Lanc acc° unts f。 rd1cg。。 d fortunc ‘ ‘ °f this m。 narch by sayin8 that hC trcatcd his 、 vives 、 vith imPartiahty” , . One `Ⅰ

rcason for this

、 Ⅴ as

that hc dcstincd his

、 v。 rk

‘

f° r‘ thc parlor tablcΓ

’a

ccntcr for

nⅤ crsation

Placi(l rcading and chastc c。 Thc m° st。 bliquc and flecting rcfcrcncc to carnal mattcrs is cnough to make

Lanc forgct his hon。 r in a Profusion of convolutions and occultations,Thcrc is n°

/hcn分 ee° f thc Pccuhar of this temPtati° n,Lanc is of othcr fault in hi1m,、、 an ial,le vcracity Hc h邡

no。叻cc・ tkC,which is a PosⅡ

not scck to bring out thc barbaric color of thc ^而 forgct it and attcnuatc it likc Galland,who d。 n° t

vc a【 l、 :alltage

Hc does

召Flrs like CaPtain Burt° n, 。r to

mcsticatcd his Arabs s。 thcⅤ w。 uld

be irreParably。 ut° f Placc in Paris Lanc is at great Pains to bC an authcntic

descendant °f Hagar Galland 、 vas comPletely ignorant of all htcral Precision; Lane justincs his intcrPretati。 n of cach Pr° blematic、 vord Galland invokcd an in~

Ⅴisiblc rnanuscriPt and a dead Maronitc;Lane furnishcs cditi。 ns and pagc numbcrs Galland di(ln。 tb。 ther ab。 ut notcs;Lanc accumulatcs a cha。 s。 f clari6cati° ns、 Ⅴ hich, in organizcd form,makc up a saratC Ⅴolume T° bc diffcrcnt∶ this is thc rulc thc prccurs° r irnp° ses Lanc 、 vill f° llo、v thc rulc∶ hc nccds ° nlⅤ to abstain fr。 m abridging thc original

The bcautiful Ncwman~Arn° ld cxchange(1861— 1862)~m° re memomblc than vays of translating. intcrlocut。 rs ~ extcnsiⅤ Cly argucd thc tvv° genCral 、 NeⅥ厂 lnan chamPioncd tⅡ c htcral m° dc, the retention of all vcrbal singularitics∶ its t、 vo

Arnold,thc sevcre chn1ination of dctails that distract°

r dctah1 Thc lattcr Procedure

may ProvidC the charms。 funif° rn1ity and scri。 usness;thc f° rmcr,c。 ntinuous small

「爿 f Tˉ iOus^Ⅳ

D月

ⅣD

@Ⅳ f

Ⅳ」6H

Ts

97

surpriscs, Both arc lcss imP。 rtant than the translat° r and his literary habits, To

translatc thc sPirit is so cnormous and phantaslnal an intent that it may、vell bc innocuous;to translatc the lettcr,a requircmcnt so eXtravagant that thcrc is n。

risk

。fits cvcr bcing attcmPtCd M。 rc serious than thcsc innnitc asPirati。 ns is thc rctcntion or suPPression of ccrtain Particularitics; m()rc scrious than thcsc PrCfCrcnccs and oversights is thc m。 Ⅴememt of thc syntax Lanc’ s syntax is dclightful, as behts thc rc丘 ned Parl° r table ⒈ Iis vocabulary is oRcn cxccsSiVCly fcsto° ned、Ⅴith Latin

、 v。 rds,unaidcd by any artiscc of brcvity Hc is carclcss;。 translatlon hc placcs thc adjcctivc roi,,口

n thC。 PCning Page° f his

nrjc in thc bcarded1n° uth° fat、 vclRh~ccntury

卜1° slcn、、 vhich is a kind° f futuris1n. At ti1nes this lack。

F scnsitiⅤ ity scrves hiln

vvcll,f° r it allo、 vs hhn t° includc vcry co∏ 11nonPlace、 v° rdsin a n。 ble ParagraPh,

ⅥJth inv° luntary good rcsults The m° st rc、 varding cxamPle。 fSuch a c。 °Peration of hctcrogcnous、 vords1nust be:“ And in this Palacc is thc last information rcsPcct^ ving inⅤ °cation luay be an° thcr:“ By thc ing lords c。 llcctcd in thc dust” Thc f° ll。、 Living One、 vho does not dic or havc to(hc,in thc namc of Hc to、 Ⅴhon1glory and ays fantastical pcrmancncc bclong'’ In Burton-— thc。 ccasional Prccurs。 r ofthc alⅥ 厂

MardrⅡ ~I wotlld bc su丬 ic0Ⅱ of⑽ saus1ingy Oriclltd a允 rmttla;in Lanc,mch agcs arc so scarCC that I must supposc thcIn to bc involuntary,in。

thcr、 v。 rds,

8Cnulnc Thc scandalous dccorun1of thc vcrsions by Galland and Lanc has givcn risc to gcnrc of、 vitticisms that arc traditionally rcatCd I Iη ySClf haⅤ c n。 t⒒ “lcd ledge that the tⅥ ⒎ 。translators did n° t to rcsPcct thiS traditi。 n, It is co∏ 11non knoⅥ 厂 hl⒔ l thcir ob1igati。 n to thc unft,哎 unate man who witncsscd thc N唿 ht°fP。 wcr, a、 Ⅳ holc

to thc imPrccati°ns of a thirtecnth-ccntury garbagc collcct° r chcated by a dervish, an(l to thc cust°

ms of sodom Itis c° mmon knovvlcdge that they disinfcctcd thc

Nights. Thcir dctractors argue that this Process dcstroys or、 n“ Ⅴ cto ofthc

σ

Ⅴounds the go° d_hearted

乃c Tl,ousdnd Nifhts dnd d№ Jhr nal They are in σror;Tˉ F,cB@。大σ ∠ n of ancicnt storics to thc lo、 Ⅴ_br0、 v or

is not(morally)ingenuous;it is an adaPtati° `要

ribald tastcs 。f thc Cair。 middlc classcs ExcePt in thc excmPlary tales of the sincìbc,d~ncI m c,fl,the indcccncies° f rJ,c「 h。 usdnd dnd C,ne№ 召」 ,Fs havc nothing to do Ⅵ-ith thc△ cedon1of thc paradisiacal state They arc sPcculati° ns on the Part° f thC c(htor∶ thcir ailu is a round of guffa、 vs,their hcr。 es are ncver more than portcrs, bcggars, or cunuchs Thc ancient lovc storics of the rcrtory,thosc、 vhiCh rclatc cases fron△ thc Dcscrt° r thc cities of Arabia, arc not obsccnc,and neither is anⅤ Pr。 ducti。 n

ofprc-Islan1ic litcraturc Thcy arc imioncd and sad,and°

ne of thcir

favoritc themcs is dcath f° rl。 Ⅴc,thc death that an° Pini° n rcndcrcd by thc u`虿 m日 s declarcd no lcss h° ly than that。 fa1nartyr、 vho bears飞 Ⅳitncss to thc faith

,If、 /c

aPPr。 Ⅴc of this argumcnt, 、 vc may scc thc ti1ni(litics of Galland and Lane as thc rcstoration of a Prilnal tcxt I kn。、:° f an° ther defcnse, a bettcr one An eⅤ asion of thc Originars cr。 tic °PP。 rtunities is not an unPardonablc sin in thc sight of thc Lord、 vhcn thc Prilη ary aim is to emPhasizc thc at1nosPhcre of magic To oⅢ cr lllankind a ncw Dccdmcron is a c° mn△ crcial enterPrisC like sO n△ any others;t。。 ffCr an“ Ancicnt Marincr/’ no、 v, ’ or a “ BcIr召口 re,’ u iΓ is a thing that `varrants Cntry int。 a higher celestial sPhcrc Littlnann 。bscrvcs that Th召 Thousdnd dnd Onc Λ 山卩Jlrs is, ab。 Ⅴc all, a rcrt。 ry of marvcls The univcrsal imP° siti。 n of this assumPtion 。n cⅤ cry Wcstern n1ind is

98 JORGE LuIs BORGEs Galland’ s、 v。 rk;

let thcrc be no(Ioubt° n that scorc Lcss f° rtunatc than、 vc, thc

Arabs clai】 ut° think littIc。 f thc°riginal;t11cy are alrcady、 vcll acquainted、vith thc

men,1norcs,tahsmans,dcscrts,and dcmons that thc talcs rcⅤ eal

t。 us In a agc sonncwhcrc in his vvork,Rahcl Cansin° s Ass誉 ns swears hc can salutc

thc stars in fourtccn classical and modcrn languages Burton drcamcd in scⅤ cntccn languagcs and clairncd t° have mastcrcd thirtyˉ nvc: scn1itic, DraⅤ idian, Indo_ Eur° Pean, Ed△ i° Pic , , This vast 、 vealth d° cs n。 t comPlCtC his dc6niti° n: it is mcrcly a trait that tallics 、 vith thc 。由crs, all cqually cxccssiVC. l`° 。nc was lcss Ⅴulncrablc t° thc frcqucnt gibcs in Ffud氵 brds a8ainst lCarncd lucn、 vh。 arc caPablC of saying absolutely nothing in scⅤ cral languagcs,Burton、 vas a man vvho had a consid~

}拈黯∵ ∶ Ⅰ 1T￡ ?⒈ 裂 ∴ 扭 ∶ ∶ 〖 1茄拄 ∫ 扌 :;泔 1IⅠ冱罱 (∶

杪

'm丁

;il∶

:∶1;∶

:∶

cΙ

B锣 °nd￡ xer。 s召 (1853);助 rS° nd`助 rr汹 vc

of口

R匆 Ⅱm口男c∞

￡′〃 c山 ndra dnd

eccdF,(1855);「 r,cⅠ 口kt,Rq乡 ions σ CcnFr￠ F EtltItlFOIidF亻 V’ ic召 (1860l;孔 e Ci⒐ gr rhc s召 inrs(1861);Tflc H匆 h′ 召nds gr rJlc:rdz″ (1869);On dn HcrmdPhr° 山“ om r为 c CdPe J。 dε %rdε 】r口 n汰 (1866);∠ crFe‘ m Fh召 B￠ ° r〃 ddx犭肠 r昭 u⒐ (1870);IJfrimd TJ,uF召尹 ˇ 口 (1875);%ε h召 G° Jcl Cô召 sF`for co′ d(1883);rJ,eB。。大犭 rhe sⅡ `° rd(sr虻 Ⅴolumc,188+l;

J亻

r/,e%珈 mcd

G￠ rdcn∝ Ch西 tJ,N9F2口 °ui~a

Po哎 llum。 “ wc,lk C0“ igncd tc,thc∏ ames

by Lady Burton,along xllth thc PridP0￠ ,。 r PriclPus Thc writcr can bc dcduccd【 orll this ion f° r ge°

rhc Sˉ

PorrⅡ J￡ P丿 Jrd仞 s f Dlvc‘ Poers on

catal。 guc∶ thc Enghsh captain、 Ⅳith his graPhy and for thc innumcrablc、 vays of bcing a rnan that are knO、 vn

to mankin(l,I will n°

tdchmc his mem。 ry by comparing him t。

Mc,lˉ and,tllat

seclcn-

tary, bilingua18Cntleman vvho insnitcly asccnds and dcscends in t11c elcvators of idcntical intcrnational h° tcls, and 、 Ⅴh° Pays homagc to thc sight of a trunk

Burton,(li吧“随d as an A兔 ha血 ,maclc thc Pi廴 ≡ ⅡmagC to thc holy citics of Ambia; Ⅴ°icc beggcd thc Lord to dcny his bomcs and skin,his dol。 r° us Πcsh and blood, t° thc Flamcs° f、 Vrath and Justlce;his lη outh,dried out by the sdmt氵 n,leR a kiss °n thc aer。 hth that is 、 vorshiPPed in thC Kaaba Thc adⅤ cnturc is fam° us∶ thc shghtcst rumor that an uncircumciscd man,a ndsrJnⅠ ,、 vas profaning thc sanctuary 、 v° uld haⅤ c mcant ccrtain clcath Bef° rc that,in the guisc of a dcrvish,he Practiccd medicinc in Cairo~altcrnating it、 vith Prcstidigitation and magic s° as to gain thc his

trust of thc sick In 1858, hc c° n11nandcd an expedition to thc sccrct sourccs of

discovcr LakC Tanganyika During that under~ taking hc was attackc(l by a high、 Ⅴ cr;in1855,thc somalis thrust a javclin thc Nilc, an⒒ ssion that lcd hhn t° thr° ugh

his jaws(Bu⒒ 。 n was coming iom Harar,a oty in the intcH。

r° f Abyssinia

that、 vas f° rbidden to Eur° Peans),Ninc years latcr,hc cssaycd thc tcrril)lc h。

sPi~

∴ ∶∶ ∶ ∶∶ ∶ 愚 ;1;玎 ∫ 刂〖 ∶妄 r1;C器 i忑 Ⅰ 裟紧 ∶ J∶∶ 狩r找』 :撼叮如嚣瑟 ∶ ∷ 靛廴 ∶ ∷驱i坩’ ′ 夂絮弑 Il;1J拈氍忄 ∶ ∶ ∶ 烈叩扌嘿瑟h:甘 ∶∶ iFih∶ :r:∶ ∶ 刂旨罩 ⒊ 屯扌 :rT↓ ∶凸诺 :铣茬 f石七【 :s搂 T|丫 ∶ 榔 lJ生】昱讠托少苇岁 rⅡ 廴霹紫 :ii唧 ~and wh° fmyh、 ” t∵

I￡

f∶ l扌 :月 :i:;丨 ::∶

l;∶

l:∶

r∶

:i社 :【 :ri{∶

i拈

;∶

:s庄 T∶

r;Ιf。

:Ⅴ

I;!∶

rrl;l∶

i∷

:∶

1∶ FⅠ

sT∶

;∶

:∶

ShiP which I must always count among the hi8hcst hon。 urs。

:∶

「HE

T″

@Ll s厶 Ⅳ D

4Ⅳ D OⅣ f

Ⅳ∫CF,Ts

99

Ⅵiords and deeds,Burton could、

mourncd his death in lnany stanzas.A man of

vell

take up thc boast° f Almotanabi’ s Divdn: The h° rse,thc dcscrt,thc night kn° 、 v mc, Guest and s、

v。 rd,PaPer

and Pcn・

It、vⅡ l

be obscrved that,fr。 m his amatcur cannibal to his drcaΠ 1ing polyglot,I thosc of Richard Burton’ s pcrsonac that,lArithout dilninishment of fcrv° r, 、 vc could caⅡ lcgcndary My rcas° n is clcar∶ the Burton° f thc Burton

haⅤ c n。 tr臼 ectCd

Icgcnd is thc translator of thc NiJhFs I havc somcti1nes suspccted that thc radical n bctⅥ 厂 CCn p° etry and Pr° sc hcs in thc Ⅴcry diffcrcnt cxPcctati° ns of rcadcrs: P° Ctry Prcsupposcs an intcnsity that is n。 t toleratcd in prosc, somcthing distincti°

sirnilar hapPcns、vith Burt° n’ s、vork∶ it has a prc。 rdaincd Prcstigc、 vith、vhich n。

。thcr Arabist has cⅤ cr bccn ablc to comPctC・

ThC attractions of thc f° rbiddcn arc

rightfully his Thcrc、 vas a singlc cdition, li1nitcd t° °ne thousand coPics f° r thc th° usand subscribers° fthc Burton Club,、 Ⅴ ith a legally l)indin8c° n11nit【 ncnt ncⅤ cr

to rePrint (ThC Le° nard C, sn⒒ thcrs rc-cdition‘ ‘ on△ ks givcn agcs in drcadful tastc,Ⅵ ,hosc chn1ination、 vill bc m。 urncd tivc sclccti。

by no° ne” ; Bcnnctt Ccrf’ s rrcsCnta_ cCCds f1・ ° m this Pur⒗ cd tcxt.)

n~which PurP° rts to bc unabodged~Pr°

IⅥ厂 ill vcnturc a hyperbolc∶

t。 PcrusC Trl召

Th。 us日 nd虿 nd0nc jⅤ

translation is no lcss incrcdiblc than to rcad thclll in‘

’ 、 vith exPlanatory notes’ by sinbad thc sail。

‘

匆llrs

tO” sd灯

al.d

s

r,

ThC Pr。 blCms Burton rcsolvcd arc innumerablc, but a conⅤ rduce tl△ cm to tla1・ cc∶

in sir Richard’

a Plain and litcral translation

αlDalld

enient丘 cti。 n can

his rePtltation灬 all打 ahst;to山 11ft:r

from Lanc as ostcnsibly as possible; and t° interest ninctccnth-ccntury British gcntlemcn in thc、 vrittcn Ⅴcrsion of thirtccnth-ccntury oral小诳°slclll talcs Thc nrst °f thcsc ahns vvas PcrhaPs incompatiblc、 vith thc third;thc sec。 nd led hi1n int° a scrious lapsc,、 ⅤhiCh I must no、 v discl。 sc,Hundrcds of couplcts and songs Occur in thc iⅤ 1ffl芒 s;Lanc(incaPablC。

f falschood cxct`Ⅴ ith rcsPcct to thC Hcsh)translatcd

thcn△ PrcciSCly into a comfortablc Pr°

sc・

Burton、vas a poct:in1880he had privatcly

publishcd Tl,cK虿 △ddh犭 H刂 i Ⅱbdu,an ev° luti° nist1・ llaPso(ly that Lady Btlrton always

dccmcd hr suPc1ˉ l。 rt。 FitzGcrald’ s Rub犭 ∫犭r,His riⅤ fail to ar° usc Burton’ s indignati°

al’

s“ pros“ c” soluti。

n,and hc° ptcd for a rcndering int。

n did not

Enghsh Ⅴcrse

~a ProcCdurc that was unfortunate分 °rll thc start since it contradictcd his0、 vn rulc 。ft。 tal Iitcralness. ⒈Iis ear vvas as grcatly offcndcd against as his sense of logic, for it is not impossiblc that d1is quatrain is among thc bcst hc camc uP vvith: A night whosc stars rchscd t。 run thci c。 ursc, A night ofth。 sc、 vhiCh ncvcr sccm out、 vorn:

Likc Rcsurrcction_day,of loncs。 mc lcngth T°

hlm that watched and waitcd允 r thc morn2

And it is cntircly PossiblC that this。 nc is not thc、

A sun° n、 vand in kn° ll° f sand shc sh° Ⅵfed, Clad in her cram° her r。

-hucd chen△ isctte:

dc、 v shc gavc1nc drink, sy chCCks qucncht⒔ rc she sct

0f hcr lips honcyˉ

And、 vith

isⅤ

vorst∶

100

JORGE LuIs BORGEs I haⅤ c

alluded to the fundamcntal(liffcrcncc bct、 vccn thC。 riginal audicnce° f

thc tales and Burton’ s club ofsubscribcrs Thc formcr、 Vcrc roguish,Pr° nc to cxa:ˉ

gcration, illitcratc, inHnitely susPicious 。f thc Prcscnt and crcdulous of rcm° tc marvcls; thc lattcr、 vcrc the resPcctablc mcn of thc Wcst End, 、 vcll equipPcd for (lisdain and cruditi° n but not f° r bclly laughs or tcrror Thc付 rst audience aPPrc~

、 vhalc (licd、 vhcn it hcard the man’ s cry; thc sccond, that thcrc had cvcr becn1nen、 Ⅴho lcnt crcdcncc t。 any fatal caPacity ofsuch a cry Thc ciatcd thc fact tl△ at thc

s marvcls ~undoubtedly adcquatc in Kordofan or B仓 ⒗q, 、 Ⅴhcrc thcy Ⅵ:ere — offcred up as truc— ran the risk of secn1ing rathcr thrcadba1・ c in England (No。 ne

text’

l Cquircs that tl△ c trutll bc lDlaLlsible Or instant圩

nd Co〃 csPondence ofKdr′ 口

il饧 rx

will lll山 gnantⅡ

ingCnious∶

n】 Cn/’

‘ ‘

ofthc

Ι

J%

of Totllet’

s

kC his subscribcrs、 vith hiln,

thc manncrs and cust° ms of Moslcm

a tcrritory PreⅤ iously occupicd by Lanc, Clothing, cⅤ cryday customs,

rehgious Practiccs, architccturc, rcfcrcnccs to hist。

ry 。r t。 thc Koran, gan△ cs,

arts, n1ythology~all had alrcady been cluci(latcd in thc inconⅤ thrcc v° lumcs Prcdictab、哎 yhsdc

w leadcⅡ

dcmalld tllc吓 mmet叮

Conrrcrim召 s or thc scvcrC prCcision of an acrostic,)T。

Burton ab° unded in cxPlanat° ry notcs on

托

cnient precursor’

s

n(wh° SC⒔ rst △what was missing was thc er° tic Bu⒒ 。

c№ rt msa hghly Persond昶

cotl呲 d山 Cb∞ thdst,f Bcngd)was mmPandy

Ⅵ・ hich he caPablC °f 丘lling this gaP Arnong thc dclinqucnt dClCctations ovcr hngcrcd, a good cxamPlc iS a ccrtain random n。 tc in thc scvcnth Ⅴolumc 、 vhich d△ e index wittily entitles“ cdPorcs i’ aJFdncoFiquer’ [meIancholy FKnch lct∝ 邝⒈ Thc ￡d1nbu丐 JJl RcΓ i召 w accused hirl△ of、 Ⅴriting for thc sc、vcr; thc ￡nc「 cF° Pε dⅠ 虿Br1rdnnⅠ cti dcclarcd that an unabridged translati° n、vas unacctablC and that Ed、 vard Lanc’

s

‘

vcrsion‘ rcmaincd unsurCd f° r any truly scri° us usc,” Lct us not、 vax too indigˉ

nant over this obscurc thcory °f thC scicntiRc and documcntary suPeri° rity of n∶ Burt° n 、 vas courting thcsc ani1nosities, Furthcrm° rc, thc shghtly Ⅴarying Ⅴariati° ns of physical loⅤ c did n。 t cntircly consumc the attcntion of his

CxPurgati。

con11nentary,、 vhich is cncycloPcdic and scditi° us and of an interest that incrcascs in inversc ProP。 rti° n to i“ nccessity Thus Volumc six(which I haⅤ c bc忆 re me)

includcs sOmc thrcc hundred notes,among、 vhich arc the foll。 vving: a condemna~ n。 fj崩 ls and a dc允 nse of c。 rPoral Pu血 shmcnt and⒔ nes;s。 mc Cxamplcs ofthc ‘。 Islan1ic rcsPcct for brcad; a lcgcnd ab° ut the hairincss of Queen BClkis’ s le8s;an cnumcration of thc f° ur c。 lors that arc cmblcmatic of dcath;a the° ry and Practicc

。f Oricntal in8mtltu(lc;thc informauon that angcls Preftsr a PiCbald mount,Whilc Djinns favor h° rscs、 vith a bright l)ay coat;a synoPsis ofthc rnythology surrounding

thc sccrct Night of Po、 vcr。 r Night of Nights; a(lcnunciation of thc suPCr⒔

ciahty

°f Andrc、v Lang; a diatribc against rule by dcm。 cracy; a census of thc namcs 。f Moha∏ 11ncd, on thc Earth, in the Fire, and in the Garden; a mention of the A11,alckitc PcoPlc,。 fl° ng ycars and large staturc;a note on thc PriⅤ atC PartS。 f thc

M° slcm,which br thc man cxtcnd f1・ om thc navel to his knccs,and br thc、 :oman Floln thc toP° fthe hCad to thc tips of her t° cs;a considcrati。 n ofthe4scl’ cl[r0aStCd

bccq。 f tl.c Argcnthc gaucho;a warlllng al9out tl△ e discom忆 Ⅱs of%qtlltation” vhcn thc stccd is human;an allusion to a grandiose Plan f° r cross-brccding baboons 、 with w。 mcn and thus deriⅤ ing a sub~racc of g° od Prolctarians At⒔ Ry,a man has accumulatcd affections,ironics,obsccnitics,and c° Pi° us anccdotes;Burton unburdened hi1nself of them in his n。 tcs

、

THf T″ Ous^Ⅳ

D ^ril D @Ⅳ

f

Ⅳ JG/VTs

101

Thc basic Pr° blCm rcmains: ho、 v to cntcrtain ninctccnth-ccntury gcntlcmcn

、 ccntury?Thc styhstic P。 ⅤCrty。 f thC卜乃fJ,rs Ⅴith thc pulp hctions of thc thirtccnd△ fd△ e is、 vcll kno、 vn Burt° n speaks somc、 vhcre° f the“ dry and busincss-hkc tonc” 。 Arab PrOsihers,in contrast to thc rhct° rical luxuriancc of thc Pcrsians Littluann, thc ninth translator, accuscs hilnsclf。 f having intcrP。 latCd 、 vords such as ds炎 cd, ♂cgfcd,口 ns″ ered,in丘 vc th。 usand Pagcs that knoⅥ 厂°fn。 °ther f° rmula than an invariablc s虿 id Burton l。 vingly abounds in this tyPc of substituti° n ⒈Iis vocabulary is as unParallclcd as his notcs Archaic、

vords c° exist、 vith slang, thc lingo of PrisOncrs

or sailors、 vith tcchnical tcrms Hc(l。

cs n° t shy a、 vay fron△ the glori。 us hybridiza~ tion of Enghsh∶ ncither Morris’ s scandinavian rertory nor J° hnson’ s Latin has

his blcssing, but rathcr dlc c° ntact and rcvcrbcration of the tvv。 f°

rcignisms arc in Plcntiful suPPly∶

Ne° l。 gisms and

c日 srr口 ro, inconsJtIu召 n cc, J,虿 L,rcur, in fJt’ rid, bdJni。

,

r,叼 nd茁招,″Γ 乙zir Eath of由 e℃ ably the m∝ Jusrc, ^hdtl阮 but their intersPCrsi° n amounts to alond。 fskc、 ving ofthc° riginal A good skc、 ving, ˉ since such 、 crbal~ and syntactical - Pranks beguilc thc occasionally cxhausting Fdnfu召 ~ro口 rr犭 c,Pundon°

coursc of the^△

Burton adn△ inisters then1carefully:⒔ rst hc translatcs graⅤ cly

JJlFs・

“ sulayman,Son。 f

DaⅤ id(° n thc twain be Pcace!)”

us ~hc rcduces⒒

“

;thCn~oncc ths malc~sty is

Solom° n Dax・ ldson” A king who,br dle° thcr translators,is“ R【 ing of Samarcand in Pcrsia/’ iS,f° r Burt° n,“ King。 f Samarcand in ‘ Barbarian~land” ; a mcrchant、 vh。 , f° r thc °thers, is“ ill-tcmPcrCd” , is‘ a man of 、 vrath” Thatis n° t all:Burt° n re、vritcs in its entiretⅤ -— 、 vith thc additi。 n° f circu∏1 hmiliar t°

stantial dctails and Physi。

t°

logical traits~thc initial and⒖

nalstory He thus,in1885,

inaugurates a ProcCdurc wh° sc pcrkction(or whoSC rcduCFi。 dd dbs1Ι rdum)wc wⅡ noⅥ ˉ consider in Λ 没ardrus An Enghshman is alvvays rnore tilneless than a Frcnchman∶

l

Burt° n’ s hcter° gcncOus stylC iS lCss antiquated than Mardrus’ s,、 rhich is noticcably

datcd

2 Doctor Mardrus ˇ】 ardrus’ s dcstiny iS a Parad。 xical onc, T。 hi1n has bccn ascribcd thc n,ordF virtuc °f TJ,c T/,° ustznd dnd On召 `几 fflrs, a book of adn1irablc lasciⅤ ity, 、 vhosc Purchascrs 、 Ⅴcrc PrcⅤ iously h° °d、vinkcd by Galland’ s good manncrs and Lanc’ s Puritan quahns, ⒈Iis prodigious litcralncss, thoroughly ‘ dcmonstratcd by the inarguablc subtitlc ‘ Literal and complcte translation of thc Arabic ttˉ xt,” is"vcκ d,d° ng Ⅵ htll tllc h叩 iRd idCa。 f writhg「 h召 Book gf Fhc 「J,oL,s虿 nd J\」 ifflrs dnd On召 pC1JJlr Thc history of ths titlc is instructive; 、 vc should rcⅤ ic、 v it bcf° rc Procccding、 vith our invcstigation of Λ 压ardrus. of bcing thc 1u。 st truthful translator

M灬

s grGoFd dnd〃 incs

ucl1’ s lfe口 d° 叮

Hdzti,dfxdnd,Pe内

σ

Prccious sron召 s dcsσ ibcs an arltllol。 gy titled

aIl wolds wl△ osc汀 ue meani吒

lS%tl△

ot】

salld adwllturcs广

l,tlt

、 vhich pcoPlc rcnamcd‘ ‘ a th。 usand nights” An。 ther tenth~ccntury document,the

Pcning talc of thc scrics,the king’ s heartbrokcn。 ath that cvery night hc`Ⅴ ill、ved a virgin、 vhom hc、 vill haⅤ c beheadcd at da、 vn, and thc rcs° lution of Schchcrazadc,、 Ⅴh° diverts hhη 、 vith1narⅤ clous storics until a thousand ni8hts FIflrisr,narratcs the。

haⅤ c revolⅤ

cd° vcr the tw。。f thcn1and shc sh。 ws hi1n his s。 n This invcntion~

far suPcri。 rt° thc futurc and anal°

r g° us devices of Chauccr’ s Pious cavalcadc 。 Giovanni Boccaccio’ s iden△ ic~is said t。 bc Postcrior to the titlc,and、・ as dcvised

102

JORGE LuIs BORGEs

in thc耐 m° f” 哎i、 ing⒒ ・… Bc that as⒒ may,the C茳圩

sguK° f1000quicuy

v indisPcnsable night en△ ergc, incrcased to 1001 Ho、 v did this additi° nal and n° Ⅳ this proto” Pe of∏ c° delh Mirand°

la’ s Boo大 gfHF`Tl1Ⅱ Js dnd HFso〃虿】/OFhcrs,⒃ clcodcd by QucvCdo and latcr Vok缸 rc,Littmann suggcsts a contaminatlon of thc

‘

Turksh phrasc bin bir,literally‘ a thousand and onc/’ but c° t,,1n0nly uscd to mcan

’

‘ ‘

rnanyΓ In carly 1840, Lanc adⅤ anccd a morc bcautiful rcas。

of eⅤ

en numbcrs Thc titlc’

n;thc magical drcad

did n° t cnd thcrc, Antoine

s adⅤ cnturcs ccrtainlⅤ

Galland, in 1704, ehn△ inated thc Original’ s rctiti° n and translatcd 乃1ε Thc,usclnd 饣nd OI,c卜男/lFs,a namc no、 v faluiliar in all the nati。 ns°f EuroPc cxct England, 、 vhich Prcfcrs Tflc ・ lrα bidn jⅤ i召 rs In 1839,thc cdit° r。 f thc Calcutta cdition, W, J氵

J’

H.M捉

llaghtcn,hacl tl△

t・

蚯℃

d盯

℃ rtlpk

d订 alldatl℃

(:2!.Ι

iF汕￠Fr F口 iFd u￠

fdi`d灬

This Kllc,⒑ joll thr0u婪 sPclli吒山 d nc,t

ousdnd№ 卩hε s'nd One N匆 ht・ m扩 kcd John P刂 nc,in1882,b℃ an publishng his Bo汕犭 rhc Tflous￠ nd№ 召hrs ~go unκ 虿nd Onc^山 Jhr;Captain Burton,h1885,hs B° 。1grFhc「 h° usdnd N哲 hrs口刀d口 N匆 hr; Boo芡 gfε h召孔

J C Mardrus,h1899,his

ΙiΓ r召 des miFFe nuirs茁

une nu氵

r,

I turn to the age that made mc dc付 nitivcly doubt this last translator’

s

Ⅴcracity. It bclongs to the d° ctrinal story。 f thc City° f Brass, which in all o山 cr Ⅴersions cxtcnds fron1thc end° f night566dlrough Part of night578,l)ut、 vhich Dottor Mard1・ us has transPosCd(儿 r what causc,hs GuaKlian Angd alonc knows) to nights338-346,I shall n° t insist on this Point;、 vc Inust not、 vastc Our constcrnation on this inc° nccivable ref° rm 。f an idcal calendar, Schcherazadc-Mardrus rclatcs∶

Thc watcr ran through忆 ur channcls、v° rkcd in thc chambcr’ s fl。 or with charming mcanderings, and cach channcl had a bcd of a spccial color; thc Hrst channcl had a bcd。 f pink PorPhyry; thC sccond。 f topaz, thc third of cmcral(l, and thc fourth° f turquoiSc; so that thc 、 vater、 :as tintcd thc color。 f thc bcd, and bathcd by thc attcnuatcd light Hltcrcd in tlamugh tllc“ l试 aboⅤ c,kp∞ jcdcd。 nto tlac沌 rr。 unding o匀 Cc“

thc marblc、 valls

all thc s、

and

vcCtnCss of a scascapc

As all attempt at访 s11al阝 ose in thc maIlncr d rJl召 (and CⅤ Cn salutc)thiS description;as a‘

‘

P。 rrrdir犭

literal and complctc”

D@n虿 n(9r‘ ,F,I

atˉ

cePt

vcrsion of a agC

c。 mP° sCd in the thirteenth century, I rCat that it alarms mc uncndingly, ThC reasOns arc multiPlc, A Schchcrazadc vⅤ ithout R/lardrus (lcscribcs by cnumcrating Parts,n。 t by mutual reacti° n,docs n° t attcst to CirCumstantial details like that° f vater that takcs。 n thc col° r° fits bcd,d。 cs n。 t deHne thc quahty of hght⒔ ltcred 、

by silk,and d° es not alludc t。 thc sal。 n dcs Aquarellistcs in thc⒖ na1illlage An。 thcr

‘ ‘

small ΠaⅥ ∴ charn1ing1ucandcrin8s’

’

is n° t

Arabic,it is very distinctly French, I

n。 t kn° 、 v ifthc f° rcgoing

rcasons arc sufscient;thcy vvcrc not cnough for rnc,and l had thc ind。 lcnt Plcasurc of c° mparing the d△ rce Gcrman Ⅴersions by WcⅡ Hcnning, and Littmann, and thc t、 v。 English vcrsions by Lanc and sir Richard “ Burt° n In thcrll I con⒔ rmcd that thc。 riginal° f Mardrus’ s tcn lincs、 vas this∶ The four(lrains ran into a fountain,、 Ⅴhich、 vas of rnarble in vari° us colors” ,

Mardrus’ s intcrPolati° ns are not uniform At tilllcs they are brazcnly anachronistic~as if suddenly the Fash。 da incidcnt and N】 archand’ s vvithdra、val、 vcre being

(liscusscd For cxamPle:

kT″ f T〃

Thcy、 vcrc° Ⅴcrlo。 king a drcan1city, zOns droⅥ

@Us^Ⅳ D珀 /yD OAJE

Ⅳ FGHTs

As far as thc gaze nxcd。

`ncd by thc night could rcach,thc valc°

103

nh。 ri_

f bronzc、vas tcrraccd

uscs,and screnc gardens;

vvith thc cupolas of Palaccs,thc balconics of h°

canals illun1inated bⅤ the m° 。n ran in a thousand clcar circuits in thc shado、 v° fthc Peaks,vvhilc a、 vay in the distancc,a sca ofrnctal containcd

’

thc skⅤ s rcflccted丘 rcs in its c。 ld b。

Or this age,whosc Gallicism is n。

s°

m

lcss Public:

A lllagni⒔ ccnt carPct of glorious c° l。 rs

and(lexterous、vool oPcncd its

odorlcss Πo、'crs in a lucadoⅥ 厂、 vithout sap,and liⅤ cd all thc arti⒔ cial hfe of its

Ⅴcrdant8r° vCS

full of bi1・

ds and ani1nals, surpriscd in thcir cxact

natural bcauty and thcir Prccisc lincs, (HerC thC Arabic editi° ns statc:“ To the sides wcrc carpcts,、 vith a varicty of birds

and bcasts cmbroidercd in rcd g° ld and、 vhitc sdⅤ cr, but、vith cycs of Pcarls and rubics,、、 %。 cvcr saw thcm c° uld not ccase to wondcr at thcm.” ) ‘ Mardrus cannot ccasc to Ⅵ厂 onder at thc PovCrty of thc ‘ Oricntal color” of ˉ fh召「 ll° us口 nd dnd Onc№ rs With a stamina wσ thy of Cc0lB,&Mmc,l△ c llcaps 妒 on thc vizicrs, thc klsscs, thc Pahn trccs and the moons, Hc haPPcnS t。 rcad, in

night570: ThCy arrivcd at a column。 f black stonc,in、 vhich a lnan、 vas buricd uP to his armPits Hc had t、v。 cnormous、 Ⅴings and f。 ur arms;tⅥ fo。 f、 vhich Ⅵˇ crc hkc thc arms ofthc s。 ns。 f Adan△ ,and t、 v。 likc a li° n’ s foravvs, with ir。 n

daws Thc hair。

n lus hca(l was likc a horsc’

s tail,and hs eyes

、 Ⅴcrc hkc clubcrs,and hc had in his forchead a third eyc、 thc cⅤ c° f

a lⅤ

vhich、 vas likc

nx

He translatcs luxuriantlⅤ ∶

Onc eⅤ ening the caravan camc to a colull△

n of black stonc,t°

、 vhich、 vas

chaincd a strange bei【 1g,° nly half of、 vhosc body could bc sccn,f° r thc othcr half、 Ⅴas buricd in thc ground. The bust that emcrgcd fron1thc

carth sccmcd to bc somc monstrous sPa、vn

riⅤ

ctcd dlcrc by thc forcc

of thc infcrnal Po、 vcrs It、vas black and as large as thc trunk of an。 ld,

°f itS fr° nds It had tvc。 cn° rmous black wings and忆 ur han(ls,° f whchtw。 wcrc hke thc dawcd Paws。 fa h° n A tuR ° fc。 arsc bristlcs likc a、 vild ass’ s talc 、 h"DPcd 、 Ⅴ vⅡ dly ovcr its rotting Paln△ trcc, striPpcd

frightful skull。 its d。

Bcncath its Orbital archcs rlamcd t、 v。 rcd PuPils, ′ Ⅴhilc

ublc_h° rncd f° rchcad、 vas PiCrccd by a singlc cyc,、 Ⅴhich oPcncd,

irnmobilc and⒔ xcd, sho° ting out grccn sParks likc the gaze of a tiger or a panthcr some、 vhat latcr hc、 vrites:

lO4

JORGE LuIs BORGEs Thc l)ronzc of thc、 vaⅡ s, thc Hcry gcmstones of the cuP。 las, thc iv° ry tcⅡ aces,the canals and all the sca,as wcll as tlac shad° to、vards

ws pr叻 cdcd

the Wcst, lncrged harm° niously bcncath thc n° cturnal brcczc

and thc111agical rnoon,

“ ” ˇlagical、 k〉 a man()f thc thirtccntl)ccntury,must havc becn a Ⅴcry Prccisc classi~ ⒔cati。 n,and not thc gallant doctor、 s11)CrC urbane adjcctive l susPcct that the ‘ Arabic languagc is incaPablc。 fa‘ literal and co1η Plctc” Ⅴcrsion ofˇ 1ardrus’ s Para_ 1ˉ

graPh,and】 1cithcr is Latin or thc sPanish of Migucl(lc CcrⅤ antcs, TFlc Book frhe丁 ho臼 sdnd dnd Onc N唿山rs ab° undsin tw° l,l。 cedtlrcs:onc ll’ tll ely rmal),rhyn1cd Pr。 sc;thC Othcr,rnoral Prcdications,Thc Hrst,rcta"1cd by Burton and by L1ttmann, coincides、 vith thc narrator’ s moments of anirnation: PcoplC °f comcly asPcct, palaccs, gardcns, magical oPcrati。 ns, mcntions of’ thc 「)ivinity, sunscts, battles, da、 vns, thc bcginnings and cndings of talcs ~1ardrus, Pcrhaps mcrcihlly,° mitsit Thc sccond requires two hcultics:that of n1ajestically combin11ncnts、vid1out clnbarrassn△ cnt ing abst1ˉ act、 vords and that。 f offcring uP st° ck c。 ∏ Mardrus lacks both Fr° n△ thc linc lllcluorably translated by La11c as“ And in this f°

Palacc iS thc last inf°

rmation rcspccting lordS c° llcctcd in the dust/’ thC good ID°

ct° r

‘ barcly cxtracts:‘ Thcy cd on,all of thcn1!Thcy had barcly thc timc t。 rosc in thc shaclo、、of my towc“ ,” Thc angcl’ s conkssi。 n_“ I am imPris。 nCd by P。 wcr, 11uandS it,t。、 Ⅴhom c。 nnncd by sPlcnd。 r,and PuniShCd f° r as long as thc Etcrnal c° ∏ ‘ ˉis, for pˇ Iardrus’ s rcadcr, ‘ I am chaincd hcrc by thc Forcc and Glory bclong” — rcc until thc cxtinction of thc ccnturics”

InⅤ isiblc F。

ill I1c is incapablc Nor(locs sOrCCry havc inˇ】 ardrus a co-consPirat° r ofg。 °d、・ Ⅴithout slη irking He feigns to translatc, f° r 。f n1cnti° ning thc suPcrnatural 、

examPlC∶

onc day whcn CaliPh Abdclmclik,hcahng tdl of cert缸 n Ⅴcsscls° f antiquc copPcr 、 vh。 sC c° ntcnts “crc a strangc black sln。 kc-cloud °f diab° hcal for∏ 1,marⅤ eled grcatly and sccmcd to place in(loubt the rcahty of facts so Conunonly kno、 `n, thc travcllcr Tahb ben~sahl had tO Intcrvcnc

In this ParagraPh(hke thC Othcrs I11ave cited,it bclon8st° Brass, 、 vhich, in NIardrus,is Inadc° f

‘ ‘ S0C0n11uonly kno、 vn” tvv°

the St° ry。 fthC

City of

Posing Br° nze), the dehbc1ˉ atc candor of and thc rathcr in1PlauSiblC d° ubts。 f CahPh Abdchnchk arc in】

PCrs。 nal contril)uti° ns by thc translator Mardrus(∶ °ntinually strivcs t° c° mPlctC

thc′vork ncglccted by thosc languid,

an。 nym。us

Arabs,Hc adds Art NouⅤ cau agcs,丘 nc ol)sccnitics,bricf c° mical intcrludcs,circun1stantial dctails,sym1uctrics,Ⅴ ast quantitics° f Ⅴ isual(Dricntahsm An cxamPlc aluong so many∶ in night 573^ thc En1ir Musa bin Nusayr。 rdcrs his blacksnìths and carPcntCrs to construct a stron:laddCr of、、。。d and iron Mardrus (in hiS niε

ht344)rc允 rms

this dull el冫

is°

dc’

addin8tllat thc n1cn° fthe camP、 :ent

ith knives and schη itars,and bound thcm in search of dry branchcs,PcclCd t11c】 n、・

togcthcr、 Ⅴith turbans,l,clts, camcl roPes, leathcr cinchcs and tack, 11ntil thcy had ith stoncs on Vall,suPP。 rting it、 ˉ built a tall laddcr that they proPped agaiI1st thc、 both si(les,

In general,it can bc said that N】 ardrus does not translate thc bo。 k’ s

kT〃

E Tr|@us^Ⅳ D珀

ⅣD OⅣ

E

ⅣrGHTs

105

、 vords but its scenes: a△ ccdom dcnicd to translat。 rs,but t。 lcrated in illustrat° rs, 、 vh° arc allovved to add thesc kinds° f dctails , , , Id° n° t kn0、 v if thcse sn1ihng divcrsi° ns arc what inftlsc thc Work with such a haPPy ak9thc a⒒ of a far灸 tchcd us hcRing of(hcti。 narics But to mc thc PCrS° nal yarn rathcr than °f a labori° ‘ ˇⅠ ardrus‘ translatlon” is thc most rcadablc of thcΠ 1all~aRer Burton’ s incomPa-

Ⅴcrsion,、 Ⅳhich is not truthful either (In Burton,thc falsiscati。 n is of another 。rdcr It resides in thc gigantic cmPloy of a gaudy Enghsh,crarnrncd、 Ⅴith archaic

rable

and barbaric words.) k ll△ ot

I would grcady dloκ

br Mardrus,br mFelD if any c°

nstabtllary

thc forcgoing scrutiny, Mardrus is thc Only Arabist、 vhose m。 as Pr° tcd by mcn oflctters,、 vith such unbridled success that n0、 v cvcn glory`Ⅴ intcnt、 vcrc rcad int。

thc Arabis“ know wh° hc is Andro Gidc was among the丘 rst t。 pra`c him,in

August1889;Ido n° t think Cancela and CaPdevila、 vdl t°

bc the last, My ai1n is not

dcm° hsh this adn△ iration,but to substantiate it, To cclebratc Mardrus’ s ndchty

is t。 leaⅤ e。 ut

thc s° ul° fD汀 ardrus,to ignorc N1ardrus cntircly. It is his inndchty,

his happy and creativc in⒔ dehty,that lη ust rnatter to us,

3 Enno Littn△

ann

山fIlFs,Gcrmany Fathcrland t。 a famous Arabic cditi。 n of「 J,ciˉ Jaousdnd d,,tf one Λ takC(vain)gl° ry

in f° ur vcrsions∶

‘

by the‘ librarian though Israchtc”

(]ustaⅤ

Can

Weil-

thc advcrsatiⅤ c is fro∏ 1 thc Cata1an Pagcs of a certain Encyclopcdia ~; by AIax

Hcnning, translator。 fthc K° ran;by thc man。 f lcttcrs F造 hx Paul Grcvc; and by

Enno Littmann,dcciPhercr° fthe EthioPic inscriptions in thc fortrcss of Axum Thc Hrst。 f thcsc versions,in four volumcs(1839— 1842),iS the m。 st PlCasurablc,as its

author~cxilcd【 om A△ ica and Asia by dysentcry-strivcs to maintain or substi tute f° r thc Oriental stylc,⒈

】 is interpolations earn rny decst rcsPCct・

intrudcrs at a gathering say,“ Wc do not、vish

He hass° mc

to bc like thc m° rning,、 vhich disPcrseS

Of a gcncr° us king,hc assurcs us,“ The Hre that burns For his gucsts brings to Π1ind the Infcrn。 and thc deⅥ 厂0f his bcnign hand is likc thc Delugc” ; of alI rcⅤ elries,”

an° ther

‘

Ⅴcrc lil)cral as the sea.” he tells us that his hands‘ 、

Thcsc nnc aP。 crypha

arc not un、vorthy of Burt。 n or A/1ardrus, and dlc translator assigncd thcn△ to the Parts in Ⅴcrsc,、 ⅤhCrC this graceful anilnation can bc an召 rsdFz or replaccmcnt for thc ori思 inal

rhymcs,Whcrc thc pr° sc is conccrned,I scc that hc translated it as is,、 vith

cσ tain justi⒔ cd omissions,cqodl虻 ant

‘

f1・ om

hypocri盱 and imm° dcs” .Burton

PraiSCd his work~‘ as hithful as a translation of a PoPular nature can be” Not in ‘ Ⅴ ain、 Ⅴ as Doct° r WcilJc、 vish‘ though librarian” ;in his languagc I think I pcrcciⅤ c somcthing of the naⅤ 。r。 f ScriPturc. Thc second versi° n(1895— 1897)disPenseS、 vith thc cnchantments of accuracy, iith thosc ofstylc I am sPCakng ofthc Onc Pr° but also、 Λ

Arabist, to Philipp Redarn’

s t/I11v召 rs虿 Fbi3′ ioFhck

Ⅴidcd by Hcnning,a LciP7ig

This is an cxPur8atCd Ⅴcrsion,

though thc pubhshcr clairns Othcr、 vise Thc stylc is d° ggcd and rlat.Its lη ost indis~ putablc virtuc luust bc its lcn思 th The cditi。 ns of B伎 laq and Brcslau arc rrcsCntcd,

εrd′ NiJ凡 rs Henning, along、 ith thc Z° tcnbcrg manuscripts and Burton’ s suPP`cI’’ Ⅴord, supcrior t。 Hcnning, translat° r 。f translator of Sir Richard, is, Ⅵ・ ord for 、 I’

Aral)ic,wluch is mercly a consrmati° n of Sll Richard’

s Prill△

acy over thc Arabs

106 JORGE LuIs BOR

GEs

n abound~ahn° st dePrivcd °f their authority by the information that Burton、 viclded“ thc languagc of Chaucer, In the b° ok’ s PrcfacC and conclusion,praiscs of Burt。 cquiⅤ alcnt t。

mcdicⅤ al Arabic,” A mcntion of Chauccr as one of thc s° urces of 、 vould havc bccn m。 rc reasonable (An。 thCr is sir Thomas

Burt。 n’ s vocabularⅤ

s Rabd缸 s,) Thc third Ⅴ crsi° n, Grcvc’

urquhart’

s, dcriⅤ cs frolll Burton’

s Enghsh and rcats it,

excluding only thc cncycloPedic notcs, Inscl-Verlag Pubhshed it bcf° Thc f° urth(1923-1928)comes

to supPlant thC PrcⅤ

re thc、 var.

us onc and,likc it,runs to six v° lumcs. It is signcd by Enn° Littmann, dcciphcrcr。 f thc n△ ° numents of Axum,catal° gucr of the283Ethiol,lc manuscoP“ 亿uⅨ lin JcruSdCm,c° t0bttt。 r t° tl△ cz西 Fsc加 ∮、虍 r"syrioF叼 i召 Though k d° cs nc,t cnga~gc in Btlrton’ s indlllgcllt i。

l△

l°

itering,his translation is entirclv△ ank,Thc rn° st incffablc。 bscenitics do n° t givc

hm pause;hc rcndσ sthcm hto许 s

pl蔽 id

German,on!

n1its

not a singlc 、 vord, n° t evcn th。 sc that registcr- 100y rarcly O dmcs~the into Latin,He° agc犴 onc night to thc ncxt Hc ncglects or refuses all local color∶ fr°

om

cxPrcSs instructions

n1thc PubhSher、 vere ncccssarⅤ to makc hiFn retain the namc of Allah and n°

t

t乩 and J。 l1PaPe,htn ∷translates Arabic Ⅴcrse into ‘ XVestcrn Ⅴcrsc Hc notcs ingcnuously that if thC ritual announccmcnt‘ so-and-so ’ Pronounccd thcsc vcrscs’ wcrc foll。 wc(l by a paragmPh。 f Gcrman Pr° se,his readers、v° uld bc disconccrtcd Hc Providcs、 vhatcⅤ cr notcs arc ncccssarⅤ f0r a basic understanding ofthc tcxt:twcnty or s。 PCr v。 lumc,all。 fthcm lac。 mc血 e is alwaⅤ s luci(l,rca【 lablc,mcdi° crc He bll° ws(he tClls us)thC verⅤ brcath。 f thc Arabic'If sLlbsdttlte k vc⒒ la Gocl,uktx B刂

thc￡ n⒐ cF°

BIJrdnnic虿

l・

cont缸 ns n° crrors,his translad。 n is thc best° f all thosc

in circulati。 n I hcar that thc Arabists agree;it1nattcrs not at all that a merc man èdi〃

。f lcttcrs~and he° f thc lllcrcly Argcntine RePubhc_PrcfcrS t。 dissent MⅤ rcasOn is this:the Ⅴersi° ns bv Burt。 n and Mardrus,and cvcn by Galland,

n rhc I1。 k∶ gf d乃 Fc/cIr″ ⒍V￠ hatcⅤ er thcir blc∏ 1ishcs Or ˇbc c° ncciⅤ cd。 f Ⅰ mcrits,thcsc charactcr厶 tic works PrcsuPPosC a rich(pⅡ or)Pr。 cCSs.In some way, carl onl1・

thc ahnost incxhausdblc Pr。 cCss° f Enghsh is adumbratcd in Burt°

n~John D。 nnc’ s

hard 。bsccnity, thc gigantic Ⅴocabularics of ShakesPcare and Cyril Tourncur, Ⅴinburnc’ s afsnitⅤ f° r thc archaic, the crass crudition of the auth。 rs °f sevcn~ tccnth-ccntury chapbooks, the cncr8y and imprccision, thc love 。f tcmPcsts and S、

magic,InˇIardrus’

s laughing Para8「 aPhS,s￠ F口 il,Inb0and La F° ntainc,thc Il`虿 nnctluin

° sicr and the bdfFcFx russ召 s all Cocxist In Littlnann,、 vho, likc Washington,cannot tell a he, thcrc is nothin8but the Pr° bity of Gcrmany This is so little, s° Ⅴcry d’

httle Thc c。 mmerce betwccn Gcrmany and the N匆 hFs should haⅤ c ProducCd S。 mcing m° rc, /hetller in PhiloSoPhy。 r in thc n° vcl, PosscSsCS a literaturc of thc 、、

d△

fantastic~rathcr,it posscsSCS OnFV a litcraturc of thc fantastic Thcre arc marvels in the f\∫

i男

hFs that I wotlld likc tO s(∶ 】 :rcth。 ughtin

Gcrma n,AsI11c)rmtllatc

this dc“ rc,

I think of the rcrtory’ s dchbcratc、 vondcrs— —thc all~P。、 verful slaves of a lamP or

a rhg,Queen Lab who订 ansforms M。 slems hto birds,thc coPPcr b° atman wkh tahsrnans and formulac On his chcst-ˉ from its collcctiⅤ c naturc,

and ofth° sc m。 re8cneral。 ncs that Pr。 ceed

from thc nccd to comPlete onc thousand and onc

iSodCS Oncc they had run。 ut of rnagic,the c° pyists had to fall back°

n hist。 r-

ical or pious n。 ticcs、 vh0Se inclusi° n seems to attest to thc good faith of thc rcst

Thc rubⅤ that ascends intO sky and thc carhcst(lcscription of sumatra, dctails of

f T〃 0us^nJ D

,T″

∠ ⅣD

OⅣ f

Ⅳ∫GHTS

lO7

Ⅳh。 sc food is thc justi丘 cati。 n° fthe L° rd

thc court ofthc Abbasi(ls and silvcr angcls、

in a si11glc volumc It is, ⒔naⅡ y, a Poctic∏ 1ixturc; and I、 v。 uld say the samc of ccrtain rctiti。 ns Is it not PortCntous that 。n t1ight 602 King SchahrialD hcars his ovvn story fron△ thC quccn’ s liPs冫 Like thc gcncral f1・ amc、 Ⅴork,

all d、 vcll t° gcthcr

a given tale° ftcn c° ntains、vithln itsclf othcr talcs of cqual lcngtll:stagcs、 vithn thc

,raiscd to thc poⅥ 'cr° fa drcam A ckar and di{】

stagc as in thc tragcdy of FfcImFcε cult linc fr° m

~

Tennyson secms to dc⒔ ne thcn⒈

Labori° us° ricnt i、 °ry,sPhcre in sPhcrc, 1′

o hcightcn furthcr thc astonishmcnt,thcsc adⅤ cntiti° us Hydra’ S heads can be ln° re

concrcte than thc b。

‘

Schahriah,thc fantastical king‘ of thc Islands of Chi11a and

dy∶

Hindustan” reccivcs ncⅤ cs of Tarik ibn Ziyad,goⅤ crnor of Tangicrs and、

the batdc of Guadalctc ,

ict° r

in

Thc thrcsh。 ld is conft1sed、 vith the n△ irror, thc mask

Ⅴhich is the truc i】】 vhich hes bencath thc facc, n° one kn° 、 an and 、 `s any longcr、

are hisidols And nonc° f it lnattcrs;thc disOrdcr is as accePtablc and triⅤ invcntions of a daⅤ

Chancc11灬

a KaFka~d°

l’

ial as thc

drcam

hycd at syn、

mct1・

lcs,C0ntrasts,山 ⒉ c山 onS

what mu1ta man~

if hc Organi'cd and intcnsi丘 cd this l)lay, rcmade it in linc“ ith thc

Gcrmanic distortion, the 匚

in,ìch专

召 9F of Gcrn△ anyP

`nJ,ε

Notes I alludc toˇ 1ark Anthony,invokcd by Caesar’ s aPostr° phc:“ on thc AlPs/It is r。 rtCd,thou(lidst

cat strange nesh/which somc did dic t。

thesc lincs, I think I ghmPsc s°

me in、 crted renccti。

lo° k。

n,

”

In

n ofthc`° °l° gical rnyth

of thc basⅡ isk,a scrpcnt`Ⅴ hosc gaze is fatal,Phny(^Jdru'd`ffisFprΓ

,Book Eight,

Paragraph33)tcllsÌs n。 d1ing of thc posthurnous aPtitudcs of this。 Phidian, but the c° Illunction of thc t、 Ⅴ °ideas of sccing(mⅠ r(1r)and dying(il,or,” yed1

′ J口 ′ 1eP° jm。 ri[scc NaPles and dicl~1nust havc innucnccd shakcsPcarc P。 he gaze ofthe basdisk、 as P° is。 nous;thc Di、丨 inity、 howCvcr,can kll、 vith I・

PurC SPlCndor° r Purc radiati° n of刀 9口 nn￠ ,Tl)c dircct sight of(jod is int。

ablc M° scs

c0Ⅴ Crs11is facc on Mount I△ 。rcb,

‘ ‘

f°

r hc、 vas

lcr_

af1ˉ aid t° l。 ° k°

n

G° d” ;Hakin1,thc prophct of Khorasan,uscd a four~fold Ⅴcil。 f、Ⅳhitc silk in 。rdcr n。 tt° bhnd11)cn’ s cyes Cf als° Isaia116;5,and 1 Kings 19:13

Also mcm° rablc is this variatlon on thc then1cs of Abuhncca dc R。 JorgC NIanriquc∶

“

Wherc is the wight who Pc。

sind;and thcrc thc tyrant PlayCdP’

’

nda and

1thc Past/Hind lan(l and PlC(li】

Rcfcrenccs A】

11ong thc Ⅴolun1es c。 11sultcd,I must cnumcrate: r un召 pCuirs, c。 nFcs drσ bcs

Ιcs Jlf丿

`è召「J,e Trl。 ″s口 nd rr虿

traduits Par Galland,Paris,s,d.

dnd0ne N匆加s,comm。 n夕

nsFdrion~fr。 mε 乃c△ rdhc,”

c口

′ ′ cd rJ,t,ir口 bidn、 i卩 hrs￡ nε crrdinmcnF¨ 1n召 ⒒

E W LanC Lt,ndol△ ,1839,

108 JORGE LuIS BORGEs oFFhe「r,。 usdnd№ 妒 rs dnd d№ 召hF H Pfd1n dnd乃 F,Burt° n,London(?)nd v。 lS・ VI,VH,VHI

The Boo太

n№ Jhrs

rrlc Hr召幼召

gfR f BlIrr。 n,New

Fd历 on

[e Ⅰivrc dε s

H tˉ omPèrc(sic)￠

Jri丿

Dr,J・

ns`汩 0n,”

rcr口

mchard

`tr口

nd III,dbh句 ed scFccⅡ on~f,om r为 ⒐乃 mo〃 s乃 rσ d`rr召 n,

York,1932

fe^∫ ui芒 s er(丿 n召 Nuir rrdtiucFion F】

rε JrcIF召

cr comP`δ rc d口 Fcxrc dr口

bc,Par lc

C,Mardrus,Palis,1906

Tduscnd vnd c1n召 Ndc乃 F

Hus dem Ⅱr日 b】 scJ,召 n讧 bcrtragcn Ⅴon A/1ax Hcnning LeiPzig,

1897。 D】

c￡ rzo,lùn召 cn αustfcn T日

Ⅱu昭 db召

v° ri,∫ dhrε

uscndundein`・chrcn jⅤ αcJl

r dcr,l口 rdbisch召 n rJrrcxr d召 r CdFcuFr口召

彐s39讧 bertragcn von Enn° Li仗 luann Lcip犭 8, 1928

sOg61-s0冫 61

T旯 ↑粽 ⒈忄J111e11叩 Ⅰ aJ|‖ fi摇 e丨 :∵ F瀹苕我详丨黥 ;l|;∶ r岁 ; CritiCis m` and "nguistics a" consider Whether trans|ation can reconc"e the differenGes that separate |an9uages and cu|tures. The obstac|es to trans|ation are du|y

noted`judged either insurmountab|e or negotiab e/and trans ation methods are formu|ated Ⅵ/ith precisiOn。 Opinions are shaped by discip"nary trends and vary ktfide|y` ranging betⅥ /een the extremes of phⅡ osophica| skepticism and practica|

optimism The skeptica| extre|η e in Ang|o-American ana|ytica| phHOsophy is occupied by

Wi"ard∨ an Orman Quine′ s

、

cOnceρ t of、 radica|trans}ation/′

、

Or、 the trans atiOn of

the |anguage of a hitherto untouched peop|e`〃 which he nrst exp}ored

丨 n the }ate

1950s(BrovAler1959∶ 148丿 Quine1960).Quine questions the empirica|foundations 、 indeternη inaCy〃 that cannot be of trans|atillg by pointing to a basic semantic 、 reso|ved even in the presence Of an environ|η enta| \\stirnu|us″ (BrOwer1959∶ 172). since he cOuches his argunnents |n an inη aginary ethnographica| encounter betxveen \native〃 Λ a\\inguist〃 Ⅵ/ho is\\、 ∧ /estern″ and even\\Eng"sh-bred〃 and a、、 /ho speaks a\\jung|e |anguage〃

(丨

bid,∶

154` 167)` Quine′ s anti foundationa"sm Carries |arger

O|ogica|and geopo"tica|。 His discourse`hollveVer/adheres

"mp"cations`both to the abstraction anthroρ of ana|ytica| ph"osophyànd these ilnnp"cations are not pursued` treated instead as the purvielv of other discip ines, Qu丨

ne acknoⅥ/edges that trans|ating does in fact occur on the basis of\\ana|yt-

ica| hypotheses`″

derived frorn segmentations of foreign utterances l/vhich are

equated Ⅵ●th XA/ords and ρhrases in the trans|ating |anguage (ibid.∶

165)

And

mars` and manua|s。 "nguists re|y onthat them none to produce effective dictionaries` granη guarantee a cOrre|ation St"1 he argues of these trans|ating too丨 s can

l12

194os~1950s

meaning The、 \cOnceptua|schemes〃 that shape interpretations of the data may divide the native fronη the "nguist (ibid∶ 154_155` 167), These betl//een st"η u"and

schemes rnay be not on丨 y lllutuaHy uninte"igib|e`but incommensurab|e` |"<e|y to use different standards to eva|uate trans|ations, Quine′

S doubt of metaphysica| grounds Ⅵ/here丨 n meaning 丨 s seen

for |anguage |eads to more praglnaatic vieNtJs of trans|ation

as conventiona1 sociaHy circumsCribed` and the foreign teXt is rexVritten according ′ pvq。 to the and va|ues of the receiv"η g cu|ture。、 st ta|k 。f nη eaning/″ he ′ 、 observes` requires tacit reference to a home |anguage in much the lltlay that ta|k of truth invo|ves tacit reference to one′

s oⅥ /n

system of the 、 Λ /or|d″ (ibid ∶171)。

Continenta| ph"osOphica| traditions` notab|y hermeneutics and eXistentia| phenomeno|ogy` continue to be conscious of the "nguistic and cu|tura丨

that impede trans ation, In 1946` a decade before Qu丨

differences

ne begins to de"ver his

、 cha"enging papers at Anlerican universities` pv四 artin Heideqger′ s essay 、 The AnaXirnander FragIlnent〃 sets out a poⅥ /erfu| understanding of hOxrv competing

conceptua| schemes cOmp"cate mOdern trans|atiOns of anCient Greek ph"osophy, The versions of c|assica| scho|ars are questionab|e` Heidegger ar9ues` because they

assimi|ate Anaxirnander to

丨 ater metaphysica| traditions Ⅵ/hich fo"ow P|ato or

AristOt|e.These trans|ations carry phHOsophica|assumptions that are either idea"st or positivist/ giV丨

ng the Greek text a re"gious or sCienti吊 c cast。

Heidegger′ s ant卜 metaphysica|approach to anguageùn丨 a practica| so|ution that is distinct|y "terary。

ike Quine′ s`COmes

with

Reviving Sch|eier|η acher′ s notion of

trans|ation as br"η ging the domestic reader tO the foreign text` Heidegger reconn-

mends a \\poetizing〃 strategy that does \、 viO|ence〃 to everyday |anguage by re|ying ∧ on archaisms` 、 /hiCh he submits to etymo|ogica| interpretations (Heidegger1975∶ 19),The etymolOgies are motivated by an exacting nde"ty`designed to demonstrate a kinshiρ betⅥ /een

German and c|assica| Greek cu ture

But they a|so inscribe

Anaxirnander with a modern` pecu"ar|y Heideggerian out|ook. ˇ ∨hen {iterary criticism addresses the issue of trans|atab"ity` it emphasizes the possibⅡ

ity of reproducing a foreign "terary text in another |anguage

Ⅵ/hich is

"η sedimented with different|iterary sty|es`genresànd traditions,V|adirnir NabOkov

sees natiOna| "teratures as sites of internationa| innuence and aff"ation nonethe|ess deve|oρ in nationaHy distinct

Ⅵ/hich 、、 Ⅵ lmasterpieces〃 àys` produCing unique 、、 idea| version`〃 u|t"η

that demand frOm the translator an ate|y unattainab|e (Nabokov1941∶ 161),In the1955essay that appears here` NabokOv describes the Comp"cated resonances and a"usions of A|eXsandr Pushkin′

s pOelln ELl9el,e@/,eg`n

so as to rat丨 ona|ize his ohAyn sCho|ar|y version of it∶ c|ose to the Russian` devoid of

Ang|o-American poetic diction` and heav"y annotated。 FOr Nabokov` paraphrastic versions that\\cOnform to the notions and prejudices of a given pub ic〃、 \ev"〃 of trans|ation (Nabokov 1941∶

the \∧ /orst

160)。

va|ues Of a9iven pub"cèven if an e"te minority∶ 、 Ⅳant a "tera| trans|atiOn by a scho|ar

cOnstitute

Yet he too ρriv"eges the

an academic readership lA/ho might

、 ∧ /ho can cOmbine native pronciency in the

foreign |anguage` histOrica| scho|arship in the foreign "terature` and detaHed commentary on the forma| features of the foreign text, 、 /riter Nabokov′ s vieXAls on trans|ation are very much those of a Russian台 mi9r台、 c investment in "Ving in the United states after1940, He nurtures a deep` nOsta|g丨

1940s-1950s

l13

the Russian |anguage and in canonica|Ⅵ /orks of Russian "terature and disdains the homOgenizing tendencies of Arnerican consu|mer Cu|ture, FeⅥ / Eng"sh-|anguage iterary trans|ators at the time fo"oⅥ / NabokOV′ s uncomρ ronnising examp|e, The dom|nant trend favors just the sOrt of\\poetica丨

〃 |anguage he detests`free versions

that seek to produce poetic effects in the trans|ating |anguage` usua"y dep|oying standard usage and canon丨 ca丨 sty|es, In 1958` a feⅥ/years after Nabokov′ s essay appears`the American poet` critic and trans|ator Dud|ey Fitts critiCizes it precise|y in these ` asserting that in poetry trans|ation、 \^/e need sOmething at once less ambitious and more audacious∶

anOther poem′

′(F itts1959∶ 34) The poem`moreoVer`has to be a part|cu|ar kind`

possessing immense nuency`written in the most fami iar{anguage∶

current AmeriCan

Eng"sh Ⅵ/ith some sOcia"y acceptab|e co"oquia"sms. As a trans|atOr of c|assiCa| and Lat丨 n American "teratures` Fitts inc"nes toward adaptation` achiev"η

9notab|e

Neverthe|ess/ he is aⅥ /are 、、 a that his trans|ations of ancient Greek ρoetry nη ight be anachrOnistic` risking 〃 (F itts1956∶ xV"i)。 spurious atnnosphere of monotheisnη by XA/ritin9\God′ for\Zeus′ success lvith his modernizing Versions of AristOphanes。

The opt mistic eXtreme in trans|ation theory during these deCades is OcCupied by|inguistiC ana|ysis LinguistiCs addresses the issue of trans|atabHity by ana|yzing specinc trans|ation prob|ems and descr丨 bing the methods that trans|ators have deve卜 oped to so|ve them。

The optimism derives tO sOme extent from a theory of|anguage

/hich in turn is Conceived a|ong that is cOmmunicative`not Constitutiveòf rneaning`、、、 empiricist|ines as referentia|。 Chaim Rabin′ s essay、 The Linguistics of Trans|ation〃 ′ inVo|Ves tllVo distinCt faCtOrsà、 meaning`′ opens vslith the assertion that trans|ation、

or reference to some s"ce of rea"ty` and the difference between txlvo |anguages in referring to that rea"ty〃

(Rabin1958∶ 123), But Heidegger and Quine lmight ask∶

xtlhich vers丨 on

of rea"ty、 ^/i|| be used to measure the success of the trans|ation/ the adequacy of its reference? Eugene Nida` draxn/ing on research fronη the American Bib|e Society` considers the prob|ena of trans|ating betⅥ /een different rea"ties. He argues that so|utions need

、 s acquisitiOn of sufncient 、 cu|tura| to be ethno|ogica丨 ` based on the trans|atOr′ 〃 infornη ation。 since\、 it is inConCei∨ ab|e to a Nqaya Indian that any ρ|ace shou|d not have vegetatiOn un|ess 丨 t has been c|eared for a maize-ne|d`〃 Nida conc丨 udes that 〃to estab"sh 、 the Bib|e trans|ator、 must trans|ate\desert′ as an、 abandoned p|ace′ 、、 the cu tura|equiva|ent of the desert Of Pa|estine〃 (Nida1945∶ 197)。 H ere trans|ation is paraphrase,It l/vorks to reduCe|inguistiC and cu|tura|differences to a shared referent。 Yet the referent is c|ear丨 y

a cOre of meaning cOnstructed by the trans|ator

、 and 、 /eighted toward the receiving Cu|ture so as to be comprehensib|e there.

The signal achievement of Roman JakObsOn/s vvide{y cited1959essay(reρ rinted here) is to haVe introduced a senniot|c re伺

ection on trans|atab"ity,JakobsOn ques-

tions empiricist semantics by conceiving of meaning` not as a reference to rea"ty` but as a re|atiOn to a potentia"y end|ess chain of signs He describes trans|ation as 、、 /hiCh \invo|Ves tvi/o equiVa|ent messages in tⅥ /o different a ρrOcess of recoding 、 codes,〃 JakObson underestirnates the interpretive nature of trans|ation`the fact that recoding is an active reⅥ /ording that doesn′ t sirnp|y transnη it the foreign message`

but transforms it. st"1 he is mindfu| of the differences among cu|tura| discourses/

l14

194os~1950s

、 grammatica| categories carry a high semantic "mport″ especia"y poetry` ltlhere 、 and xvhich therefore requires trans|ation that is a \、 creative transposition〃

into a

different systern of signs.

The most innuentia|Ⅵ /ork of trans|ation studies in this period is first pub"shed

in 1958 by the Canadian "nguists Jean-Pau| Vinay and Jean Darbe{net, By approaching French_Eng"sh trans|ation fronn the ne|d。 f cOmparative sty"stics`they are ab|e to provide a theoretica|basis for a variety of trans|ation methods current|y

in use, As a resu|t` they produce a textbook that has been a stap|e in trans|ator training programs for Over four decades. Their descriptions of trans|ation methods

inVo|Ve some reduction of "nguistic and cu|tura| differences to empiricist seman、、 Equiva|ence of messages`″

、、 u|tinnate|y re"es upon ah identity of 、 situations`〃 Where the term \\s丨 tuations〃 indicates an unde6ned 、 rea"ty/′ But they

tiCs∶

they\^/rite`

nk of meaning as a cu|tura|construCtion and to

a|so encourage the trans|ator to th丨

、 see a c|ose cOnnection betxA/een "ngu丨 stic prOcedures and 、 meta"nguistic informa、 tion`〃 name|y、 the current state of|iteratu re`science`po"tics etc,of both|anguage Conη

munities〃 (∨ inay and Darbe|net1995∶

The enormous practica| and

42)

ρedagogica| va|ue Of Vinay and Darbe|net′

s xvork

overcame any ph"osophica} qua丨 ms about trans|atab"ity~and distracted attention aⅥ /ay

from their conserVatiVe presGriptions about |anguage use in trans|ation。

The

extract reρ rinted here is relmarkab|e both for lts careful methodo|ogica| description and for its critiG丨 sms Of trans}ation in the g|oba| po"tica| ecOnomy。

This period c|oses Ⅵ/ith Reuben BroⅥ /er′ s antho|ogy (1959)` lA/hich he|pfu"y gathers together the main trends in commentary on trans|ation There` notWithstanding great cOnceptua|and methodo|ogica丨 differences` 丨 inguists` |iterary critiCs`

and ρhi|osophers in a remarkab|e unity of interest in trans ation as a prob|em of{anguage and cu ture,And they are ed by trans|ators`both academics in those ne|ds and、 Ⅳriters in Var丨 ous genres`who present sOphisticated discussions of transation and their Own projects。

、 /a|6ry Larbaud/s\′ invOcation〃 of st.Jerome(1946)`the patron saint of sensefor-sense trans|ation` llnust be ranked among the most accomp"shed of trans|ators′ cOmmentaries。

Larbaud′ s text is|earned but"terary/effo陡 essly conjuring up a

ρractitioners from Quinti"an tO A|eXander Fraser Tyt|er to ∨a陉 ry, Larbaud views trans|ation through Aristote"an categories of poetics

range Of theorists and Pau丨

and rhetoric, Yet his cOncerns are modernist` inC|uding the recOnamendation that 、、 foreign air″ despite the ρrotestations of\、 pu rists`〃、 Λ /hose

trans|ations be given a

vernacu|ar nationa|ism he judges、 \more dangerous to the essence of cu ture than the

most nerce|y boorish ignorance〃 (Larbaud1946∶ 164`my trans|ation).FOr Larbaud` on|y an approach to trans|ation that combines theory and history can Cha"enge the misunderstanding that greets the trans|ator′

s、、 /ork

in the present,

Further reading Gentz|er1993`Hjort1990`Ke||y1979`LarOse1989`Ma mkj⒛ 1991` sturrock1991` ∨enuti 1995

r1993`Robinson

Chapter lo

VIadimir NahokOˇ

PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION∶ @A/fGfA/IN ENGLISH

I

I品描

捻

r掖

cf扌泥

i1丬点 ’

⒒

眼

r荐氵紫 T献

‘

s℃ 拈

’

s translation rcads smo° d△ 1y’ In othcr、 v° rds,the rcⅤ icⅥ /cr of thc‘ translati。 n,’ 、 Ⅴho ncithcr has,nor、 vould be ablc to havc,、 Ⅴithout spccial study,any kn0、 vlcdgc so’

、 vhats。 cⅤ cr ofthc Original,Praises as“ rcadable” an imitation only bccause the drudgc °r thc rhymster has substituted casy Platitudes f° r thc brcathtaking intricacies of the “ ’ tCXt RCadablc,’ indccd!A sch。 olboy’ sl)° ner is lcss° fa m。 ckery in rcgard to thc “ ancicnt mastcrPiCcC than its comluercial intcrPrctati。 n or poctization Rhymc” rhymcs with“ crimc,” whcn Homer° r HdmFer arc rhymed The term“ △ee tlans lati。 n” sn)acks of knavcrv and tⅤ rannⅤ It is、 Ⅴ hcn thc translator scts Out to render ’ ~n° thc“ sPirit’

t the tcxtual scnsc~that hc begins to traducc his author Thc clumsi

est htcral translation is a th° F。 r thc last HⅤ c

usand tilnes1n° re uscful than thc prctticst ParaPhrasc

ycars° r so I havc bccn engagcd,on and。 f1in translating and

annotating Pushkln’ s OneJⅠ n In thc c。 ursc of this、 vork l havc lcarncd s。 mc hcts and c° mct° ccrtain c° nclusions. First,thc faCts

Thc n° Ⅴcl

is c。

nccrncd ssìth thc a仔 hctions, affccti。 ns and fortuncs 。f thrcc

young n】 cn~0ncgin,thc bittcr lcan f° P, Lenski,the temPeramental rnin。 r Poet,

and Pushkin,thcir fricnd__and° fthree young ladics~Tatiana,(Dlga,and Pushhn’ N】 use Its cⅤ ents takc Placc bct、 vccn thc cnd° f1819and thc sPring of1825 Thc

s

sccne shRs△ ° m thc caPital t° thc c° untl yside(midway between OP。 chka and Moscow),and daencc t° N1osco、v and back t。 Pctcrsburg Therc is a dcschPti° n° f 1955

116

VLADIMIR NABOKOV

a youn:rakc’ s dayin t0、 vn;rural landscaPcs and rural librarics;a drcan△ and a ducl; vari。 us fcstiⅤ itics i11c° u11try and city;and a Ⅴ aricty of romantic,satirical and bibli° ˇ graphic digrcssions that lcnd、 Ⅴ°ndcrful〈 lth and c° lor to thc thi11g Onegin hilllsclf is,

°ne Chdde Har° ld, ll・

°f course,a litcrary Phcnomen° n,not a local。 r hist° rical ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ 。f Byron’ s r° Iuaunt’ (1812), 、:h° sc carly youth

thc her。

ad bCenl misspcnt ll1maddcst whim,”

who has“ m° ping⒒ ts,” who is bid to l° atb

hiS Prescnt statc by a“ wea“ ncss、 Ⅱ hich sPHngs iolu all丨

he】 n1Cets,”

is rcal1y° nly a

relativc, not the dircct Prot° typc, of C)ncgin, The lattcr is less‘ ‘ a NΙ uscoⅤ itc in Ha1・ ° ld’ s cl。 ak” than a dcscendant of n1anⅤ fantastic Frenchmen such as Chatcau~

bh加 △d’ s RcnJ,、 ll° w灬 aw茳 c of cxisdng only tllrc,tlgh a》 Pushkn sPeakS of Oncgi】

“

ch° ndria”

nations)灬

1’

r犭。nd scnrimcnF d’

cIlntJI,”

s sPlCen or“ chondria” (thc Enghsh“ hyPo” and thc Russian

°r“ /ldndrcz” rrCsent a neat divisio11° f hnguistic labor on thc Part° ft′ 、° of“ a malady tl△ c∞ 11sc ol whch扯 sccms hgh dme tc,nncl” To this search

Russian critics aPPhcd d1Cmsclvcs ssith c° mn1cndablc zcal,accun1ulating cluling the last° nc11undrcd

and thrtⅤ Ⅴcars onc ofthe n10st somniferous1nasscs of C0rnl,lcnts ‘ ‘ ’

knovvn to ciⅤ Ⅱizcd man, Evcn a sPecial tCrm for C)lègin’ s sickness’ has becn ‘ invcntcd(OngJjnsFl=cD);and thousands of Pagcs haⅤ e bccn dcvotcd t° hi1η asa‘ tyPe”

°fs。 methin8。 r othCr Modern s° vict critics standing on a to、 Ⅴcr ol soaPb° xes Pr。 ~ vidcd a hundrcd years ago by Bchnsl。 ,Hcrzcn,and luany othcrs,diagn° scd【 Dnegin’ s sickncss as the rcsult of“ Tzarist dcspot“ ln” Thus a charactcr b。 rr。 wcd△ on△ books but brⅡ ⒈antly rccomP° scd by a grcat poet to、 vhon1hfc and lil)rary xxcrC onc,Placcd vithil) a brilhantly reconstruCted cnvironmcnt, and Playcd 、:ith by by that poet 、 hi1u in a succcssion° f comPositi。 nal Patterns _lyrical in1Pcrs。 nations,tomfoolcrics

of gcnius,literary Parodics,styhzed istlcs,and s。 First’

on~is trcated bv Russian com~

cal Phcn。 lucnon tyPical 。f Alcxander the s rcgilnc:alas,this tcndcncy to gcnerahze and Ⅴulε ari7c the uniquc fancy ofan

mcntators as a sociological and hist°

r】

individual genius has als° its adⅤ ocatcs i11this c。 untry, ActuallⅤ thcrc has ncvcr bccn anⅤ thing espccially local or tilnc-cant in

hyPochondria,rnisanthropy,cnnui,thc blucs, ⒎ rschmcrz,ctc By1820,cnnui、 vas I∴c丿

a scasOncd litcrary chcho of charactcrizauon、vhich Pushkh1coul(lt° Ⅴ、 vith at11is leisurc.Frcnch Hction of thc cightccnd△ ccntury is f11ll° f young charactcrs suffcring frona thc sP1Ccn.It、 vas a convcnie11t devicc to kcep onc’ gavc it a ncⅥ ∶thrill;Ren。

s hero on the111°

vc,Byr0n

d。 lphc,and thci1ˉ co-su"Crers rcccivcd a transfusion of ,丿、

dcm° nt)l。。d ￡昭cn∫ On绍 in is a Russian novclin ve^c Pushhn workcd atit fl° m MaⅤ 1823to october 1831 Tl`c ⒔rst comPIctc Cditi。 n aPPcarCd in thc sPring of1833 in st Petersburg; thcre is a 、 vell-prcserⅤ cd sPccirnen °f this cditi° n at the Houghton Library,Harvard university Onggin has cight chapters and consists of5,551 hnes, all° f、vhich, cxct a song of eightccn unrhymcd lincs(in trochaic tri1nctcr), are

tramctcr,rhymcd,Thc m缸 n body° f thc work contallls,aPart f1ˉ om tw° frecly rhymcd istlcs, 366 stanzas, cach of rourteen hnes, vith a §xcd rhymc 、 f(d△ cv° wCls hclicatc the、 minine rhymcs、 the cons° nants PattCrn:ababccccid山 in iamhc tc・

the lnascuhnc° ncs) Its rCsCmblancc to thc s° nnct is obvious, Its octct C0nsists of an clc思 iac quatrain and oft、 vo c° uplcts,its sestct of a Closed quatrain and a c。 uPlCt・

This hyPcrborcan frcak is far rcmoⅤ

’

cd froll△

the Petrarchan pattcrn,but is distinctly

rclatcd t。 NIalhcrbe’ s and surrcⅤ s variatlons

∷ 翊 ∵

螭

0Ⅳ

、

The tetramctric,or“ anacreontic,’

fCJⅣ

IN ENGLIsH

117

’

sonnct、 vas introduced in Francc by sc芑 volc

dc s扭 nte-Marthc in1579;and it was。 ncc tried by ShakcsPeare(s° nnCt CXLV: 、 Ⅴ ith a rhymc scheme“ 1nakc-hatc~sake: liPs that L。 Ⅴ c’ s0、 Vn hand did lnakc/’

“ Th° sc

statc Comc sweet-doom greet; Cnd day丘 cnd away,Thrcw you勹 ThC On昭 in stanza 、 vould bc tcchnically an Enghsh anacrcOntic s° nnct had not thc second quatrain consistcd of t、 vo couPlets instcad of bcing closed° r aItcrnatc,Thc noⅤ clty

°f Pushkin’ s frcak s° nnct is that its6rst t、 velⅤ c lincs includc the grcatcst Ⅴariation in rhymc scquCnce PossiblC 、 vithin a thrce-quatrain framc∶ altcrnate, PairCd, and cl。 scd,

H。 vvcvcr,it is rcally fron)thc Frcnch,n°

t fr° n△

thc Enghsh,that Pushkin

dcrivcd thc idca f° r this nc、 v kind of stanza, Hc knc、v his Malherbe 、 vcll - and

Mahcrbc had c。 mPoSed scⅤ cral sonnc飞 (scc,忆 r cxamPlc,q Rdbef,P召 jnr″ ,sur un FiΓ r召

dc`召 urs,” 163Ol h tc订 amctcr,witll four rhymcs h tl,c。 tct and灬 ymmct1・ lcal c・

quatrains(thC first altcrnatcly rhymcd,thc second closcd),but of coursc Malhcrbc’ scstet、 vas thc Classical onc, ncvcr chnchcd、 vith a couPlet in thc Enghsh fashion

s

Wc haⅤ c to l。。k clsc、 vhcrc f°r Pushkin’ s third quatrain and for his igra∏ 1Fnatic couPlCt ^namely in Frcnch light versc。 f thc scⅤ cnteenth and eightcenth ccntury Ill onc of GKssct’

s“ EPfrr召 r’

cAu P爸 ″

Bo】 JJednr,/s山

rO thC O∝

要

n sc虻 et厶 exactly

reprcscnted by the lincs Mais P°

u1ˉ

quoi donner au lllyst心 re,

Pourqu° i rrochCr au hazard De cc Pr。 mPt et triste dopart La causc troP invol° ntair

Oui,vous scricz cncorc⒊ nous ous oticz Ⅴous△ n♂ mc;v° us Si Ⅴ Theorctically sPcaking,it is not imPossiblC that a c° mPlctC OngJin stanza rnay ’ bc f° und cmbcddcd s。 mc、・ hcrc in thc cndlcss“ EPiStlCs’ 。f th。 sc Pcri、 viggcd borcs, just as its scqucncc。 frhymcsis f° und in La Fontainc’ s ConF召 s(c.g.“ 卜Jic召 is召 /’ al△

48-61)

d in Pusllkn’ s。 wn⒒ eely rhymcd RusJdn i冯丌 udil,iFd,composed h his youth(sCc

thc last scction of Canto Thrcc,△ 。m zd ordd夕 Chernon,or) In thiS Pushkinian Pscud°

-s° nnct

@nniJ,,Ⅰ

Joddmj to s攵￠zdJ mn召

rdz凡

no

thc opcning quatrain,vvith its brⅡ hant

altcrnatc rhymcs,and thc closing couPlct,、 vith its igram1uatic chck,arc in思

rCatcr

cvidcncc than the intcrmcdiate Parts, as if、 Ⅴe、 vere being sho、 vn Hrst thc pattern on one sidc ofan in1rllobilc sPherc、 Ⅴhich、 v° uld then start to rcⅤ olⅤ c,blurring thc c。 lors,and Prcscntly、 vould comc to a stoP,rcvCahng clcarly again a smallcr pattern on its opPositc sidc.

As alrcady said, thcrc are in (9ng彐 in m° rc than 300 stanzas of this kind Wc

havc m。 rcoⅤ cr fragmcnts oft飞 Ⅴ0additi。 nal chaPtcrs and numcrous stanzas canCeled by Pushkin, s。 mc。 f then△ sParkhng vvith morc。 riginahty and bcauty than any in thc Cant° s fr° n1 xshich hc cxcluded them bef° re Pubhcation All this matter, as 、 vcll as Pushkin’ s° 、 vn coⅡ1InCntarics,the variants, ePigraPhs, dcdications,and so ford1,must bc of coursc translatcd t。 °,in aPPendiccs and notcs

118

∨LADIMIR

NABOKOV

II

Russian P° etry is affccted by thc

foll°

、 ving six charactcristics °f languagc and

Pr° Sody;

1

The numl)cr。 frhymes,botl)masculinc and kminine(ie,,singlc and d。 ublc), is inc° n△

f the rarc and Parably grcater than in Enghsh and lcads to thc cult° thc rich As in French,thc c。 nsonn口 d’ clPP口扌is° bhgatory in mascuhne rhymcs and acsthcticall、

valucd h、 mininc oncsˉ Γhisis lar rcmoⅤ cd犴。rn

rhymc,Ech° ’ s Poor

t11c Englis11

n,a gcntccl PauPer、 ∴ hosC attelnPts t° shinc rcsult n1crcl)' in d。 ggcrcI garishncss, For if in Russian and Frcnch, thc fcΠ 1inine relati°

rhy1nc is a glamor° us lady fricnd,hcr En8hsh counterPart is cithcr an old1naid

or a drunkcn hussⅤ

2

fr° n1Linacrick

N。

mattcr the length。 fa`Ⅳ ord in Russian it has but onc strcss;therc is nc、 cr a sccondarⅤ accent or t、 vo acccnts as Occurs in Enghsh~csPccially Amcrican E11ghsh,

3 4

5

PolⅤ sⅤ llabic、 vords arc c° nsidcrablⅤ m。 rc frequcnt than in Enε lish All syllables are fully Pronounccd;therc arc no chsions and slurs as therc arc in English Ⅴcrsc Invcrsion,or tuore cxactI)Pyrrhichizati。 n° f trochaic、 v° r(ls~so c° mn1onlV mct、 vith in En:hsh iambics(csPCcially in the casc oft、 vo~syllablc Ⅵ=ords ending in-cr or ing丿一 is rarc in Russian、 ˉ crsc∶ only a fc`vt、 Vo-syllable prositions

and thc trochaic comPonCnts of comP。 und Ⅵ rds lcnd then△ 6

selⅤ cs t。

shilts

`。

of strcss.

Russian Poems comPc,sed il、

iambic tt吨 ramcter contalll a largcl numbσ 。f m° dulatcd hncs than of rcgular oncs, 、.hⅡ e thc rcvcrse is truc in1・ cε ard t°

Enghsh Pocms

‘

’

By‘ rcgular Iine’ I mcan an iambic linc in xx`hich thc n】

etrical bcat coincidcs in

cach foot witln tllc nattlral strcss of thc wσ d:g′ còud`css c山 mcs口 nd吖 dr1ys炳 cs (Byr。 n)

‘

By‘ luodulated l"1c” I111ean an ian11)ic linc il1、 vhich at lcast。 nc n1ctrical

acccnt falls On thc unstrcsscd syllablc ofa PolySy"abic、 in‘

“

‘ ’ rcasonablc’

and”

v。 rd(such

as the third syllable

Ⅰ ord unstresscd in sPecch(suc11as“ )° r on alm。 nOsyllabic、、

of,’

’ ‘ ‘ tbc/, ’

‘ ctc,). In Russian Prosody such modulati° ns are tcrn、 cd ‘ hal【 acccnts,’ and

b° th

in Russian and Enghsh Poetry a tctran△ etric iambic linc n1aⅤ havc one such hal∴ accent。 n the srst,sccond,or third f° °t,or t、 9。 hal∴ acccnts in thc Hrst and third, or in adjacent托 et Here are sOmc cxaml)lcs(tllC Roman ngure dcsignates the ft,ot 、 vhcrc thc half~acccnt occurs),

I

H

Make thc delightcd sPirit glow(shCIlCy); My apprchcnsions c° mc in crowds(、V。 rdsw。 rth); and cnchantmcnts drcar(Milt° n);

OffoⅡ s“

Bcyond Participation lic(VV°

IH

I kn。、 a

I+II II+IH

rds、 vorth);

Do paint thc】 uead。 ws with dclight(ShakesPea】 ˉ c); rcasonablc w°

man(PoPC);

And on that、 1nf° rgottcn shore(B° tton11y); Whcn iciclcs hang lDy thc wall(shakCsPCarc);

oⅣ fG∫ Ⅳ

I+IIl

IN ENGLIsH

119

Orin thc chambeⅡ °f thc sca(Blake); An inc°

mmu血 ∞t,lc

slc(、 v。 rdsw。 rdal

vith charactcristic 3, the It is ilnPortant to mark that, Pr° bably in conjunction 、 hal∴ accent in the third foot° ccurs threc Or f° ur tilncs1η orC f1・ cqucntly in Russian iambic tctramctcrs than in Enghsh° ncs,and that thc1ˉ cgular linc is rnorc than tⅥ ìcc

raκ r,If,llc)r hst⒛ cc,WC eXamine B/on’ s〃 ″ Pd,Scott’ s TJlc∠ 口tlJr σ rhε Ι￠kc, Kcats’ s rJlc￡ r召〃 dr女 and TcnnFon’ sJ’ ’ /lr召 mori口 m,wc⒔ nd that tl△ c σ sdin芒

PCrccntage of rcgular lines therc is around65,as against。 nly sOme 25in O刀 q孑 in Thcrc is,h。、 vcⅤ cr,0nC Enghsh Poet、 vh° sc rll° dulations,if not as rich in quantity and Ⅴaricty as Pushkn’ s,arc at lcast an aPPr° ach t。 that richness I refcr to Andrc、 v MarⅤ cll, It is instrucuⅤ c t。 comPare Byron’ s snipˉ snap m。 notonics such as Onc shadc thc morc onc raⅤ thc lcss

Had halfimP缸 red thc namdcss grace

Which、 vaⅤ cs

in cⅤ crⅤ raⅤ cn tress

Or soR圩 hghtCns。

,er her hce

with any。 fthc hncs addresscd by N1arvcll“

To His C。 y Mistrcss” ∶

And you should if you PlcaSC rcfuse, Till thc convcrsion of the Jcws My vcgctablc l° vc should gr0、v

厂、 aStCr than cmPircs and m。

rc slo、 v,

~f° ur lincs in、Ⅴhich thcrc arc six hal【 acccnts against Byron’ s single onc It is among such mclodics that° nc should seek one’ sm° dcl、 vhcn translating

Pushkn in Ⅴcrsc

III

makc a statcmcnt for、 vhich I am rcadⅤ t。 incur thc、 Ⅴrath of Russian Alcxandr scrgcyCⅤ ich Pushkin(1799— 1837),the nati。 nal poct of Russia, Patri° 、 vas as much a Pr° duct° f Frcnch literature as of Russian culturc;and、vhat haPPcned t。 bc addcd to this n1ixturc, 、 vas individual genius 、 vhich is ncithcr Russian nor Frcnch, but uniⅤ ersal and diⅤ ine In regard to Russian influcncc, ZhukoⅤ ski and BatyuShkoⅤ 、 Ⅴerc the i∏11ncdiate Predcccess° rs of Pushkin∶ harm° ny and PrcciSi° n _ this、 vas、 Vhat hc lcarned△ om bod1, th° ugh cⅤ cn his b° yish verscs、 vcrc more I shall n0、 v ts∶

viⅤ id

and vigorous than thosc of his y。 ung tcachcrs,Pushkin’ s Frcnch vvas as nucnt

as that of any highly culturcd gcntlcman of his day. Gallicisms in assirnilation Populate his p。

imvadhg a饣 Jhnthc R° cky Moul△ tons C∝ tII~F犭 rri,召 ss口 Ⅰm d召 drF抑 irs,drFmJiisscmcnr,fo′

Ⅴarious stagcs of

vith the gay hardincss of luccrn and dandch。 n ctry 、口m。 tIr,dmσ r昭 rcr

dVsⅠ ‘,rrdn甲 oIε 凸

are。 llly a kw-my h哎

￠Fσ rmes,

c° mpriscs

about nincty cxpressions that Pushkn as、 vcll as his PrCdcccss。 rs and contcmPorariCs

transposcd from Frcmch int° melodious Russian, Of spccial imP° rtancc is b1z口 bizdrr召 rⅠ e

WhiCh Pushkin rcndcrc(l as srr口

。f Oncgin’ s naturc Thc d° uccs

nn,,srr口

nnosF’

rrc,

Whcn alludin8to the oddity

cJ,in,arcs。 f Frcnch clcgics arc as closc to the s`召

tlki召

120

∨ LADIMIR

mccJ,rr and sF口

“

s、

NABOKOV

d。 sFniV

veet delusi。

ns’

mccJar口

n∫ 口of Pushkin as thcy arc t°

Pushkn’ s sumrdchniV dubrovr and P。 sh° uld

‘

and of eighteenth-ccntury Enghsh pocts Thc s° mbres boc口 fes arc

’

Pc’

s‘

the‘ dchci。 us rcⅤ cric”

‘

darks。 me groⅤ cs,” Thc Enghsh translat° r

also lnakc up his rnind ho、 v to render such signi丘 cant n° uns and their dcriⅤ

atives as Fos炎

in Pushkin’ s idi。 m l translatc r°

’

sk虿

as

~

which constandy recur ‘ ‘ heart-achc” °r anguish” in thc sense 。f

虿lc,IaJoisse,,rof,,n° sF’ rJdnfucuIl and冖 ‘ ‘

qfd lJl’

ss” o″ 召

Kca“ s“ wakchl angtllsll” %mnosF’ With i“ atllcctivc roilln,is am。 ng Pu曲 k1n’ s ill rccall that“ languish” is uscd as a n° un by favorite、 vords Thc good translator、 Ⅴ ’ Ehzabcthan P。 cts(C・ g,Samucl IDanicrs“ rcheⅤ c1ny languisl`’ ),and in this sense is to‘

‘ vhat“ PalC” anguish” 、

adjcctiⅤ

iS to‘

‘ dark”

Blakc’ s“ hcr

languishcd hcad” takcs carc° f thc

c,and thc“ languid rnoon” of Keats is niccly(luPhcatcd by Pushkin’

fund At some Point r。 mnosF’ (langu。 r)gradCS into n昭口 (m°

sF° mndv口

n卩 ucur),S°

R luxury

`Fc F口 vith Enghsh Pocts °f the senses, slumbcrous tcndcrncss Pushkin、 Ⅴas acquaintcd、 on1y thr° u思 h thcir Frcnch m° dc1s or French Ⅴcrsions; the Enghsh translat。 r 。f (冫 ng孑氵 ,a, 、 vhilc scckng an idiolla in thc Gallic diction of PoPe and Byron, or in thc romantic Ⅴocabulary of Kcats,rnust constandy rcfcr t° the Frcnch Pocts In lⅡ s early youth,Pushkin’ s literary tastc was formcd by thc samc、 Ⅳriters and 广 Γhis1nanual、 vas the samc Cours dc Ⅰir‘ JrclFurc that formed Lamartinc and stcndhal

thc“

-/c犭

cou C° u阝 dc￡ ir泌 rdru招 ,dnci召 nne cr illod召 rnc” by Jean Frangois LaharPc,in ritc authors s faⅤ °

sixtcen volumcs, 1799-— 1805, To the cnd of his days, Pushkin’

、 vcre Boilcau,Bossuet,CorncⅡ lc,F芑 nel。 n,Lafontainc,Moh志 rc,Pascal,Racine,and /。、 ltairc In relati° n to his c。 ntemporaries, hc f° und Lamartinc mclodious but monotonous, I△ ugo giftcd but on thc、 Ⅴhole sec° nd-rate;he、velc。 n△ cd thc lasciv_ ious Ⅴersc of young Musset, and rightly dcsPiscd :忐 rangcr, In OngJin one 丘nds

‘ Ιc /lrondd1n”

(Ⅴ ari。 us

r agcs in ChaPtcr One) °

cchocs n° t° nly of Voltairc’

s‘

Millev° yc’ sE/句

y in agcs rclated to Lc灬

P° Jsics￡

氵召s(esPCciaⅡ

roFiqucs, Grcssct’ s

kl),btlt dso of Parny’

Γcrr~v召 r‘ , Ch0nicr’ s melancholy n1clodics and

d Pcri“ P砣 rcs~frdnfdis,Su山

s

°f a host

as Baf,Gcndl Bcrmard,Bcrnis,Bcrun,cht.ulicu,

Colar(lcau, Delax・ lgnc, Dclillc, Desb° rdcs Valm° re,

Dcspo吨 cs, Dorc△ t, Ducis, Gilbcrt, Lattaignant, Lebrun, Lc Brun, LcgouⅤ o, LcnⅡ crrc, L忐 onard, Mal⒔ l含 trc, Piron,Jcan-BaPtistc Rousscau,and othcrs As to Gcrman and Enghsh,hc hardly had any In 1821,translating Byron into gcntlcman’ s Frcnch for his o、 vn private usc,hc rendcrs“ the、vavc that rol1s bclo、 v ’ the Athcnian’ s graⅤ c’ (beginning of thC Gi口 °url as“ cc`尸 or qui rouF召 sur Fd frε ve d’

ⅡFJl爸 nε

” Hc rcad shakcspcarc in Guizot’ s and Arned芑 c Pichot’ s revision of

Lctourneur’ s edition (Paris, 1821) and Byr。 n in Pichot’ s and Eus芑 bc dc sallc’ s vas singularly dear to vcr蚯 ons(Paris, 1819-21). Byr。 n’ s com1nand of thc clich造、

Russian poe“ as cchoing thc min° r and m旬 or French PocΙ y on whch thcy hacl

bccn brought uP It、 vould havc been a Π at and dry businessindeed,ifthc Ⅴcrbal texturc of On召 fin Vhcn,rn° rc 、 vcrc rcduccd t° thcsc PattCrns in fadcd silks But a lniraclc。 ccurrcd Ⅳ

vent the digious imPact。 f Frcnch,thc Russian Poets rnadc certain insPircd selecti° ns and Pr° matchcd thc old and thc ncγ v in certain cnchantingly individual、 vayS,Frcnch stock epithcts, in thcir Russian mctamorPhosiS9 brcathe and blo° m ancvv, so dChCatcly than a hundrcd and HRy years ago, thc Russian litcrary languagc under、

d° es

Pushkin lnanipulatc then△ as hc disP° sCs thcrll at strategic Points of his1ncanharmonics Incidcntally,this d° cs not lightcn our task,

ingR】 l

@Ⅳ EG∫ Ⅳ

IN ENGLIsH

121

IⅤ

ThC PCrson、 vho dcsircs to turn a litcrary masterPiecc int° anothcr languagc, has only one duty t。 Perforrll, and this is t。 rroducc ˇ vith absolutc cxactitudc the

‘ 、 vholc tcxt, and n° d△ ing l)ut thc tcxt Thc tcrm‘ litcral translation” is tautological sincc anything but that is not truly a tramslation but an in1itation, an adaPtation

°r a Parody Thc Problcm, then, is a choicc bet、vecn rhymc and rcas° n∶ can a translation 、 Ⅴhilc rcndcringˇ vith absolutc ndchty the、 vh° lc tcxt,and nothing but thc text,kc thc f° rm 。f thc 。riginal, its rhythm and its rhym To thc artist、 vhom Practicc 、 vithn tlle li1nits° f onc languagc,his oⅥ 广 n,has c° nvinced that rnattcr and manner are onc,it comcs as a shock to discoⅤ cr that a、 vork of art can prcscnt itsclf t° thc

、 v。 uld l)c translat° r as sPhtint° forn△ and contcnt,and that thc qucstion ofrendering 。nc but n。 t thc Othcr may arisc at aⅡ . Actually、vhat haPPcns is still a monist’ s dchght: shorn of its Pri1nary verbal cxistcnce,the original tcxt、

vill n° t bc ablc to soar and to sing;but it can be very niccly disscctcd and1uounted,and scicnti⒔ cally

studicd in all its Organic details s° here is thc s° nnct,and thcrc is thc sonnetccr’

s

ardcnt adn1ircr stdl h° Ping that by somc n1iraClc of ingcnuity hc、 vill bc ablc to render eⅤ cry shadc and shecn° f the° riginal and s° mch。 ˇ Ⅱkc intact its sPecial Pattern in anothcr t。

ngue

Lct rnc statc at oncc that in rcgard to merc mctcr thcrc is n°

Thc iambic mcasurc is Perkct|Ⅵ

・ illing

t lnuch tr° uble

to be c。 mbincd with hteral accuracy for

the curi° us rcason that Enghsh Pr° sc laPsCS quitc naturally int。

an iambic rhythm

⒏etnson l△ as a dcli酗 tM csS叮 wami吒 tllC哎 udcnt ag缸灬 t thc da吒 σ d tralls fcrring onc’ s Pr° SC into blank Ⅴcrsc by dint of P° hshing and Pruning;and thc beauty uched °fthc thing is that stcⅤ cns。 n’ s discussion ofthc rhythn1ic traPs and Pitfalls is c° in PurC iambic vcrsc、 vith such Precision and ccon。 my。 f(licti。 n that rcadcrs, or at lcast thc sirnPlCr rcadcrs, arc not a、 varc of thc didactic trick

NCwsPaPcrs uSC blank Ⅴcrκ as commotlly灬 Mon“ cur Jourd“ n uscd Pr。 sc I havc just strctchcd my hand t0、 vard a prostrate PaPcr,and reading at randorn l hnd Dcbatc On Eur° pcan Army intcrruPtcd:thC Asscmbly’ F° rcign

Afhirs c° mnnittcc by a votc

Oft、vcntyˉ four to tvventy has dccidcd

To recommcnd whcn thc AsscmblⅤ ConⅤ emcs this aftcrn° on That it adoPt thc res° T°

luti° n

Put。 ff the dcbate indesnitely

This,in effcct,would kill thc trcaty

Thc Nc、 vY。 rk Yankccs arcn’ t conccding Thc American Lcaguc nag t。 clcⅤ cland But thc Hrst seed° fd。 ubt Is gro、 ving

in thc n)inds of thc dcfcnding chamPi° ns

Ncbraska oty P1ˉ 。 ud ofjai⒈ Str° msburg,Ncbraska(AsS。

。atcd

Prcss).

Thcy’ c1nighty Proud hCrc of thc city jall, Iˉ

s

122

VLADIMIR NABOKOV A buildin8that providcs both for incarccrat1on

And entertainment Thc brick structurc houscs The p。 hce stati。 n and the jall The scc。 nd sto1・ v Has opcn sidcs and is uscd as a band stand

V O,,qgin has bccn n1istranslatcd int° luany languagcs,I havc chcckcd。 nly the French

and Enghsh vcrsi。 ns, and sola,c。 fthc

rhymcd Gcrman° ncs, Thc thrcc complcte

Gern1an c。 ncoctions I havc sccn arc thc、 orst of thc l。 t Ofthcsc Lil,Pcrt’ S(1840)

which changes Tatiana int。

Mo血 z

Johanna, and scubc1・

tang,are bcncatll colltemPt;btIt Boclcn呲

cdt’

t’

s (1873) 、'ith its Max-und-

s flu奸 Prt,d“ t(18舛 )has bCell

so much Praiscd by Gcrman critlcs that it is ncccssary to、 t°

varn the reader that it,

°, dcspitc a n△ °rc laudable attemPt at undCrstanding if not exPression, bristlcs

、 vith incrcdiblc blundcrs and ridiculous intcrPolati。 ns, Incidcntally, at this P。

int,

it should be n。 tcd that Russians tlacmsclves arc responsiblc for thc t、 vo greatcst insults that haⅤ c been hurlcd at Pushkin’ :sky) ° CΓ schaykoⅥ

s mastcrPiece ~ thc vilc Chayk° vski

PCra and the cqually vile illustrations by Rin

novcl 0negin hrcd bctter in Frcnch~nan1ely in Turgcnev and Viard。

Ⅵ・ hich

dec° rate

n1ost editi。 ns。 fthc

s hirly cxact d Revue Nα FJ° ,a口 re,Paris 1863) It、 v° uld haⅤ c bccn a rcally good ProsC vCrsion(in￡ translation had Viardot rcahzcd ho、 v much Pushkin rehed。 n thc Russian cquivat’

lent° f thc st。 ck ePithets。 f French P° ctr), and had l)c actcd accordingly As it is,

Dupont’ s Pr° se Ⅴcrsion(1847), `vhilC craⅥ /ling、 vith crrors。 f a tcxtual naturc, is n△

orc idiornatic

Thcrc arc four Enghsh comPlctC versions unfo1ˉ tunatcly aVa"ablc t° collcgc 哎u
n召

n,t1ˉ anslatcd by BaLDcttt,Dctltsch in丁 hc9/orks Ofˉ 1/cxdndcr Ptlsh知 n, Onq乡 Ⅰ

sclectcd and cd⒒ ed bⅤ

Abraham Yarmohnsk(Rand。

mH° usc,Ncw York1936);

uc,Lond。 n,Jan 1936to enc On叼】 n,translatc〈 l by Jan 1938,and Thc Pushkin Press,Lo11(lon1937);￡ ⒐⒘ ˉ D° 【 °thea Prall Radin and Gc。 rge Z Pat】 ˉ ick(uni⒈ 。f calin)rnia Prcss,Berkdcy 1937) All f° ur arc in mctcr and rhymc; all arc the rcsult of carncst cff° rt and 。 f an incrcdiblc amount of lncntal labor; all c° ntain hcrc and thcrc httlc gcms of ingenuity; and all are grotesquc travesties of their 1n° dcl, rendcrcd in drcadful versc,teclnii1g with rnistranslati。 ns T11e lcast ofendcr is tlle blur,mattcr。 ∴hct Coloncl;thc、 vorst is Profcss° r Elton,“ ho combincs a kind ofirrcsP° nSiblC Ⅴcrbal ￡叼 e哕

Onq'n,translated by Olhσ Ekon(Tll召

s杨 ˇ onjc RcΓ

fchcity、 vith the m°st exubcrant vulgarity and thc funnicst ho、 vlers

Onc 。f thc main tr°ublcs 、 vith、 ,。 uld~bc translators is their ignorancc (Dnly ‘ sheer unacquainta11cc `vith Russian life in thc t、 vcntics of thc last centurv can onc cXPlain,f° r instancc, thcir pcrsistcntly translating cfε revn「 d by‘ ‘ ⅤⅡlagc” instcad b)ˉ

。f“ c° untryˉ scat/’

and sk。

kα r’

l)y“ to galloP” instcad of“ t° driⅤ c,”

∫ 、 nVonc、 vh° 、 vishcs

to attcmPt a translation of@nq彐 in sh° uld acquirC Cxact inf° rmation in rcgard to a nulllbcr of rclcvant subjccts, such as thc Fablcs。 f KriloⅤ ,

BⅤ ron’ s、 v° rks,

P° etS° f thc cightccnth ccntury,Rousscau’ sL口

c,Pushkin’

p￠

@urcF`召 H・ òi。

Frcnch

s bi° graPhy,

oA/fε J/V IN ENGLIsH

123

banking gamcs, Russian songs relatcd to diⅤ ination, Russian n1ihtary ranks° f the tirne as comparcd to Wcstcrn Europcan and Amcrican° nes,thc diffcrcncc bctⅣ veen cranbcrry and lingcnbcrry, thc rulcs of the Enghsh Pist°

l ducl as uscd in Russia,

and the Russian languagc.

ⅤI vare analyzc thc oPCning quatrain。 f stanza XXXIX in ChaPter Four, 、 vhich dcscribcs Oncgin’ s life in thc suⅡ 11ncr of1820° n his c° untrⅤ cstate situatcd somc thrcc hundrcd Π111cs vvcSt of M° sc0、V:

T° illustratc some of thc sPccial subtlctics that Pushkin’ s translators sh。 uld be a、

of, I proPosC t°

Progolki,chton’ c,s° n glubokoy, Lcsn芬 ya tcn’ ,zhurchk;1n’ c struy, PoroⅤ bclⅤ 芑 nki chcrn° ~okoⅤ

Mladoy i Sv。 zhiy Potzcl伎 y In the nrst line,

progulki,chtcn’ c,s° n81ubok。 y

(which TurgeneⅤ _Viard° t tl anslatc(l corrcttly as勹 d Promcn虿 d召 ,Fd F∝ r1Ⅱ e,un sor,,mC9' ” cc tllc uror召 ),Pr叼 u跟 i cannot be relldσ dl,lr由 c ob“ ous“ wdkF蚰 ″ 咖 nd d s口 ′ c・

Russian term includcs thc additional idea of riding for cxcrcisc or Plcasure I did

’

’

not care for“ promcnadcs’ and scttled f° r“ ramblcs’ since one can ramblc about° n h° rseback

reading/’ and thCn comcs a 。t, Thc next、 v。 rd mcans‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ not only‘ deep slc” but also‘ s° und slc” (hCncc thc

as、 vcll as on f°

tcaser:fFtIb@大 ov son mcans

n)and ofcourse imPhes“ slc by night” (Dnc ’ ‘ is tcmPted t。 use‘ slumber,’ 、 vhich、v。 uld niccly ccho in an° thcr key the allitera~ tons of the text(〃叼uF炎 Ⅰ F1jb° 炎 ’mmt’ lCs slumbcr),but。 f tllcsc clcgancics thc 召 ⒐ double epithet in the French translati。

translator shoukl bc、 varc Thc lnost dircct rcndcring of thc linc sccms to bc∶

rambIcs,and rcading,and sound slc, , ,I In thc ncxt line

lcsnaya ten`zhurchan’ c struy

‘

’ ‘ 。r, in better concord‘ the sylvan shade” (and I c。 nfcss t。 haⅤ c t。 yed with(Byr。 n’ s)“ thc umbragc。 fthc woo(l” );and n。 wc。 mcs ‘ ‘ Vhich I ⒔nally rcndcrcd as thc an° thcr (hfscultⅤ : the catch in zrhurc为 cIn’ c sF'tΙ Γ , 、 ’ bubbhng ofthc streams,’ is that s芒 rui(n° n1inatiⅤ c Plural)has t、 v° 1nCanings∶ its ordin~ ’ ‘ ary onc is thc °ld scnsc of thc En8hsh‘ strca∏ dcsignating n。t bodics 。f、 vatcr fesn口 r口 rcn’ is‘ thc f° rest’ s shadc,’

1s’

but rathcr hmbs of watcI・

,thc shaRs of a running river(for cxtalnplc as uscd by Kyd ‘ “ in‘ Corneha” ∶ ()beautious TⅤ ber、 vith thinc casic strcams that glidc ,” or by Annc Bradstrcet in“ ContcmPlations” :“ a丨 RiⅤ erl where gliding虻 rcams” ctc),whilC

124

∨LADIMIR

NABOKOV

the other mcaning is an attemPt on Pushkin’ s part to cxpress thc Frcnch‘

‘

on〈 Fcs氵

’

、 vatcrs;for it should bc clcar to Pushkin’ s translator that thc linc thc sylvan shadc,the l)ubbhng ofthC strcams

shadc,thc Purhng Ⅴ。°d rcgccts an idyl1ic idcal dcar to thc Arca(lian PoCts Tbc、 untlcss“ 莒 can l)C found togcthcr in c° and thc、 vatcr,“ uⅠ cr`cs bois/’ ” ès rvissc￠ ‘ d召 cigbtfaⅤ orcd by `PJcs Fcl cLim`口 n召召 Praising the‘ grccn rctreats” that、 vcrc thcOrctically ‘ ‘ s bois, f召 centh~ccntury French and Enghsh pocts Antoine Bertin’ s Fc s氵 ’ ’ `cnce cf召 mur刀 2urC dc F’ °ntl召 (￡ fJfic丿 CY`r)or EⅤ aristc Parny’ s“ dans l’ 忐PaisSCur du bois、 au doux c)淤 C0pi∞ l commonl,laces of this l【 lnd 11it des ruisscaux” (Fi・ qfn,cI’ rd△ (。 r

as an。 ld Enghsh rhymstcr luight haⅤ c putit“ thc grcCn~、 vood

rdlcts” )dehbCratcly

l,lˉ

ve have no、v translated thc Witll tllc assistancc of thcsc `cε n1inor French Poets, 、

⒔rst

tⅥ

ò lincs。

f the stanza Its cntirc srst quatrain runs∶

Rambles,and rcadiI1g,and s° und slc, the sylvan shadc,thc bubbhng of dac strcams; son△ cti了 uCS a、 vhitc~skinncd(lark~cvcd

girΓ

s

young and frcsh kiss, Por。 Ⅴbclvanki chcrno-okoⅤ Mladoy i svCzhiy Potzcluy The trans1ator is confiontcd hc1・

n rnasks an auto-

c bⅤ somcthi【

`g quitc sPCcial Push⒗ biograPhical allusion undcr thc(hsguisc of a litcral translati。 n fr° In Andr芑 Ch总 nicr, 、 vhon1,h° 、 vcvcr,hc docs n。 t rncntion in any aPpcndcd notc I an1against stressing

vorks; and such emPhasis thc human intcrest angle in thc discussion of litcrary 、、 v° uld l)c csPccially incongru。 us in thc case of Pushki11’ s noⅤ cl Ⅵ'herc a stⅤ hˉ/cd, and thus fantastic,Pushkln is onc of thc lnain charactcrs bⅤ

Ho、vcvcr,thcrc is little doubt that° ur author camc〉 unagcd in thc Prcsent stanza, rneans° f a dcvicc、 vhich in1825vvas unique in thc annals of htcrary art,his()、 vn

cxpcricncc:namely a briefintri:uC hC、 vas haⅤ ing that sult11ner on11is cstatc in thc hom Provincc° f Pskov、 vith Olga Kalashnikov,a rneek,dchcatc-looki11g SlaⅤ e girl,、・ vay to a sccond demesne of his, in he made Pregnant and evcntually bundlcd a、 Ⅴ c snd,in a f1・ agmcnt datcd incc If、 ve n。、 turn to Andr芑 Ch芑 nicr,、 an。 thcr Pr° Ⅴ ” 1789and pubhshed by Latouchc as“ ￡Pirrc 1TJ, a clc PdraJc din犭 (hnCs 5-8)∶ .Il a dans sa PaisiblC Ct saintc sohtudc,

Dul° isir,du son11ncil,ct les bois,ct l’ 誉tudc, Lc banquct dCS an1is,ct quelquef° is,lcs s。 Lc baiscr jcunc ct flais d’

irs,

unc blanchc aux Ⅴcux no1rs

`hat Nonc of the translators of Pushkn,Enghsh,GCrman or Frcnch,havc noticcd飞 Λ rst Ⅴ ery f△ scvcral Russian studcnts °f Pushkn discoⅤ crcd indePendently (a diSc° ^fd,” in Pu5h大 in ￡ ∫d Lcns炎 ° ‘oi`厅 dnr'usk9v cF昭 Published,I think,by SaⅤ chcnko~“ `昭 ⒔rst hnes° f our Vn,jroyoJ Fircrurt`rc,notc,P 362,Leningrad1926),that thc tw° o a mCtaPhrasC。 f Chonicr’ s hncs stanza XXXIX a1ˉ c a paraphrasc,and thc ncxt“ Ⅴ

、

0/vfGJlA IN ENGLIsH

Chonicr’ s curious PrcOccuPati° n with thc whitt・ ncss of a woman’

examPlc,“ EF句 ic YxfD and P“ hkn’

s

125

ss⒗ n(sCC,忆 r

Ⅴi“ on ofhls own iaⅡ y° ung mis订 css,ftlsc to

a marvclous rnask,thc disguisc of a Personal cmoti° n;for it、 vill bc n。 tcd that Ⅴas gcncrally ratlacr carcful ab。 ut thc idcntiscati。 n of his s° urccs, our author,、 vh° 、 f° rn△

n0、 vhcrc reⅤ cals his direct b。 rr。、ing hcrc, as if by rcferring to the literary origin

of these lines hc n1ight impingc uPon thc mⅤ

stcrⅤ

of his Ovvn romance

Enghsh translators, vvho、 verc c° mPletcly unavvarc of all thc imp⒈ cations and

e discusscd in comncction、 vith this stanza, haⅤ c had a good dcal of

niccties I haⅤ

troublc、 vith it, sPalding strcsscs the hygicnic sidc°

f the evcnt

the unconta∏ 1inated klss

of a young dark_eyed country lnaid; N1iss Radin pr。 duccs thc drcadfu⒈ a kiss at tin1cs iom s°

mc R"rn1汪 dcn

dark~cycd,、vith l)right and y° uthR△ 11o。 ks; N】

iss Dcutsch,aPParcntly n° t rcahzing that Pushkin is alluding to Oncgin’ s carnal vith thc incrcdiblⅤ c° Ⅴ

rclations vvith his scrf girls, comcs uP、

:

and if a black-eycd girl PcrllaittCd

somctimes a kiss as frcsh as shc; and Pr。

fess。

r Elton,、 vho in such cascs can al、 vayS bc(lcndcd uPon f° r gr。 tesquc ncubinc∶

tritcncss and bad gran11nar,rcvcrscs thc act and pcroxidcs thc c。 at dmcs a icsh young kiss best° wing uP° nS° mc blond and dark-cycd luai(1,

Pushkin’ s linc is,byˉ thc~by,an exccllcnt illustration of、 vhat I mean bⅤ ahsn△ ,hterahty,litcral interPrctati° n” I take litcrahsn1to mcan‘

‘

‘ ‘

litcr~

absolute accuracⅤ

”

If such accuracⅤ somethnes rcsults in thc strangC allcgoric sccnc suggcstcd by thc

PhraSc“ thc lcttcr has killcd thc sPirit/’ only one rcason can bc imagincd:thcrc rnust havc l)ccn sOmcthing、 vron8cithCr、 vith thc° riginal lettcr。 r、vith thc。 riginal spirit, vith absolutc s conccrn Pusl△ kin has litcrally(iC 、

and this is not rcally a translator’

accuracy)rCndcrcd Ch。 nicr’ s‘

‘

unc b′ 日nch沪

”

by“ ‘召 ,口 n炎￠ and thc En妒 ish translator

should rcincarnatc hcrc both Pushkin and Ch忐 nicr It、 vould bc falsc litcrahsrn t° Ⅱnder be夕 dn大 d runc b/dnc为 cl as“ a white onc” ~or,虻 ill worse,%whitc kmal卩 ‘ ‘ and it、 Ⅳ。uld be ambigu° us to say‘ ⒘ 疝r-hccd,” Thc accuratc lncaning is‘ a、 vhitc’ ‘ ’ ‘ vhitc-skinncd girl,” `vith dark cycs skinned female,’ certainly‘ young,’ hencc a‘ 、 and, prcsumably, dark hair cnhancing l)yc。 ntrast thc lu∏ 1in° us fairncss° f unPigˉ ;

mcntcd skin An。 thcr good cxamplc° f a particularlⅤ

Chaptcr Onc∶ I rcc° llcct thc sea bef° rc a storn⒈

oh。 Ⅵ

Ì enⅤ

ied

“

untranslatable”

stanza is XXXHI in

∨LADIMIR

126

NABOKOV

thc、 vaⅤ cs that ran in turbulcnt succcssion vn at hcr fcct、 vith l° vc! to lic d° 、 Ya P。 mnyu

m。 rc

Prcd gr°

z。 yu:

kak Ⅴa zavid。 Ⅴal Ⅴoln奇 m bcgoshchiIn l)orn。 y chercd。 yu ’ s lyukoⅤ yu lcch k ey。 n° g奇 nl!

Russian rcadcrs disccrn in thc。

riginal here tvvo sets of bcaudfully onomatopocic

浊 shchiial bJrnq厂 vvhich1・ cndcrs thc turbulent rush ofthe sur∴ and 一 s Ⅱ k犭 Γ thc liquid lisP of the waⅤ cs(lying in ad° rati° n at the lady’ s%et 9u`汕、 Vh° s° cⅤ Cr the rec° llectcd ket bcl。 ngcd t° (thirteen~ycar-old Marie RaeⅤ ski alhterati。 ns∶

bc呷

rl△

c。 i,,P虿 °f Tatar fniε °r what is n10rc1ikely~desPitc R/1aric’ s own mCm0irs~Countcss Ehsc Vor。 ntzoⅤ ,Pushkn’ s mistrcss in Odessa,or,most likdy,a rctl osPcCtiⅤ e co1nbi

Paddling ncar Taganr。 g,or hcr fathcr’ s godchild,a young d虿 n2ed召 ori思 in,

cs come flom nadon of reⅡ ectcd ladics),the only rekⅤ ant htt herc is that thcsc wa、「 ’ r r。 ucher … rcfc。 r to“ Ⅰ ondc Po1Ι La忆 nt“ nc thr° ugh Bogdanovich,【 ∫l・刀uV a′ on卩 s rs s’

enFr叩 ousse er d’ 1Inc t,gd`cd″ cur chdqLJc`° F氵 son rou's’ cn ΓicnF bd1scrès PJcds de

rc d’

`°

Ⅱi,,our

lJcan dC la F。

ntainc

“ Ι es△ m° urs

dc P"che cr dc C1Ι Pidon,”

1669)and

‘ ‘ `dm氵 f this by IPPoht BogdanoⅤ ich, in his S、 vcct Psychc” t° a cl。 sc paraPhraSC ° ‘ (Dusr,召 n飞召, 1783- 1799)、 vhich in Enghsh should rcad‘ thc、 vavcs that PursuC hCr j°

哎lc jcalously to%ll humbly at hcr攵

ct,”

Without introducing various changcs,thcrc is no possil)ihty、 vhatsocvcr to n1akc

°f

Pushkin’ sf° ur lines an altcrnatclyˉ

rhymed tctramctric quatrain in Enghsh,cⅤ cn

if only rnascuhnc rhymcs bc uscd The kcy、

vords arc∶

co丿 F召 cF,sccz,srorIla,cnricd,盯口yCs,

吁 rcn,Furbu′ ε nF,stIcc召 s"0n,Fic,ˇ 丿查 cr,foΓ ε ;alld to tllcse ck丈 n nc,ta“ nglc addiuc,n mn ‘ bc madc、 vithout bctrayal For instancc,if、 vc try to end the nrst line in‘ bcf° re” -

fr召 c° FF召 cr rh召 ‘ ‘ sh° rc” t°

scd b吵招 (忆 llowed” a crtldC c巧 amkmmt)~alld

the end。 f

the third linc (r/lc S°

mcthing

r趾 thC r、 me

ε 叮dⅠ 饣s rh口 F sFOrm Fhc shorc), this

one concession xlrould inv。 lvc usin a numbcr of° thcr changcs comPlctely brcakng uP the。 riginal scnsc and all its litcrary associations In othcr、 vords,thc translat° r sh。 uld

constantly bcar in n1ind not。

nly the essential pattcrn of thc text but als°

Ⅵhth`vhich that pattcrn is interⅥ/oⅤ cn Nor can anything bc added f。 r the sake。 frhymc。 r1ncter Onc thinks ofs° mc ofthose task Problcms in chcss vings thc l)° rr° 、

tourncys to thC c° mP° siti° n° f、vhich sPecial rcstrictivc rulcs arc aPPhcd, such as thc suPulati。 n that° nly ccrtain Pieces luay bc uscd,In thc1narvelous ccon° my of an Ong卩 ir,stanza,thc usablc picccs arc likc、 visc stricdy lin1itcd in numbcr and lond:

mav be shiRcd ar° und bⅤ thc translator but n。 additional Incn maⅤ bc uscd for padding or⒔ lling uP thc gaps that imPair a uniquc solution, theΥ

VII To translatc an OngJ1n stanza does not lncan to rig uP fourtccn lincs、 vith altcrnatc bea“ and aⅢ x to thcm scⅤ cnjin妒 e rhymcs s切 rting with plc灬 uκ l° vc kisuκ d° vc,

Grantcd that rhymes can bc found, thcy sh° uld be raiscd to thc lcⅤ el。 fO刀 q” n’ S harm° nies but if thc lnascuhnc° nes1nay bc1nade to takc carc。 f thcmsclves,、vhat

.

O rJ=ˉ

G∫

rv IN ENGLIsH

严 hcn Pushkin rlη yn1es deⅠ shall、 :cd° ab° ut thc fcn)ininc rhyn1csP、、 Jclc yi

Ⅰ (Ⅵ hCrc

arc youP), thc effect is cvocative and euPh。

’

‘

ni° us,

127

i(maidCns)、 :itb l)ut

、 vhcn Byron

rhymcs“ maidcns’ Ⅵ=ith‘ gay dcns/’ the1ˉ Csult is burlcsquc EⅤ cn such sPht rhyn△ cs ‘ in OngJin as thC instrumental °f Childe Harold and thc instrumcntal of‘ ice” (Gdrof’ tFor,,~so`Vom),rctain

thcir a° nian graⅤ ity and havc nothing in con11non With

such m° nstrOsities in Byr° n as“ nc、v skin” and‘ ‘ P。 uskin” (a of C。 unt Musin-Pushkh1,a bin° ll△ lnal branch of thc fan1ily), s。

hcrc arc thrcc c° nclusi° ns I ha、

9J,eJin in r11yIllc 2 It is PoSsiblc t° ‘

diSt。 rti。 n

ofthc namc

c ar1・ ivcd at∶ 1. lt is in1Possil)lC t。

translatc

dcscribc in a scrics of f° otn。 tes thc modula-

tions and rhylncs of the tcxt as、 vcll as all its assOciations and other sPccial featurcs, 3 It is PossiblC t。 f°

translatc Ong孑 Ⅰ n′ vith]ˉ casonablc accuracy l)y subStituting for thc

urtccn rhymcd tetramctcr lincs of cach stanza fourtecn unrhynlcd lines°

f varying

lcngtll,△ om iambic dimchtcr to iamhc per1tametσ

Thcse c。 nclusions can bc8cncrahzcd I notcs,footnotcs rcaching uP likc skyScraPcrs t。 leavc。 nly thc glea】 n° f。 ne tcxtual liI1c bct、

、 vant translati° ns “id1 copi° us foott11ct° P° f thiS。 r that Page so as t。

・ y and ctCrnity.I、 :ant

`èen comn1cnta】 such footn° tcs and thc abs° lutely litcral scnsc,、 Ⅴid1n° cmasculation and n。 padding _ I 、 ∴ 、 ant such scnsc and such n° tcs f° r all thc P° etry in othcr tongucs that still

‘

’

languishcs in‘ PoCtical’ Ⅴersi° ns,l)cgrirncd and bcshmed by rhyluC Andˇ ￠ hcn c’ ngfin is rcady,it、 vⅡ l cithcr c° nforΠ 1cxactly to my Ⅴision or not aPPear at aⅡ

my ,

Note PoPc、 Th。 m son’ sPring/’

’ ‘ SOund slc by night、 study and casc,’ in“ sohtudc/’ or JamcS “ “ˉ etirelncnt, rural quict, fricndshiP, b。。ks,” in Thc scas。 ns∶ s 】 s‘

Chapter ll

Jean■ Paul、

ìnay and Jean口 arhelnet

A M ETHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION TJ/a刀 s切芒 ed

by Jua刀 ε,Sa9er a刀

d胛 .J.″ a阴 e`

T FIRsIˉ THE DIFFERENT n1cth° less, l)ut thcⅤ can bc c。 ndcnscd

ds° r ProcCdurcs sccIη

to bc Count

to just seven, caCh one corrcsP。 ndh1g to a

highcr degrec of c° mPlexity In practicc, thcⅤ maⅤ bc uscd cithcr on their° 、 vn or

combined、

ith。 ne° r

morc ofthc。 thcrs

`・

Direct and ob1ique transIation Gcncrally sPcaking,translators can cho。

sc Ir° n1t、 vo

luedlods° f translating,namcly

dircct,。 r litcral translation and。 bljquc translati° n,In son1c translati° n tasks it rnaⅤ bc possible to tI・ ansp。 sc thc sOurcc language n△ cssagc clclllcnt by clcment into tI1c targct languagc, bccausc it is bascd on cither(i)ParaⅡ Cl categorics, in、 vhich casc vve can sPcak。 f Structural Parallchsn1, or(Ⅱ )on Parallcl c。 ncts, 、 vhich arc the rcsult °f mctahnguistic ParallChsms But translators may also n。 ticc gaps, or

‘ 1acunac”

, in thc targct lan:uagc (TL) vvhich must be

丘llcd by corrcsponding

clemcnts, so that thc。 Ⅴcrall imPrcSSi。 n is thc samc for thc t、 vo mcssagcs, It may,ho、 vcⅤ er,als° haPpen that,bccausc° f structural or rnctahnguistic dircrenccs, ccrtain styhstic c汉ccts cannot bc transPosed int。 thc TL、 vithout upsctting the syntactic ordcr,° r cvcln thc lcxis In this case it is understood that n1°

mcthods havc t° l)c uscd、 vhich at Hrst lllaV look unusual but

rc conaPlcx

、 vhich nc、 crthelcss can pcrn1it tIˉ anslators a strict c。 ntr。 l oⅤ cr the rchabihty of their 、 v° rk: thesc vhich foll° Ⅵ 广 S,thC Pr。 cCdurcs are called obhquc translation1uethods.In thc listing、 srst thrcc pr。 ccdures arc dircct and thc othcrs arc°

1958/1995

bhquc

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANsLATION

129

PrOcedure1:Borrov"ng To ovcrcomc a lacuna,usually a mctahnguistic onc(cg・ a ne、 Ⅴtcchnical Pr。 ccsS’ a11unkno、 vn c。 ncePt),b° rr。、 ving is thc sin1PlCSt° f all translati° n rncth。 ds It、 v。 uld not even mcrit discussion in this contcxt if translat°

rs did not。 ccasionallⅤ nced to

usc it in order t° crcatc a styhstic effcct F° r instancc, in ordcr t。

intr° ducc

thc

°ur° f the s。 urcc languagc (sL) culturc into a translati。 n, f° rcign tcrms luay ‘ ’ ’‘ bc uscd,c g such Russian、 vords as“ roul)lcs’ ’ and“ aParatchik’ ,‘ d。 lla1・ s” ,‘ datchas’ “ ‘ and Party” fr° rn Arnerican Enghsh, ˇIcxican SPanish f° 。d names ‘ tcquila” and ‘ ‘ tortⅡ las” , and s。。 n In a story、 vith a tyPical Enghsh setti11g, an cxpression such ‘ fla、

as‘

thc coroner sPokc”

is Pr。 bably

bcttcr translated into Frcnch by borroⅥ

Enghsh tcrm“ cor。 ncF,rathcr d1an廿 lcnt title fr°

”

nε

to丘 nda m。 K° r

n1a1nongst the French magistrature, cg∷

Somc、 ell-cstabhshcd,1nainly

/ing thc

lcss satis、 ing eqt】 lva

‘ ‘ Ιe cor。 I,cr`rir`cI

Pcnr° Fc”

oldcr b。 rro、 vi11gs arc so、vidcly uscd that t11ey

are no lon思 cr considcred as such and havc bccomc a Part of the rcsPcctiⅤ

c TL

‘ n s° me examplcs of Frcnch borr。、 vings fl on1 0ther languages arc‘ tz`c° ° ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ・rds as“ mcnu’ ,“ carburctor”`’ r召 dinfoFe’ ′ PdqucboF’ ′ occl0u’ ′Ctc,In Enghsh such Ⅵ。 lcxic°

“

hangar” ,“ chic” and cxprcssions likc‘

‘ j⒊ d。

Ⅴu” ,“ cnl`nt

terriblc”

‘

,

,

and‘ rendcz-v。 us’

’

arc no longcr considcrcd to bc borroⅥ :ings Translators are particularly intcrcsted in thc ncwcr borroⅥ i11gs,eⅤ cn Pcrs。 nal oncs It n1ust bc rcmcmbcrcd that n△ any b。 rr。 vvings

cntcr a languagc through translati° n,just like semantic borro、 vings or

hux amis,wh。 se

phhlls tlanslat° rs must carchlly av。 id

The dccision to borr。、 v a local c。

l。

sI~lyxˉ

ord or cxprcssion for introducing an clcment° f

ur is a lnattcr of style and conscquendy。 f the lncssage

PrOccdure2:Calque A calque is a sPecial ki11d of borr° fo1ˉ

、 ving`、 hereby a languagc borr0、 vs an cxPreSsi° n

rn。 f an。 thcr,but thcn translatcs htc1・ ally cach ofits clen△ cnts Thc rcsultis cithcr

i

a lexical calque, as in the nrst cxamPlc,bel。

、 vhⅡ st

thc syntactic structurc of thc TL,

、f, i c a calquc、vhich rcsPccts a neⅥ n1odc。 f exPres~

intr° ducing

slon;or ii

a structural calque,as in thc scc° nd cxamPlc,bCl° vv,、 vhiCh intr。 duces a nc、 v construcuon int。 thc languagc,cg∷ ￡n召 ′ is乃 ^Frcnch cdFquc Co11,plimcI1ts of thC scas。 n!

c° mlDlimcnts dc la salsonl

scicncc-⒒ cti。 n

sciencc-sction

xed calques、Ⅴhich, aRer a pcri° d of tilllc, mc an intcgral Part 。f the language Thcsc too, likc b° rr° 、 vings, may have undcr8° nc a SCmantic change, turning thclll into faux an1is Translators arc morc As、vith borroxxings, thcrc arc n1any⒔

bec。

intcrested in nc、 v calqucs、 vhich Can scrvc to丘 ll a lacuna,Ⅵ 7ith。 ut having to usc an

actual borrowing(cf,“ εc° n。 n,iqucme刀 la1℃ uagc)

FJ乙

In such c灬 cs it may be P父

izOFcà Frcnch calque takcI】 △on1thc

、ral’ le

to crcatc a neW lc>ci∞

l ft冫

Gcrnlan rm using

130 JEAN~PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET Greek° r Latin roots or usc conⅤ crsion(cf, v° uld 、

aⅤ ° id a、 vk、 vard calqucs,such as∶

厂r召 nc/,c虿 F甲 u纟 th芑 rapic

“ ′ tΨ ° s圹 ;Bal|194⒋ 257f)This sr口

￡n卩 Fis乃

occuPati° nncllc

Banquc Pour lc C° n11ncrcc ct le D。 Ⅴd° PPcmcnt

s0口 rce

。ccuPati。 nal thcraPy Bank for C。 mmα ce and Dcvel。 Pmcnt

lcs quatre Grands

thc f° ur great PoⅥ 厂 CrS

lc Prcn△ icr Franqais

Thc French Prcmlcr MatrimonⅤ is a nRyˉ sfty

Lc rnariagc cst unc assOciation⒊

cinquantc~cinquantc. (Ⅰ

association

召 SN° ulc`'召 s Ι Ⅰ r泌 r￠ i〃 s,Odober

1955) l’

hon11nc dans la ruc

thc man in thc street

(R召 Γ uc dcS Dcux/lr° ndes,

卜nstCad。 f“ hommc dc la ruc” l’

May1955)

or“ le Frangais moycn勹

compagnon dc routc (Ι e〃 ° nde,M扩 cla1956) La PluPart dCs grandcs d芑

、

fcll° v-traⅤ

ns

cisi°

cllcr

M。哎m句 °r dc。 sions Ⅱgarang the

sur lc Prochc~Oricnt ont oto prises⒊ un rll° mcnt o心 sir

Ncar-East vvcre taken、 vhen

Winston Churchill affcctait dc ‘

chair。 ccupicd bⅤ on thc

considorcr con1111e‘ vidc”

“

chaise’

’

la

dc la Francc sur la sc志 ne

intcrnationale (Ⅰ

Churchill PrCtCndcd that the intcrnational sccnc、 vas cmPty [instCad。 %uteuil”

f:‘

‘ la

Placc” or“ le

l

c lrondc,Malch1956)

PrOcedurc3:LiteraI translation Litcral,or、 v° rd

f° r、 vord,translati。

n is thc dircct transfcr of a SL tcxt into a gra∏ ⒈

matically and idi。 matically aPProPriatC TL tCxt in which thc translators’

task is

hn1itcd to° bserving the adhcrcncc tO the linguistic scrvitudcs。 fthc TL, I leR my sPcctaclcs。 n tllc tablc d° xx

nsta1rs

Wherc arc y。 uP This train arriⅤ cs at uni。 n

at tcn

station

J’ 菹laiss芑 mcs ltlncttcs sur la tablc cn bas

Otl♂ tes_Ⅴ °usP Cc train arrivc容 la garc Centralc Δ 10heures

In princiPlC,a literal translation is a unique soluti。 plctc in itself It is rnOst c°

n、vhich is reversiblc and com~

Ⅱ11non、 vhcn translating bet、 veen t、 vo languages of thc

samc hmily(e g bCtwcen Frcnch and Ralian),and evcn morc so when tlaey also sharc thc samc culturc,If htcral transIations arisc bet、

veen French and English,

it is because co∏ 11non metahnguistic concts also rcvcal phySical c°

cxistencc,ic

Peri° ds。 f bilinguahsln,、 vith thc c。 nscious or unconscious illlitation ls hich attachcs

to a ccrtain intcllcctual° r Pohtical Prcstigc,and such likc Thcy can also bc justiscd

A iⅦ

ETHODOLOGY FOR TRANsLATION

131

by a certain convergcncc ofth° u8ht and soluetin1es of structurc,、 vhich arc ccrtainly

Present am° ng thc Eur。 PCan languaε CS(cf,thc crcation of thc dchnitc artic】 c,thc concePts of culture and civilization),and vvhich haⅤ c m° tivatcd intcrcsting rcscarch

in Gencral semantics. In the Prcccding methods, translation d° es n° t inVolve any spccial styhstic ProcCdurcs. If this vvcrc al、 vays thc casc then our prcsent study、 v° uld lack justiscation and translati° nˇvould lack an intellectual challengc since it vvould bc rcduced

to an unambiguous transfer fr。 m SL to TL Thc cxploration ofthc P。

ssibility of

translating scicnti⒔ c tcxts by maChinc,as Pr。 P。 sCd by the luany research grouPs in uniⅤ ersitics aitd industry in all maj。 r countries,is largcly based on thc cxistence of

ught Proccsscs Ⅵ,hich, as xl'oukl bc cxPcctcd, are Particularly frcqucnt in thc docu】 ncntation Parallel agcs in sL and TL tcxts, CorrcsPondir1g to Para1lCl th° rcqui1ˉ

cd in scicnce and tcchnol° 8y ThC suitability ofsuch tcxts f° r aut° n1atic transrccogniscd as carly as1955by L.ockc and Bo° th,(For currcnt asscsslllCnts

lati° n、 vas

of thc sc°

Pc° f apPhcati° ns°f rnachinc translation scc Hutchns and Son)crs 1992,

Sager 1994)

If,aRcr trying thc srst thrcc pr。 ccdurcs,translators regard a litcral transIati。 n unacctablC9thcy must turn to thc mcthods of obhquc translation By unaccePtablc、 vc mcan that thc mcssagc,

i

、 vhen translatcd litcrally

givcs another1ncaning,or 1ng,or

11

has no111cal△

iii

is st1・ ucturally in△

possible,° r

vithin thc mctahnguistic exPeridocs not havc a corrcsPondi11g exPressi° n 、

iⅤ

encc ofthc TL, or Ⅴ T。

has a c° rrcsp。 nding cxPrcssion,but n° t vvithin the same rcgister

dah勹 thcsC idcas,c° n“ der

the folloⅥ ing cxamPlcs:

Hc lookcd at the lnap He looked thc picturc° f hcalth

Il rcgarda la carte, Il Paraissait l’ irnagc dc la sant芒

Il avait

、 Vhile、vc

Γa1r en PlCinc f°

rme

clan translatc thc hrst sentencc litcrally,this is imPossible for thc sccond,

isl)t° d° so f° r an cxPressivc rcason(c・ unlcss xx=e“ ・

8 in。 rdcr t° charactcrisc an Enghshn1an lsh。 d° es n。 t spcak Ⅴ ery8ood convcrsational Frcnch) ThC⒔ rst cxamPlc Pair is lcss sPcci⒔

c,sincc“ c口 r芒

e’

’ is

lcss sPecillc than“ map” But thisin no、 Ⅴ ay rcndcrs

thc dcm° nstration inⅤ ahd If translat° rs oⅡcr s° n△ ething sirnilar to thc sec。 nd PorF口 t、

ir c。 I,i刀 9C

LIn cf,orme”

,this indicatcs that thcy haⅤ e ai1ned at an cquivalencc° f thc

‘

vo n△ cssagcs, somcthing thcir‘ neutral’

cnablcs thcl【 lt。

‘ cxamPlc,ab。 vC,cg∷ ‘ ″sg

’

P。

sition outsidc both thc TL and thc sL

do EquiⅤ alence° f rllcssagcs ultirnatcly rehcs upon an idcntity of

situations,al1d it is this alone that alloⅥ 's us to statc that the TL may rctah1ccrtai11 charactcri、 tics。 f reahtv that arc unknoˇ vn t。 If therc、 Ⅴcrc conctual dicti。

na1ˉ ics、 vith

the sL bilingual signiHcrs,translat° rs、 voukl

only necd t。 look uP thc aPPr° Priatc translation under thc cntry corrcsPonding to thc situation idcnti⒔ cd by the SL mcssagc But such dicti° narics d° n° t exist and

132

JEAN-PAUL

∨INAY

AND JEAN DARBELNET

thcreforc translat° rs start off、 vith、v° rds° r units of translati。 n,t° 、 vhich thcy aPPly

Particular procedures、 Ⅴith thc intcntion 。f conⅤ cying thc dcsircd mcssagc, Sincc thc positioning of a、vord vvithin an uttcrancc has an c"cct。 n its rncaning,it rnay wcll arisc d1at thc s。 lution results in a grouPing of words that is s°

hr i° m thc

original starting point that no dictionary could givc it,CIivcn the innnitc number。 combinations ofsigniHers al。 ne,it is undcrstandablc that dictionaries cann°

f

t ProⅤ ide

translators、 vith rcadv~lnadc soluti° ns to all their Pr° blcms.Only translat° rs can bc a、

Ⅴarc of thc totahty of thc mcssagc,

vhich dctermines thcir clccisions, In thc Hnal 、

analysis,it is the rnessage alonc,a rcflccuon。 f thc situation,that a1l° 、 vhcther t、 v。 texts arc adcquate alternatiⅤ cs

Ⅵ 厂 s ust0judgc

PrOcedure4:Transposition Thc mcth。 d called transPosition invo1vcs rlacing onc 、 vord Class 、 vith anothcr 、 vithout changing thc mcaning of dlc mcssagc Beside being a sPccial translati。 n Pr。 ccdurc,transPosition can also bc aPPhcd、 vithin a language, For cxamPle:“ ″ d ’ ith dnnonc犭 qu’ j`rcyic,,dr￠ ,can bc rc-cxPreSsed by transP。 sing a subordinatc Ⅴcrb、Ⅴ ’ nn° nc犭 son rcF° ur’ In c° ntrast to thc srst cxprcssion,、 vhich、vc a noun,thus:“ 刀召口 Jr’

call thc basc cxPrCSSion,、 vc rcfcr to the sec° nd one as thc transP。 scd Cxprcssion In translation thcre are t、vo distinct tyPes° f transposition:(i)obhgatory transposi-

tion,and(ii)。 Ptional transPositi。 n,

Thc忆 llowing cxample hⅡ to be钌 anslatt・ d htcrally(ProcCdure3),but must

als°

be transPoscd(Procedure4)∶ D志 ss° n

lcvcr,

As soon as hc gets/got up

As soon as hc gcts up, ,

D志 s son leⅤ er D。 s qu’ il

sC l心

Ⅴc

In d)is examPle,the Enghsh allo、 vs no ch。 icc bct、 vccn thC t、 vo f° rrlls,thc basc f°

rm

bc1ng1hc only one PossiblC・ Invcrscly,ho、 vcⅤ Cr,、 Vhen translating back into Frcnch, vvc havc thc choicc bctˇ vccn applying a calquc 。r a transPosition, bccausc French Pern△ its either c° nstruction In contrast,thc t、 vo follo、 vin8Phrascs

APr‘ ::s qu’ APrt・

il scra rcvcnu.

s son retour

can both bc transP° sCd∶

er hc comcs baCk, ARcr his rcturn … AJllit∶

Fron1a styhstic P。 int of Ⅴ ieⅥ △ thc basc and thc transposcd cxpression d。 sarⅡ y

n° t ncccs-

havc thc samc valuc. Translat° rs must, thcrcf° rc, ch。 °sc to Carry out a

transPosition if thc translati°

n thus obtained sts bcttcr into thc uttcrancc,or allo、 vs

a particular nuancc of style to be retained Indccd,the transPoscd f° rm is gcner~ aⅡ Ⅴm° rc litcrarⅤ

in charactcr,

A SPecial and⒏ equcntly used casc° f transPositi。 n is that of intcrchangc

A fdETHODOLOGY FOR TRANsLATION

133

PrOccdurc5:Modulation M° dulation is a Ⅴariation of thc f° rm of thc mcssagc, 。btaincd by a changc in thc P。 int。 f viCⅥ /

This changc can bc justi丘 cd、 vhcn,alth° ugh a litcral,or cvcn trans-

P° sed, translati。 n rcsults in a grarnlnatically correct uttcrancc, it is considered

unsuitablc,unidi° matic or awkward in thc TL As、 vith transPositi。 n,、 vc distin8uish bCtⅥ 厂 ccn frce or optional rn° dulations and th° sc

that arc sxcd or 。bhgat。 ry. A classical cxamplc of an obhgatory modula~ The timc whcn, ”,which must bc translated as“ Ⅰe It,oI,,enr o氵 , , ,” Thc tyPc ofrn° dulati。 n vvhich turns a ncgative sL cxPrCssion into a PositiⅤ C TL CxPrcssion is morc oftcn than n° t oPtional, cvcn th° ugh this is closcly linkCd Ⅵ广 ith the structure of cach language,cg∷ tlon is thc Phrasc,“

It is n。 t dif⒔ cult t。 sh°

”

Il cst facilc dc d。 m° ntrcr

Thc diffcrcncc bct、 veen nXcd and flcc m。 dulati。 n is Onc of degrcc In thc casc° f

sxcd m° dulation, translators、 vith a good kn° vvledgc of both languagcs frccly usc d,as thcy、 vill bc a、varc of thc frcqucncy of usc,thc° vcrall acctancC, and the c。 nsrmation pr° Ⅴidcd by a dictionary or graΠ 1rnar of thc prcferrcd this Fncth°

cxPrCsSlon。

Cases of分 cc m° dulati° n arc single instances not yet丘 xcd and sancti。 ncd by v cach tirnc This,h。、 vcvCr, is not、 vhat quah丘 cs it as oPtional; Ⅵ /hcn carricd out as it should bc,thc rcsulting usage, so that thc Pr。 ccdurc must bc carricd out ane、

translation sh。 uld c°rrcsP。 nd PCrfcctly t° the situation indicatcd by thc sL,To iⅡ

us-

tratC this P° int,it can bc said that thc result。 f a frec ln° dulati° n sh° uld lead t° s° luti°

a

n that rnakcs thc rcadcr cxclai1n,“ Yes,that’ s exactly、 vhat y° u、 v° uld say”

Frcc modulati° n thus tcnds t0、 vards a uniquc solution,a solution、 vhich rcsts upon an habitual train of thought and、 Ⅴhich is necessary rathcr than。 pti。 na1.It is thcrc~ f°

rc cⅤ idcnt that bct、

veen 丘xed m° dulati。 n and frcc modulation thcrc is but a

diffcrcncc of degrec, and that as s° on as a frcc m。 dulation is uscd。 Rcn cnou思 h,

。r is

felt t°

。ffcr thc Only S。 luti。 n(this uSually rcsults fron)thc study of bihngual

texts, from discussi° ns at a bilingual confcrcncc, or from a famous translation

which d缸 ms rccogmti。 n duct° its litcrary mC⒒ t),it may become hxed.HowcⅤ cr, a frce m。 dulation d° es n° t actuallⅤ bcc。 mc⒔ xcd until it is rcfcrrcd to in dicti° n~ arics and grarl△ 1nars and is rcgularly taught, A a8cn° t using such a m° dulation would thcn be c。 nsidered inaccuratc and r句 ccted・ In his M A thcsis,G.Pannct° n,

from 、 vh° m 、 vc havc b° rr° 、 ved thc tcrm modulation, c° rrcctly rcsults of a systcmatic apphcation of transPosition and modulati°

anticiPatCd tl△ c

n∶

La transPositi° n corrcsPondrait en traducti° n宜 unc芑 quati° n du Pren1ier dcgro, la modulati° n容 unc 造 quati。 n du sccond dcgr。 , chacunc transf°

rmant Γoquation cn idcntito, toutcs dcux crcctuant la ros°

luti。 n

aPProPrlcc

(PannCton1946)

134 uEAN~PAUL

∨ INAY

AND JEAN DARBELNET

Proccdure6:Equivalcncc Wc haⅤ c rcatcdly strcssCd that one and thc samc situation can be rcndcrcd by t、 Vo tcXts using con1PlCtCly diffcrcnt styhstic and structural lncth。 ds,In such cascs vc arc deahng 、ith thc n1cth° d 、、 vhich Produccs cquivalCnt tcxts Thc Classical cxamplc of cqujⅤ alcncc is givcn by thc rcacti。 n ofan amatcur、 V110accidcntally hits his Hngcr、 vith a hammcr: if11e、 vcrc Frcnch lus cry of Pain 、 ′ 广 0uld l)c transcribed ‘ :ere Enghd9 this xl:° (Duch!” as“ Aie!”

stril。

uld bC intc1・ I)reted as‘ An° ther , but if he、 ng casc of cquivalcnccs arc thc luany on。 matopocia of anin1al sounds,e8∷

cocor1co

c° ck-a~d。。 dlc-d。

n11aou

n11ao`v

11i~han

hccha、v

m° re oRen

Thcsc siImPlC Cxa】 uPlcs illustrate a particular katurc of cquivalenccs∶

d)an n° t thcv arc° f a svntaglnatic naturc,and afloct thc、 vholc。 f the lY,cssagc, As

a rcsult, most cquivalcnccs arc Hxcd, and bel° idi。 ms,chch造

ng to a Phrascological rcrt。

c of s,pr。 Ⅴ crbs,non△ inal or adjcctiⅤ al Phrascs,ctc, In gcncral,ProⅤ crbs i1・

arc pcrf辶 ct exallll)lcS of Cquivalcnccs,cg∷

Il Pleut⒊

scaux/dcs cordcs,

It is raining cats and d。 gs

Likc a bullin a china sh。 P

Commc un chicn dans unjcu dc

Too1nany cooks sPoil the br。 th

Dcux l)atr。 11s font chavircr la

quillcs

barquc Thc n1eth。 d °f crcating cquiⅤ alcnces is also frcquently aPPhed t° ’ exan11Dle,“

idi° ms,

For

and“ as likc as t、 v。 PCas” cann。 t bc translatcd by n】 cans of a calquc. Yct this is exactly、 vhat happens amongst lncmbc1・ s 。f so~ T。 talk thr° ugh onc’

s hat’

callcd bilingual populations, vvho haⅤ c PcrmanCnt 、 vith t、 v° languagcs but ncvcr bccomc fully acquaintcd、 vith cithcr It haPPcns,ncⅤ erthclcss, that s° ln c。 f thcsc calqucs actually bccon1c accePtcd by thc Ot11er languagc, csPecially if thcy rclate to a nc、 v丘 cld、 vhich is likclv to bcc。 mc cstab⒒ shcd in the countrⅤ

ofthc TL

’ For cxamplc,in Canadian Frcnch the idi° m‘ ‘ t。 talk thr° ugh one’ s hat’ has acquircd ” thc Cquivalent“ P口 r`c'a FrcIΓ ers scD,,cF,虿口 But the rcsP° nSil’ ihty ofintr° ducing such calqucs into a Pcrfcctly。 rganiscd languagc should l1。 t faⅡ uPon thC sh。 uldcrs °f `C口 translators∶ 。 nlY、 vritcrs can takc such liberties, and thcy alonc sh° uld takc crcdit 。r blamc f° r succcss or failurc In translati。 n it is advisablc to usc traditional f° rllls 。fCxP1ˉ cSsion,bccausc thc accusauon of uHng Gallicis11as,Anghcisn1s,Gcrmanisms, HisPanisms, ctc, 、1Ⅱ al、 Ⅳays bc prcscnt、 vhcn a transIator attcn1Pts t° int1・ oducc a nc、 v

calquc

Procedure7:Adaptation it is11scd

thosc cascs xlihere d)c tyPC of situati。 n bcing rcfc1ˉ cd to by t11c sL messagc 1・

m 〓

With this scⅤ cnth meth° d、 è rcach the cxtrcme linlit。 f translation∶

A iⅥ

ETHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION

135

unkn。、 vn in thc TL culturc In such cascs translators havc t° crcatc a nc、 Ⅴsituation

re,bc dcscribcd as a SPecial knd° f cquiⅤ alencc,a situational equivalencc.Lct us takc thc cxamplc °f an Enghsh fathcr、 Ⅴh° 、:° uld think n° thing of kissing his daughtcr on d1c mouth, that can bc considcrcd as bcing cquivalcnt AdaPtation can,thcref°

somcthing vvhich is normal in that culturc but、 htcral rcndcring int。

Frcnch Translating,

vhich、v° uld not bc acceptablc in a

‘ ‘ Hc kisscd his dau8htCr° n thc mouth”

召mbI・ dss召 sd丿 FfC sLJr f口 b° uchc” ,wotlld in△ 。(lucc hto tllc TL an clcment which is not Prcscntin thc SL,、 vhcre thc situati° n may bc that of a loⅤ ing fathcr rcturning

by“ ″ h° mc

and grceting his daughtcr a⒒ cr a long journcy.The French rcndering、 v° uld bc a spccial kind of。 vcrtranslation /\m。 rc aPPr° PriatC translati° nv￠ ould be,‘ ‘ 刃 scrr￠ r召 ndrε menF sd歹 ″ ed口 ns s召 s br￠ rùl△ lcss,° fc。 ursc,the“ anslat° r wi曲 cs t° achieve a chcap cffcct AdaPtations are Particularly frequent in thc translati。 n° fb° °k and nllll titles e g∷

Tr° is

hommcs et un coumn Thrcc mcn and a baby,[hlml Lc grand Mcaulncs The Wandcrcr,[book tidel

Thc1ncthod of adaPtati。 n is、vcll kn0、 vn amongst silnultanc。 us interPrctcrs:thcrc ‘ ‘ is thc st。 ry of an intcrprctcr、 vho,having adaPtcd‘ crickct” into‘ Tour clc Francc” in a contcxt rcfcrring to a Particularly PoPular sP。 rt,vvas Put on thC SP° t、 vhCn thc Frcnch dclcgatc thcn thankcd the sPeaker f° r having rcfcrrcd t。 such a tyPically Frcnch sP°rt ThC intcrPrCtCr thcn had t° rcvcrsc thc adaptation and sPcak。 f crickct t。

his Enghsh chcnt Thc rcfusal t° makc an adaPtati。 n is invariablⅤ

vithin a translati。 n detcctcd 、

bccausc it affccts n° t° nly thc syntactic structurc,but also thc(lcvcloPmcnt。

fidcas

and h。、 v thcy are rePrcsented、Ⅴithin the ParagraPh EⅤ Cn though translat° rs luay

Producc a PcrfCctly correct text、 vithout adaptation,thc absence° f adaPtati° n rnay still be n° ticcable by an indc丘 nable t° ne,somcthing that d° cs n° t sOund quitc right This is unfortunatcly the imPrcssion思

iⅤ

en° nly t。 o often by texts Pul)hshed by inter_

national organi'ations, 、 vh。 sc mcmbcrs, cithcr t11r。 ugh ign° rancc。 r bccausc。 fa n1istakcn insistencc On litcralncss, (lcmand translations vvhich arc largcly based° n

calqucs Thc rcsult rnay thcn turn。 ut to bc purc gibbcrish、 vhich has n° namc in any languagc,but、 Ⅴhich Rcn。 Etien△ 1)lc quitc rightIy refcrrcd to as“ s口 bir czFFuraricluc’ ’ w1△ ch is° nly Pardy rcndered by thc cquivalCnt“ Mid_Adandc jaI・ gon” Translations ,

cannot bc Produccd si1nply by crcatin8structural or1nctalinguistic calqucs,All the

vcrc carricd out 、 vith thc i1nPhcit knox,lcdgc of thc grcat litcrary translations 、 mcthods descHbcd in this chapter, as Gi(lc’ s prchcc t° his translatl° n of Hd,,aF召 r clearly shoⅥ /s Onc cannot hclP、 v° ndCring,h° 、 vcⅤ cr,if thc rcasOn tl△ e Amcricans refuscd to takc the Lcaguc of Nati。 ns scriously Ⅵ・ as not bccausc1nany。 fd1eir d° cu_ ments、 vcre un-1nodulatcd and un-adaPted renderings of original Frcnch tcxts,just ‘ ’ ’ as the‘ sdl,ir dt′ dnFitlu召 has its r° °ts in ill-digcstcd translations of Anglo_Arnerican originals Hcrc, 、,c touch uPon an cxtrcmcly scrious ProblCn1, ˇ vhich, unfortunatcly, lack of spacc PrCvCnts us from discussing furthcr, that °f intellectual, cultural,and linguistic changes,、 Ⅴhich oⅤ cr tilnc can be effcctcd by innportant documcnts,school textbooks,j° urnals,丘 lm dial。 gucs,ctc,,written by订 anslat。 rs wh° arc eithcr unablc t。。r、 vho darc n° t Ⅴenture into thc、v。 rld of obhque translations At a tirnc、Ⅳhcn exccssivc ccntrahzati° n and lack° f rcsPcct f° r cultural diffcrcnces

136 uEAN-PAUL VINAY AND JEAN DARBELNET arc driⅤ ing intcrnational organizations into adoPting、 vorking lanε uagcs sui gcneris r、 vriting

docun1cnts、 vhich arc then hastily translated by oⅤ

cr・ orkcd and unaPˉ bc concerncd about thc prosPcct that PrCciatcd translators,thcrc is good reason t。 :Ⅱ four~nfths。 f thc、 v° rld、 ∧ l havc to livc° nn。 thi11g but translati。 ns,their intellect f°

.s・

bcing starvcd by a diet of hnguistic paP

ApPlication ofthc seven n1ethods Thcse scven lucthods are aPPhed to differcnt degrccs at thc thrcc Planes°

‘

’‘

is召 r” , and‘ 口′

‘

o`。 Γ cr’

f cxPrcs-

rr。、 ving

sion,i,e lcxis,syntactic structure,and rncssage,For exan1PlC,b°

’

lllay occur

arc Frcnch lcxical l)° rr° 、、~ “ ings△ om Enghsh;borr° wing also occurs at thc lcvel° f the lη cssagc, cg OK” ’ and“ fivc° d0Ck” This rangc of Possibihdcs is Ⅱlustratcd h)Table11 1,whcrc cad) at thc lexical lcvcl~‘ bu``dozer’

,‘ r犭

s∠

ProcCdurc is exemPhscd f° r each PlanC° f Cxprcssion.

rable 11 1: summary of thc scvcn translation I,rocedurcs(mcth。 ds in incrcasing ol dcr()f dimcul” )

[ε xis

1Borrowing 2 Calquc

al

scimⅡ fcrion

E: Fusclage

直la n1odc

F∶ Jconcnn"q1èmenr

ItlFcfj口

Fdibfe ˇ Normal sch。 °l

(CE) F∶ encrc

Transl

lresskl~tlc

F:B〃 ffd。 zσ

E∶

3Llte1・

srrucr1!res

Bon、

丿 clcc

r汕

E∶ ink

’ Cf°

c大

】d

oyage

Ct,刀 ,P`jJ,’ cnrs1氵 c丿口sdⅠ s° n

G° vcn、 or Gcncral

o

4Transpo☆ u∞

P口

Firc。

Takc it or1ea、

re c“ sur`d幻乙 fe Γ Thc book is。 n the

e it

@e踟 hc口 '″斑~Ⅱ P What tirnc is it?

tablc

汕

Ft’

Llr

;Fxr° From

D印

″Γ d汩 mhon

脚

w dqnm引

ll讠 :】

As jmbcr becomcs

E∶

Nos1noklng

naorc、 ,aluable

5ModLllation

F∶

Peu Pr?∫

o E∶

6EqmⅤ dcn∞

shallo、

。nJ

v

D。 nncz Vn PCⅡ sd扌昭

dc lo￠

d° i’

x⑾

LikC a bull in a china sl】 oP H° ll° w triumPh

E,Us: chow

δ

c方 &四 u山 mⅡ 6

:↓

E,uK: (Md) Tca

7删 aptatlm

C。 ml,/e∠ ・ N。 ′ acancics

Givc a Pint〈 )f~our blood

。 δ c C° 筲1f1贺 }∶

rc

″Eil tlr,山 iJ ° n cf G・

咖″ 捌

c'c∫

E,UK∶ Crickct

E,Us: Bascball

Bc%rc you could say Jack R。 t,lnson

US Hi!

A METHODOLOGY FOR TRANSLATION

137

Itis obvious that scⅤ eral ofthesc mcthods can be uscd、、 ìthin thc samc scntcnCc,

ns comc undcr a、 Ⅴholc c° ∏11)lcx of【 11ethods s° d1at it is “ (hfscult to distinguish thcΠ 1; c,g,, the t1・ anslation of‘ ‘ vCight” by Prcssapcr 、 and that s° mc translati。

∶∶ ∶ ∶ r安嘿淼。 T烈 π \嵌 l描 r∶ rTdW)1f蒜逾杰 1Ⅰ

I各

t、

samc tirnc a transPositi。 n, a modulation, and an cquivalcncc, It is a transposition

VHⅤ atc・ ”is tra灬 ft,m1cd hto a n° mhal exPless0n;a modu /ct Paint∶ Prcncz思 ardc lation l)ccausc a statcn1cnt is convcrted into a、 Ⅳ arning(cf 、、 “ 忒la Pcinturc, though Pcinturc frafchc” seeΠ 1s to bc gait、 ing ground ii1 Frenchbcct△

usc tllc a曲 ccJ、 :C

sPeaking countrics);and hnally,it is an cquivalcncc since it is the situation that has been translatcd, rathcr than thc actual grammatical structurc,

Chapter 12

ROman JakOhs● n

ON LINGuIsTIC AsPECTs OF TRANsLATION

CCORDING To BERTRAND RussELL,“

1100nC Can u11(]c1・ stand the、 v。 rd‘ chcese’ unIess hc has a110nhnguistic acquaintance、 vith chccsc,” 1I∴ h° 、 vevcr, 、 vc f° ll° 、 v Russcll’ s fundan1cntal PrccePt and Place our‘ ‘ emPhasis uPon

几

tl∶

J∶

骒戋

F:∶ ∶ ∶ 廴鞯 Ι 曳土占砦靼

fl1∶ :c11骨 W:Ⅰf∶ :a∶ r∷ vvords and kn0、 v in Ⅴ vhat contcxts cach of thcn1maⅤ bc uscd

1959

11〗

)Ⅰ

l1∶

0N LINGUJsTlC AsPECTS OF TRANsLATION

139

any box irrespcctivc of c。 ntents,Finally,d。 cs a vv° rd si1nPly name the thing in question,or d° esitimPly a n1eaning such as° ffering,salc,prohibition,° r rnalcdicti。 nP (P0nting atjtually m刂 mCan male&ction;hs()mc culttlrcs,Particul茳 ly in Aflica,k is an oΠ 1inous F° r

gesture)

us, both as hnguists and as ordinary 、 vord~uscrs, thc mcaning of any

hnguistic sign is its translation into son1c furthcr,altcrnativc sign,cspccially a sign

‘ ‘ inˇ v11ich itis rnorc fully dcvelopcd/’ as Pcircc,thc deepcst inquircr into thc csscncc “ of signs, insistcntly statcd.2 Thc tcrm bachcl° r” may bC convertcd into a more ‘ ‘ CxPhcit dcsignation, unlnarricd man/’ 、 vhcncⅤ cr highcr exphcitncss is required Wc disth)guish th1・ ce、氵 ays。 f intcrprcting a vcrbal sign∶ it n△ ay bc translatcd int° °thcr signs ofthc samc la11guage,into anothcr language,or int° anothcr,n。 nⅤ crbal systcm of symbols, 冂 Γ 11csc thrce kinds。 f translation arc to be diffcrcntlⅤ labclcd: Intrahngual trans1ation or re″ ordiIaJ is an intcrPrctation of Ⅴerbal signs by

mcans of odlcr signs of thc samc languagc, Interhn8ual translati° n or Fr召

nsF口 rion PrtDP召

r is an intcrPrctati° n of

Ⅴerbal signs

by111eans° f somc Othcr langua:e 3

ˉ Intcrsclyniotic translati。 n or Fr￠ nsr121Ι r召 ε i° n is an intcrPrCtation of、 crbal signs

by means° f signs。 fn。 nvcrbal sign sⅤ stcms The intrahngual translati° n ofaˇ v° rd uses eithcr an° thcr,rnore or lcss synonylllous,

、 v° rd or resorts to a Circu1△11ocuti。 n Yct syn° nymy, as a 1ˉ ulc, is n° t con】 Plete “ cquivalence∶ f° r cxamplc cvery cchbatc is a bachel。 r, but】 )° t everⅤ bachcl° r is a cehbatc,” A、 Vord or a11idi° matic P11rasC-Ⅵ ・ 0rd,bricny a(∶ 。de-unit of thc11ighest lcvcl,rnay bc fully intcrPrcted only by n△

eans of an cquivalent c。 mbinati° n ofc° dc~

“ units,ic.,a mcssagc rcfcrring to ths c° dc~unit∶ evcrⅤ bachcl° r is an unmarricd ’ ‘ man, and cⅤ cry unmarried man is a bachclor,’ or‘ eⅤ cry cchbate is bound110tt°

marry,and cⅤ cryonC、 :h° is bound n° tt。 marrⅤ is a cchbatc” Likc、 visc, on thc leⅤ el

°f intcrlin8ual translati° n, thcrc is °rdinarilΥ n°

full

equivalence betv`Ⅰ een code-units,vvhilc lncssa8cs may sCrvc as adcquatc intcrPrcta-

‘ tions of ahcn c° dc~units or messagcs, Thc Enghsh 、 vord ‘ chccsc” Cannot bc ‘ ‘ comPlCtCly identi丘 cd、 vith its standard Russian hcteronyln cbIp” bCCause cottage chccsc is a chccsc but n。 t a cbIp, Russians say∶ ∏pⅡ HecⅡ cblpy ⒕TBopoΓ y “ bring cheese and lsicl c。 ttage cheesc” In standard Russian,thc food】 nadc of PrcssCd curds

is called cbIp only if fcrlucnt is uscd lXI。

tutcs11△

st frcqucntly,11。 Ⅵ /evcr, translation fr° m。 nc language into an。 d1er substi~

essagcs in°ne languagc n。 t for sarate c° de_units but f° r entirc111cssagcs

in somc othcr languagc, such a translati° n is a rortCd sPCCch; tlac translator rec。 dcs and transn1its a mcssagc receivcd from an。 thcr sourcc Thus translati。 n inv° lⅤ cs t、 Ⅴ o cquivalcnt111cssages in t、 vo diffcrcnt c° dcs EquiⅤ alencc in di∶Ecrcnce is thc cardinal Pr° blcm oF】 anguagc and thc l)iⅤ °tal conccrn of hnguistics.Like any rccCiⅤ Cr of、 erbal rncssagcs,thc linguist acts as their interPreter p`。 linguistic spccilncn may bc intcrPrcted by thc scicncc of language

、 Ⅴithout a translation of its signs int° °thcr signs。 f thc sa】 nc systcn△ or int。 signs of an。 ther systcm Any comparison oftⅥ ・ o languagcs implics an cxan1inati° n oftheir mutual translatability;、 vi(lcsPread practicc of intcrhn8ual c° mn△ unication,Particularly translating activitics,rnust be kt undCr c° nstant scrutiI1y by linguistic scicncc

140

ROMAN JAKOBsON

It is di∫hcult

to oⅤ ercstirnate thc urgent need f° r and thc thc° rctical and Practical

signi⒔ cancc of diffcrcntial bilingual(lictionarics、

Ⅴith carcful comparatiⅤ c dcsniti。 n

of all dac corrcsPonding units in thcir intcntion and cxtcnsiom L文

kc、 visc differcn~ tial bilingual gran11nars sh° uld dc⒔ nc、 vhat uni⒔ es and Ⅵ:hat differentiates】 he tⅥ '°

languagcs in thcir sclccti。 n and dclin】 itati° n of gran△ matical c° ncts

n abound、 vith intricacics,and from

Both the Practice and the thcOry oftranslati° tilnc t°

tirnc attcmPts are rnade to sever thc Gordian kn° tby Pr° claiIning the dogma

。f untranslatability

‘ ‘

R/lr EⅤ cryman, thc natural logician/’ vividly imagincd by B

“ 、 ving bit of rcasOning∶ Facts arc unhkc t° spcakers、 vhosc languagc background Pr° vidcs for unhkc f° rmulati。 n()f ’ 3 In the nrst ears of thc Russian revoluti° n thcrc vvcrc fanatic thcm,’ Ⅴ Ⅴisionar1cs 、 vh° argucd in S。 Ⅴ ict Pcri° dicals f° r a radiCal reⅤ ision of traditional languagc and ‘ ‘ Particularly for thc vvccding 。ut of such n1islcading cxPrcssions as sunrisc” or “

L Whorf,is suPPosCd t。

haⅤ c arriⅤ cd at thc f°

ll。

sunsct” Yct wc sull“ c tllis Pt【 ,lcm“ c imagσ y withotlt imPlying a r句 ecd° n。 f vc can casily transf° rm our Customary talk ab° ut the Copernican doctrinc, and 、

rising and sctting sun into a Picturc of the earth’

s rotation shnPly bccausc any sign

is translatable into a sign in、 vhich it aPPcars to us rnorc fully dcveloPcd and Precise

A faculty of spcaking a givcn languagc imPhcs a faculty° f talking about this ‘ languagc.such a‘ rnetahnguistic” oPerati° n pcrn1its revision and rcdcHnition of thc v。 cabulary used Thc c° mplcmcnta1・ lty of both lcvcls~objcct languagc and luctalanguagc 一、 vas br° ught out by Nicls B。 hr∶ all、vcll-de丘 ncd cxperin1cntal cvidcncc must bc cxPrCssCd in° rdinary language,“ in、 vhich the practical usc。 f cvcry、 v° rd 珥 n’ stands in complcmcntary relation to attcmPts of its strict dcHniti。

All c。 gnitiⅤ c exPCricncc and its classi丘 cation is convcyablC in any cxisting

languagc, Whcncvcr thcrc is dcscicncy, tcrminology may bc quahscd and amPh丘ed by loan~、 v° rds。 rl° an-translati。 ns,ncologislns or scmantic shifts,and nnally, by circun11° cutions Thusin thc nc、 vb° rn litcrary languagc ofthc N。 rthcast Sibcrian

Chukchccs,“ jron/’

scrc、v” is rcndcrcd as“ rotating nail,’

‘ ‘ chalk”

as

‘ ‘ 、 vriting

soap/’

‘ atch”

as

’ ‘ ‘

stcel’

’

as“ hard iron,’

‘ ‘ halnlncring

’ ‘ ‘

tin” as“ thin

hcart” EⅤ cn sccn)ingly

‘ ‘

contradictory circuΠ 11ocutlons, likc`Ⅴ clcctrical horsc~car” (3JICKTpIIⅥ ecKa免 KoHKa), tllc Hr哎 Russian namc oftllc h。 Ⅱ clcss btrcct c茳 ,or“ Π” ng虻 camsllll,” 0召 n虿 P日 rd卩 °r), the K。 ryak tcrn1for thc airplanc, sin△ Ply dCsignate the clcctrical analoguc of1he and the Πying anal° guc of thc stcamer and do not imPcdc con11nunica‘ tion,just as thcre is n° semantic‘ noisc” and disturbancc in thc d° ublc Oxymor。 n ~“ c。 ld bee【 and-Pork h° t(l。 g’ ’ h。 rsc~car

No lack° f

gra∏ 1rnatical

devicc in the languagc translatcd intO1nakcs impossiblc

n。 f the cntirc conctual inf° rmation contained in thc Origina1, “r” c° 巧uncd° ns“ and,” 。 arc now suPplCmcnted by a ncw conncCtiⅤ e

a htcral translati° The traditi。 nal

_“ and/or’ ~which was discusscd a fcw ycars ago in thc witty book Fcdcr虿

F

宀os召一HoΠ 冫∞ ”功加 ond/σ ヵ r肠 s加 n孑 F。 n・ 5Of thts⒃ r∝ co巧 ull山 c,lls,ody thc lattcr °ccurs in onc of thc sam。 yCd languagcs,6 Despitc thcsc (lifFcrenccs in thc inⅤ cnt。 ry ofco句 uncti。 ns,all thrcc Ⅴ arietics of mcssagcs observed in“ kderal pr° sc” may bc distinctly translatcd b。 th into traditi° nal Enghsh and int° this sam。 ycd languagc Federal prOsc∶ 1)John and Pcter,2)John。 r Petcr,3)John and/or Pctcr F召

tl△

me Tra山 donal Enghsh∶ 3)John and Pctcr。 r one of thcm will c° mc Pctcr b° th will c。 mc,2)J° hn and/。 r Pctcr,onc of thcm 、 vill c° mc. will c°

Samoycd:John and/° r

0N LINGU、 ISTIC AsPECTs OF TRANsLATION

141

If somc grammatical catcgory is absent in a giⅤ cn languagc,its rncaning may be

rms likc C)ld Russian6pa「 a

translatcd into this languagc by lexical mcans Dual f° arc translatcd vvith thc hclP of the numcra⒈

‘ ‘ t、

vo br。 thcrs” It is m° rc dificult to

remaln丘 Ⅱthhl to dle ori垂 nal when wc订 anslate hto a languagc pro访 dccl with a certain grammatical category from a languagc dcⅤ oid of such a category. Whcn ’

translating thc Enghsh scntcncc“ shc has br。 thcrs’ into a lan8uage、 vhich discrirninatcs dual and plural,、 vc arc compcllcd cither to makc Our。、 vn choicc bet、 vccn t、 Vo

’ ‘ statcmcnts“ Shc has t、 vo brothcrs’ ~‘ she has morc than t、

vo”

°r

to lcaⅤ c thc dcci_

sion to thc listcncr and say:“ ShC has eithcr tvvo or lnorc than t、 vo brothcrs” in translatin8 fr。 m

Again

a languagc 、 vithout graⅡ 11natical numbcr into Enghsh one is

。bhgcd tO sclcct onc ofthe t、

’

possibilitics~“ brothcr” °r“ br° thcrs’ or to confront

v°

thc rcccivcr of this rncssagc、 Ⅴith a txs o-choicc situation:“ shc has eithcr one or more

than one br。 thcr” As Boas ncatly obserⅤ cd,thc graΠ 11natical pattcrn。 f a languagc(as。 pPoSCd to its lcxical st。 ck)dctcrΠ 1illcs th°

in thc giⅤ en languagc:“

sc asPccts of Cach cxpcriencc that rnust bc cxPrcssCd

We haⅤ e

t° ch° 。 se bet、veen

these asPCcts,and onc Or thc

othcr lnust bc chosen” /In order to translate accurately thc Enghsh scntcncc“ I hircd vorkcr/’ a Russian nccds suPPlcmentary information, vvhcthcr this acti。 n a 、

、 vas

complctcd or n° t and、 vhethcr the、 v° rker、 vas a rylan or a、 voman,becausc hc lllust n1akc his choicc betⅥ /een a HaH【 IMaΠ —— and bct、veen

Ⅴerb

ofC° mPlctiⅤ C°r noncompletive asPect

a rnascuhne and fen1ininc noun—

— pa6oTH【 lKa

HaH舟

JI Or

or pa6oTHⅡ Πy。

IfI ask t11c uttcrcr° fthe Enghsh scntcncc、 vhcthcr thc、 vorkcr、 vas rnalc or fcmale,

my qucstion ltlay bC judged止 rclcⅤ ant。 r indiscrect,whereas in thc Russian Ⅴer蚯 on 。f this scntcncc an ans、 vcr to this question is obhgatory, (Dn thc Othcr hand,、 vhatcvcr thc choicc of Russian gra∏ 11natical f° rms t。 translatc thc quotcd Enghsh ‘ Cr to thc qucstion° f、vhcther I‘ hired” °r mcssagc,thc translation、 vill giⅤ e n° ans、・ “ havc hircd” thc、 Ⅴ。rkcr, or vvhether hc/shc、 vas an indc⒔ nite。 r dc⒔ nitc、 v° rker ’ ’ a’ °r“ thc’ ), BCcausc thc inf。 rmation rcquircd by thc Enghsh and Russian gramC‘ matical Pattcrn is unhkc, 、 ve face quitc diffcrent sets of t、 v° ~ch0iCC situati。 ns; thcref° rc a chain° f translati° ns of onc and thc same isolatcd scntcncc⒒

om English

into Russian and Ⅴicc vcrsa could cntircly drive such a mcssagc of its initial contcnt The Gencva linguist S Karccvsk uscd t。 c。 mParC such a gradual loss、 vith a circular serics of unfaⅤ 。rablc currcncy transactions But cvidcntly the richer the context of a mcssage,the smaller the loss° f inf° rmation Languages differ csscntially in Ⅵ-hat thcy musr conⅤ cy and notin、 vhat thcy nlcl「 conⅤ n。

cy Each vcrb°

quCSti。 ns, as f°

f a giⅤ en

languagc imPcratiⅤ Cly raiscs a sct of speciΠ c ycs-or~

r instancc: is the narratcd cvcnt conccivcd

、 vith or Ⅵ/ithout

refcrencc to its completionP Is the narratcd cⅤ ent PreSented as Pri。 rt° thc sPcech cⅤ cnt

or notP Naturally the attention of natiⅤ c sPeakers and hstencrs 、 Vill bc de

Constantly focuscd° n such itcms as arc compulsory in thCir vcrbal c。 In its cognitiⅤ c function,languagc is rninin△ aⅡ y

pattcrn because thc dc⒔

niti。 n

dcmdcnt° n thc gran△ matical

of our exPeriCnce stands in c。 mPlcmCntary rclation

to mctahn思 uistic oPcrations~thc c° gnitive lcvel of languagc n° t only adn△ its but dircctly rcquires rec° ding interPretation, ie, translati。 n Any assumPti。 n °f in~ c竹 iblc Or untranslatablc cognitiⅤ c data、 v° uld bc a contradiction in tcrn△ s, But in jest,in drcams,in magic,bricHy,in what onc wotlld call cⅤ cryday vcrbal mythology

and in poetry aboⅤ c all,thc graΠ 11uatical catc8oricS carry a high scmantic imPort

142

ROMAN JAKOBSON

In thcse conditions,thc qucstion of translation bcc° mes lnuCb n1° rc cntangled and controvcrsia1,

Evcn such a catcgory as grammatical gcnder,often citcd as n1crely f° rmal,Plays a great r。 le in thc myth。 logical attitudes 。f a sPccch c。 ∏1111unity, In Russian the Rmlllll△ c camot dtˉ

signatc a m耐 cl,eⅡ on,nclr the mⅡ

Cuhc sPe0灯 aRm甜

c・

waF

°f PCrs° m勺冖ng。 r mc・ taPh° 0cally interPleting inanimatc nouns aK PromPtCd by thcir gender, A tcst in thc ~1osc。、 Psychol。 gical Institutc (1915) sho、 ′ cd that

Russians,Pr° nc to Pels° 血灯 the wcCkdays,consistently rePrCsentcd Monday, I ucsday, and Thursday as malcs and、、′ cdncsday, Friday, and saturday as fcmalcs, 、 Ⅴith。 ut rcahzinε that this dist1・ ibution、 vas duC to thc mascuhnc:cndCr of thc irst

・

thrce namcs(Π oHeIleⅡ bHⅡ Κ ,TopHⅡ °thcrs(c且

Κ ,L1cTBΓ )as against thc fen1ininc8ender° f thc a,∏ 见tHⅡ 刂a,cy66oΓ a),ThC hct that thc w° rd%r FI・ idav is masculine in

lk traditi。 ns。 f 、 vhich differ in thcir Friday ritual The Ⅵ9idcsPrCad Russian suPCrstitlo1】 that a fallen kni%Presages a male gucst and a%llcn f`)rk a ” 、male onc is dctc1ˉ n1i11ed bⅤ tllc masculi11c gcn(lcr of HOx“ knifc・ and thc kminine ‘ ‘ hel^c‘ day” is l11ascuh11e of BⅡ Π Ka‘ fork"in Russian Im slavic and° thcr languagcs“ ・ ‘ and‘ night” fen△ i11ine,day is rrcsCnted by Pocts as thC l° ver。 f night The Russian 'as bafHcd as to、 vhy si11had becn dicted as a Ⅵ=oman by Gcrman Painter Rin、 Λ

somc slavic lan:uagcs and fcmininc in others is rcHcctcd in thc f°

the c。 rrcsPonding PeoPles,

sin” is炙 mininc in Gcrman(dic sJndc),but mascu hnc in Russian(pΠ Cx) Likewisc a Russian child,while reading a translation of

artists:hc山 d not rcalize that“

°b“ °usly a w。 man(RuSsian

Gcrman tdcs, Ⅵas astoun(lcd to nnd that Death,

cMTb,殳 m,),was Picttl父 d灬 all old mm(German dcr%d,masc)△

9ssFcr

Ιlft,,

thc titlc of a bo。 k ofP° clns by Boris Pasternak,is quitC natural in Russian,、 vhcrc “ ct J。 sCf life” is炙 mi11inc人 M3Hb,but Was cno11gh to rc(lucc to dcspair thc Czcch P°

Hora in his atten1Pt to translatc thcse PoCms,since in Czcch this n° un is rnasculinc

艺ivor。厂、 hat`Vas thc initial qucsti。 n、 vhich ar° sc in slavic litcraturc at its 、

Ⅴcry bcgin~

ningP Curi° usly()nough, thc translator’ s(hmculty in prcscrving thc symbohsrn of gcndcrs,and thc cognitiⅤ c irrelcvancc。 fd1is difsculty,appcars to l)c the rnain topic °f thc earhcst sla、 ic °riginal vvork, d1c Preface to thc ⒔rst translation of thc

￡’ dnJε ′ ri1″ 力, 111adc in thc carly860’ sl)yt1△ e foundcr of slavic lcttcrs and liturgy, adlant S Constantinc thc【 )hⅡ °sophcr,and rcccntly restorcd and intcrPrCtCd by A.、厂 ‘ ‘ (]rcck,、 vhcn translated into anothcr languagc,cann° t al、vays bc rePr° ducCd idcn~ ’ jc’

tically,and that haPPens to CaCh languagc being translated,’

‘ “ Mascuhnc nouns as汀 @tart犭 ξ river’

‘

thc SlaⅤic aPoStlC statcs

in GⅡ ck,arc kmhllle in another languagc as pbKa and3Bb3卫 a in slaⅤ ic” According to Vanlant’ s conuncntary, d△ is divergence effaces the symbohc idcnti丘 cati° n。 f thc riⅤ ers、 vith dem° ns and 。f thc stars 、 vit11 angels in thc slavic translation of t、・。of Matthc、 v’ s VCrsCs (7:25and2∶ 9) But t。 this Poctic obstacle,saint Constantine rcsolutcly。 sCs thc m△ d

oσ t矽。

Star’

PP。

PrCct° f Dionysius thc Arcopagitc,xs`h0Called f° r chief attenti° n to the cognitive ・ valt】 cs(cⅡ JIb pca lyMy)and n。 tt° tllc Ⅵorcls thcmsekes, ln P。etry, Ⅴ crbal equations bcc。 mc a constructivc PrinciPle °f thc text syntactic and m° rphological catcgories, roots, and afHxcs, Ph° nCmcs and their

comP。 ncnts(disti11ctivc fcaturcs)— ˉin

sh° rt,any constituents of thc

Ⅴcrbal codc~

arc confrontcd,juxtaPoSCd,brou8ht into c° ntiguous relati。 n acc° rding to thc Prin~ vn autonon△ ous signi⒔ cation ciPlC °f Sinlilarity and coptrast and carry thcir °、

oN LINGU、 IsTIC AsPECTS OF TRANSLATION Phoncn1ic si1uⅡ

aritⅤ

143

is scnscd as semantic1・ clationshiP Thc Pun,° r to usc a morc

cruclitc,and PcrhaPs rnore PrCcisc tcrm_ paronomasia,rcigns oⅤ er Poetic art,and 、 vhcthcr its rulc is absolute° r lirnitcd,Poetry by dchniti° n is untranslatal)lc Only △on10nc poctic crcatiⅤ e transPositi° n is PoSSiblc:cithcr intrahmgual transPoSition shaPe int。 another,or intcrhngual transPositi° n- △°lu onc languagc into anothcr, 。r6naⅡ y interscn1iotic transPosition~— frolm。 nc systcn1。 f signs into an。 thcr,c,g,

iom verbal art into music,dancc,0ncma,or p菹 If、 ve、verc

‘

nting

to translate int。 Enghsh thc traditional f。 rmula rrdtlurrorc, 芒 r口 dir° r召

’ 、 vc、 V0ukl drivc the Itahan rhyΠ 、 ing ePigram of all its Paron。 mastic、 :aluc Hencc a cognitivc attitudc、vould c。 mPel us t° changc as‘ thc translat。 r is a bctraycr,’

this aPh° risn△ into a n△ orc cXPhcit Statcmcnt and to ans、 vcr thc qucstions∶ translat° r of、 vhat n△ cssagcsP bctraycr° f、 vhat valucs/

Notes 1

Bcrtrand Russcll,

‘ ‘

L。 gical Positivislll,’

’

RCˇ u召

dr1ondFc de P为 1FosoPhic, Iv

rn莎 crn

(1950),18;cf,p.3 2

Cf・ John Dcwcy,“ Pel1・ cc’ s Thcory of Lin8uistic Signs,Th。 ught,and RIeaning,”

3

Bcnjamin Lcc XVh°

「J,刂o″ n口 F。 fPlai′ 。 soP勹厂,xLIII(1946),91

rf, Ⅰ召nJudJe, TJ’ °1砂 r, dnd Re口

厂

1956),P235

(Cambridgc, Mass,

`Ⅱ

4

Nicls Bohr,“ 0n thc Notions。 f Causahty and ComPlcn△ enta0ty,” DidFecrjcd,I

5

JamCs R N】 astcrsOn andˇ Vendcll Brooks PhilhPs,ft・

(1948), 317f d召 rd`Pros召

(Chal)el Hill,

NC,1948),P40f 6

Cf Knut Bcr箩 land,“ Flll酞 ugosk og almcn叩俏 k“ tt,n酞 aP,” 加r sPr叼 ”dcnsk召 P,xv(1949),374f・

7

Franz Boas,“ Languagc/’

8

Andr誉 Vaillant, Lc Pr志 facc

‘ ‘

s拓 rcs,XXIV(1948),5f

Gεncr口

P。

Fo出 y(B° St°

dc`H,,rJlr° r芑 ⅤangChaire

N° 心k「 J」 sskr∮

n, 1938),Pp 132f

vieux-slavc/’ R召 Ⅰ rlId召 s ùe dcs 犭

s0止 61-s0961

T眶

a怼

tⅠ 揣

:|∶ l刂

::T鬼 :措

j∶ i∶

Ji∶

Ie%I遐 ls霆

1启 ::jr盥抟扌丨f;∶

cating the foreign text by estab"shing a re|ationship of ident|ty or ana|ogy x/Vith it,

、 uniVersa|s〃 of In 1963 Georges N冂 ounin argues that equiva|ence is based on 、 |anguage and cu|ture` questioning the notions of re|ativity that in preVious decades

made trans ation seem impossib e.At the same time`the|iterature on equiva|ence is fundamentaHy normative` ainning to proVide not on|y ana|ytica|too|s to describe trans|ations` but a|so standards to eva|uate them, The universa| is then shaped to a |ocal situation. Theorists tend to assume that the foreign teXt is a fair y stab e object`possessing

invariants` capab|e of reduction to precise|y denned units` |eve|s/ and categories of |anguage and textua"ty。 Equiva|ence is subnnitted to|exica|/grammatiCa1and sty卜 istiC ana|ysis氵

it is estab"shed on the basis of text type and sOcia| function. By the

end of the1970s`sO many typo|ogies of equiva|ence have been dev丨 sed thatˇ ∨erner

l
may be

、、、 \cOnnotative`〃 denOtat丨 ve`〃 depending on an \、 invariance of cOntent〃氵

depending on simi|arities of ` dia|ect` and sty|e丿

\\text-normative`″ based on

、 pragmatic`〃 ensuring colmprehensiusage norms〃 for particu|ar teXt types丿 and 、 b"ity in the receiving cu ture(KOHer1979∶ 186-91氵 KOHer1989∶ 99— 104), \、

The mOst fanni"ar theoretica| lmove in this period is to draⅥ / an oρ position betlveen trans|ating that cu|t|vates pra9rnatic equiVa|ence` draXA/ing on that are immediate|y inteHigib|e to the receptor` and trans|ating that is formaHy equi∨ a|ent/designed to approx rnate the|inguistiC and cu|tura|features of the foreign teXt

ted1964book(eXcerpted be|oⅥ /)Èugene Nida distinguishes bet、 Λ /een 、、、、 ′ dynannic〃 and fornna′ Varieties of \\correspondence`〃 |ater rep|acing the ter|η In h丨 s lt/ide|yc丨

148

196os-1970s

′ ′ dynanη

、 ′(Nida and Taber1969)。、、 /ith、 functiona|′ The year1977sees the nrst appearance of sirn"ar oppositions from Peter NeⅥ/mark (、 \communicat丨 ve〃 and 、 \se anantic″ )and Ju"ane H Ouse(\\covert〃 and\\overt〃 ), HOuse′ s distinction contains ic〃

the added re雨 nement of cOnsidering hokNl nnuCh the foreign teXt depends on its oⅥ /n

cu|ture for inteHigib"ity If the cance 。f a foreign teXt is pecu"ar|y indigenous` it requires a trans|ation that is overt or noticeab|e through its re"ance

on supp|ennentary information` 、 Λ /hether in the form of eXpansions` insertions Or annotations, These Varying sets of derive frolln traditiona|dichotomies betⅥ

/een\、

sense-

for-sense〃 and、、 Ⅵ/ord〃 trans|ating、 Λ /hich date back to ant丨 quity`to C丨 cero ^/ord-for

and HOrace` Jerome and Augustine。

But nokA/they are informed by the ascendancy

and sheer pro"feration of "nguistiCs-oriented apρ

roaches in trans|ation research,

The b|nary oppositions are basicaHy synonymous` despite the Variations among the 。 They are not quite ident丨 ca|` hoⅥ /ever` since each ρair emphasizes d丨 fferent

trans|ation a"ms and effects, Pragmatic equiva|ence cOmmunicates the foreign teXt according to va|ues so fami|iar in the receiving

丨 angua9e and cu|ture as to conCea|

the very faGt of trans|ation, FOrma| eq uiva|ence` in cOntrast` adheres so c|ose|y to the "nguist丨 c and cu丨 tu ra| va|ues of the foreign text as to revea| the trans|ation to

be a trans|atiOn,

Trans|ation theories that priv"ege equiva|ence must inevitab|y come to Ⅵ/ith the existence of

、 \shifts〃

betxAleen the foreign and trans|ated texts` deViations

that can occur at such "nguistic |eVe|s as grapho|ogy` phono|ogy` 9rammar` and |exis。

J,C。 Catford′ s deta"ed must\\assume some degree of forma|corres-

pondence〃 sO that shifts can be detected as、 \departures″ (Catford 1965∶ 73` 76), Yet he nnaHy quest丨 ons this assumption by conc|uding that\\trans|ation equ丨 va|ence does not entire|y matCh forma| corresρ

ondence〃

(ibid。

∶82),

Instead of raising fundamenta|doubts about the pOssib"ity of equiva|ence`shifts are used to recommend trans|ating that is pragrnatic` funGtiona|` comnnunicatiVe。 ∨ ∨hen Anton Poρ ovic asserts that\、 shifts do not occur because the trans|ator xArishes to\change′ a wOrk` but because he striVes to reproduce it as faithfu"y as possib|e`〃 he hasin mind is、 \functiona`″ lAlith the trans|ator|ocating \\suitab|e equiva|ents in the m"ieu Of his time and society〃 (POpOvic197o∶

the kind of\、 faithfu|ness〃

80`82)。

Jirf Levy carries out eXperiments shoWing that pragmatic trans ation inVo丨 Ves 、 gradua|semantic shifting″ a、 as trans|ators choose from a number of pOss丨 b|e so|u-

tions (LeVy 1967∶ 1176)。 Nnodern trans|ators` he asserts` intuitive|y app|y the minimaX strategy`〃 ch00sing the so|ution、、 Which promises a maximum of effect \、

、 Ⅵ/ith a nninimum of effort″ -short of vio|ating the ′ "nguistic stand∶l179-80), E|sewhere LevyOrisaesthetiG critica|of the 、、、 resu|ts∶ in an experiment designed tO study the |anguage of average〃 and 、 bad″ \changing trans|atiOns` he行 nds that shifts NA/ork to genera"ze and c|arify mean丨 ng` 、 ards〃 of a particu|ar readership(ibid。

the sty|e Of a "terary act丨

Ⅵ/ork into a dry and uninspiring description of things and

(LeVy1965∶ 78-80). atharina Reiss (1971) ρresents a sOphisticated typo|ogy that disp|ays the

Ons″ I〈

|ogica| tensions among the reigning cOncepts in the "terature. As she argues in the essay reprinted here`the、、 functiona"y equiva|ent〃 trans|ation needs to be based on

鹘

肝皤鼹固日口黜 {∷

1960s-1970s

、、 deta"ed senaantic` syntactic` and pragmatic ana|ysis〃 a 、

149

of the fOreign teXt, But

the pragrnatic ana|ysis a|\^/ays risks reVising any preVious of meaning because it redennes the object of ana ysis,The pragmatic trans|ator doesn/t simp|y ana|yze the|inguistic and cu|tura|features of the foreign text`but reverba"zes thenn

according to the Va|ues Of a different |anguage and cu|ture` often app|ying Ⅵ/hat 、 HOuse caHs a 、 n|ter〃 to aid the receptor′ s comprehensiOn of the differences.

The functiona"sm in so many trans|ation theories at this time casts doubt on e|aborate typo|o9ies of equiva|ence by suggesting that they are mere|y cOnstructions` idea| schemes not rea"zed in actua|trans|ations Or` more precise|y`the idea|

becomes ρossib|e on|y wt/ithin a narroⅥ / range of texts in speCi吊 c institutiona| situations` inc|uding trans|ator training programs。 Reiss` |i|(e sO many of her Con、、 informative″ texts。

tennporaries` deve|Ops her theory xklhi|e training trans|ators of

VVith of6cia|documents` scho|ar|y artic|esòperation manua|sànd nevt/s reports` it is assumed` the trans丨 ator can choose "nguistic forllns that correspond direct|y to

communicative functions` securing equiva|ence on the basis of reference to rea|

objects/personsànd events,Trans|ator training`moreover`creates a demand for ana|ytica| too|s that can be used to generate trans|ation strategies and so|ut丨

ons

in the c assroom, In the case of|iterary texts`the functiona"st trend u|tirη

ate|y disp|aces equiva-

|ence as a centra| cOncept in trans|ation research by directing attention to the

receptOr. During the 1970s` Itamar Even-Zohar and GideOn Toury set out from the assumption that "terary trans丨

ations are facts of the target system In often

/ in |ater rev丨 sed versions` they theorize "tera、、 po|ysystelm′ ′of interre|ated forms and canons that constitute \\nornas〃

cited essays that are reprinted be|oⅥ

ture as a

cOnstraining the trans|ator′ s choiGes and strategies,

Even-ZOhar imagines the body of trans|ated "terature as a systen∩ in its OXVn right` eX丨

sting 丨 n varying re|ationships Ⅵ/ith ori9ina| compositions, Both Occupy ′ 、、、 periphera|`〃 and both perin "terary systelnns` \^/hether or ′

\\positions〃

centra′

fornn "terary \、 functions`〃

llt/hether

、 \innovative〃、 or 、 conserVatory/′

A nainor

"terature_ in re|ation to 1onger rich|y deVe|oped |iterary traditiOns -may assignlninor trans|ation a centra| ro|eand in more spurrin9 innovation, In a major |iterature`trans|ation may be ass丨

gned a periρ hera|ro|e`conservative丨 y adhering to norms

rejected by origina Writing Toury shoⅥ /s hollv the target orientation transforms the concept of equiva|ence. The \、

adequacy〃 of a trans|ation to the source text becomes an unprOductive "ne

of enquiry` not on|y beCause shifts ah^/ays Occur` but because any determinatiOn Of adequacy` even the identincati。 n 。f a source text and a trans|ation` invo|ves the aρ

p"cation of a target norm. HenCe` TOury seeks to describe and exp|ain the

\\acceptab"ity〃

of the trans|at|on in the rcceiving cu|ture`the、

shifts const丨 tute a type of equiva丨

^/ays in\^/hich various

ence that renects target norms at a Certain

historica moment Po|ysystenη theory proves to be a decisive adVance in trans|ation research,The

iterature on equiva|ence formu|ates "nguistic and textua| |η prescribes a specinC trans|at丨

ode|s and often

on praCtiCe (pragrnatic` functiona` communicative).

The target orientation` in contrast`focuses On actua|trans|ations and subnη

its the|钔

150

196os-1970s

to deta"ed description and eXp|anation. It insp丨

res research projects that invo|Ve

A pioneering study of nineteenth-century French trans|ations is cOnducted by Lieven D′ hu|st` JOso Lambert` and |

substantia| cOrpora of trans|ated teXts。 Van Bragt。

The eXpansion Of trans|ation research in the 1960s and 197os coincides w丨 th an increased aⅥ /areness that it represents an emerging acadennic discip"ne. Ear|y theorists "ke Catford fee| that trans|ation studies do not deserve the institutiona| autonomy of |inguistics beCause they are a site` not of theorizing abOut |an9uage` but of app|ying inguistic theories. ˇ Vhen Nida and |ater Wo|franη W i|ss ca" their 、、 theoretica| \^/orks a science〃 of trans|at丨 on` they are giving the topic a schO|ar{y coherence and |egitimacy that it has so far |acked (lA/Hss 1977/ 1982), In the |n硐

uentia|paper inc|uded here(1972)`James Ho|mes drav√ s up a disci-

、 p"nary map for trans|ation studies` dist丨 nguishing 、 pure〃 research-oriented areas of theory and description frolm \、 app"ed〃 areas "ke training and criticism, The \app"ed″ and 、

\pure〃 distinction betⅥ /een 、

mode丨

points to his adoption of a scientinc

` not so muCh from "nguistics as frolm the physica| sciences. FOr HOlmes`

theoretica| conceρ ts deriVed from empirica| description` much "ke scienti而

shou|d a"m

、、 to exp|ain and predict

c |aⅥ /s`

Ⅵ/hat trans|ating and trans|ations are and

Ⅵ/iH be.〃 The drive to estab"sh a distinct disCip"ne |eaVes unansⅥ/ered the quesΛ /hether the trans|ation scho|ar Ⅵ/i|| need to re|y on other cOnceptua| tions of 、

materia s`what they might beànd what discip"nes might furnish them.The new discip"nar丨 ty a|so creates an epistemo|o9ica} hierarchy∶

the knoⅥ /edge assigned

the greatest Va|ue is produced by theoretica| and descriptiVe studies of trans|ation

products` functions` and prOcesses` 、、 /hereas app ied studies are seen as yie|d丨 n9 、、 data〃 for the theorist Ho|mes′ s vision is shared by target-oriented theorists "ke Even-ZOhar and

TOury`for Ⅵ/hom Russian FOrma"sm is|η ore usefu|than functiona|"nguistics.Their Ⅵ/Ork responds to his ca" for empirica| data and the search for probab"istic |aⅥ of trans ation。

/s

N Onethe|ess` trans|ation theory re mains a heterogeneous ne|d

throughout this period. It encOmes both "nguists "ke Catford` xA/hose study is

underwritten by Ha|idayan ana|ytica|conceptsànd the ec ectic Levy`wh。

synthe~

sizes psycho"nguistics` semantics` structura丨 anthropo|ogy` "terary critiCislm` and game theory。 George steiner′ s ma9isteria|1975study泅

fFe〃

Babe” COntinuous y in pr丨 nt for

more than txA/o decades` is undoubted|y the most Wide|y knOwn Ⅵ/ork in trans|ation theory since the Second WOr|d ˇ Var It opposes modern "nguistics Ⅵ/ith a "terary and ph"osOphica| approach。 ˇ ∨hereas "nguistiCs-oriented theorists de吊 ne trans|a-

tion as functiona{cOmmunication`Steiner returns tO German ROmanticism and the hermeneutic tradition tO vieⅥ /trans|ating as an interpretation of the foreign text that is at once profound|y sympathetic and vio|entèxp|oitiVe and ethica"y restorative。

For ste丨 ner` |anguage is not instrulmenta| in comnnunicating meaning` but

COnstitutive in recOnstructing it And it is the individua"stic asρ ects of |anguage` \、

the ρrivacies of indiv丨 dua| usage`〃 that resist interpretation and escape the uniVer-

sa"zing cOncepts of "nguistics (steiner 1975∶ 205)。 Deepen丨 ng sch|eiermacher/s recOmmendation that German trans|ators signa|the foreignness of the foreign text`

1960s-1970s

・

151

、 great trans|ation |η ust Carry Ⅵ/ith it the most preCise sense Steiner argues that 、 ρ0ssib丨 e of the resistantòf the barriers intact at the heart of understanding〃

(ibid.∶

378) Linguists |ike Rllounin and Catford assume that universa|s bridge }inguistiG and cu|tura|differences.、、 Trans|ation equiva|ence`″ Catford asserts`、 \ocGurS、 Λ /hen a SL Esource-丨 anguage]and a TL Etarget-|anguage]text or itella are re丨

atab|e to(at|east 、 \substance〃 some of) the same features of substance`〃、 Λ /here can signify a re|atiVe|y nxed range of|inguistic features/|eVe|s and Gategor丨 innn丨

te series of cu tura|situations(Catford1965∶

be|oⅥ/

esàs、

^/eH as a potentiaHy

50).Yet Ste"η eràs the excerpt

makes c|ear` is a|so prone to universa"zing |nsofar as his theory of the

\\hermeneutic motion〃

threatens to transcend the specinc hlst。 r|ca| moments that

innect every trans|ation, Steiner′ s discussions of trans|ated texts either fOcus on the

theoretica| cOncept he v,/ants tO H|ustrate or ana|yze and eva|uate a trans|ator′

s

hand"ng of sty丨 istic features, H is forte is "terary criticism as the appreciation of persona| sty|e/、 Λ /hich resu|ts in suggestive readings of noted trans|ations` esρ

eciaHy

by poets and ph"osophers. H istorica| situations` hohAyever` recede behind the innOVative performances that occur in them。 For Henri n/leschonnic` the Ger|η an traditiOn |eads in a different direction∶

he

mounts a critique of natura"zing trans|ation for mystifying its appropriation of the 、 The Current proposition`″ he Ⅵ/rites` \、 accOrding to 、 Λ foreign teXt, 、 /hich a trans|ation shou|d not give the innpression of being trans|ated`″ naasks a process of 、、、 annexation″ Ⅵ ere"η the trans|ated text 、 transposes the so-ca"ed do lninant /|η

(N冂 esChonnic 1973∶ 308` my trans"|usion of transparency〃 L"<e Nietzsche and ∨oss|er before hinη /are of the ` N1eschonnic |s acute|y aⅥ ′ 、 ′ 310).

ideo1ogy〃 under the \、 |ation)。 \、

irnperia"sm′

of any trans|ating that

tends to forget its history″

(ibid.∶

He argues for a more theoreticaHy sophisticated trans|ation practice that questions the nnain tendency in this periOd toxtlards the pragrnatic` the functiona|` the cOmmun|catiVe.

Further reading FaⅥ/cett1997`Gentz|er1993`

Hatim1998` Hermans1995and1999` KeHy1979` Lira| 1986` Lambert1995` Larose1989` NOrd 1997` Pym 1995and 1997a` SneH-H Ornby1988and 1990

Chapter 13

Eugene Nida

PRINCIPLES OF CORRESPONDENCE

sF呈

卜飞。 :∶∶r里敲

ii1'、 ∴ 晁

;F&T茫

:f;;riFc拉

y∶

芷 h℃ 梢

arrangcd in phrascs and scntcnces,it stands to rcas。 n that there can bc n°

寰

abs。 lutc

corrcsPondCncc betxx=ccn languagcs,Hcncc thcrc can bc no fully cxact translations Thc total impact of a translati° n may bc rcas。 nably cl。 sc to thc original, l)ut thcrc

can bc no idcntity in detail C。 nstance B VVcst (1932∶ problcm∶

‘ ‘

VVhocvcr takcs uPon hirnsclf t。

it,hc n1ust Pay not、

344) clcarly statcs thc

translatc c° ntraCts a dcbt; t° dischargc

Ⅳith thc san1c moncy,but thc san1c sum”

C)nc must n。 t imtl~ginc

that the l,r° cCSS0f translation can avoid a certah1(lcgrcc of intcrPretation l)y thc

translator,In hct,as D G Rossctti stated in1874(Fang1953),“ A translation rcmains I冫 crhaPs thc m。 st dircct f°

rm ofc。 mmcntaryΓ

’

Different tyPes of translations No statcmcnt of thc PrinciPlcs 。f corrcsP° ndcncc in translating can bc c。 n△ Pletc 、 Ⅴith。 ut rccognizing thc many diffcrcnt tyPcs of translati° ns (HCrbcrt p. PhilhPs 1959) Traditionally,we haⅤ c tcndcd t° d1ink in of△ cc Or ParaPhraStic trans lati。 ns as contI・ astcd、 vith cl。 sc。 r litcral。

ncs Actually,thcrc are n△ any n1orc g1ˉ adcs

。f translating than thcsc cxtrcmes imply, Thcrc a1・ c, for cxan△ PlC,Such ultrahtcral translations as interhncars;、 Ⅴ hⅡ c° thers inⅤ olvc highly concordant relati。 nshiPs,e・ g the same s° urcc languagc 、 vord is al、 vays translatcd by ° nc ~ and 。nly 。nc ~ rCcePt。 r^languagc xx ord Still° thcrs111ay bc quitc(lc、 oid。 f artiscial rcstrictions in

1964

154 f°

EuGENE NIDA

rm, but neⅤ crthclcss may bc ovcrtraditional and eⅤ cn archaizing, some translans ai1n at Ⅴcry cl° sC f° rmal and scmantic corrcspondcnce, but are gcncr° usly

ti°

suPPhCd、vith inf° rn1ati° n

n° tcs and c°

mmentary Many arC not so rnuch conccrncd、 vith giving

as vvith crcating in thc rcadcr somcthing of thc san△

vas c m。。d as 、

conⅤ cyed by thc original Diffcrcnces in translati。 ns can gcncrally be cd for by three basic factors

(1)thC naturc of thc mcssagc, (2)thc purp。 sc or purPoses of thc xy,of thc tlˉ anslator,alad(3)the type。 f atKhcn∝ ~】 cssagcs diⅡ cr Prilnardy in thc dcgrcc to、 vhich content° r form is the don1i~ nant considcration, Ofc。 urse, the c° ntcnt of a mcssagc can ncⅤ cr bc comPlctcly in translating∶

author and,by P⑩

al)s订犯tt・ d分om the无 rm,and form is nothng aPdt fl° mc° ntcnt;but in s。 me mcssages the contcnt is of prilnary considcration, and in othcrs the f° rnl must be

a highcr Pri。 rity For cxamPlc,in the scrm° n。 n thc Mount,dcsPitc ccrtain i1nPortant styhstic quahtics,the imPortance of the message far cxcccds C0nsidera~

giⅤ cn

tlons of form.0n thc other hand,s° mc ofthe acr° stic PoCms。 fthc Old Tcstamcnt are obviously dcsigned to丘 t a vcry strict formal“ strait jacket” But cvcn thc contents

。f a mcssagc may diⅡ er、 videly in aPPhcability to the rcctor~languagc audicncc For examPle,the f° lk talc ofthc Baur芑 Indians of BohⅤ ia,ab。 ut a giant vvho lcd thc anilllals in a symbohc dancc,is intcrcsting to an Enghsh-sPcaking audicncc,but to thcn) it has n° t thc same rcleⅤ ancc as thc scrm° n on thc Mount, And cⅤ en the Baur誉 Indians thcmsclⅤ cs rccognizc thc Scrmon on thc N1ount as morc signi丘 cant “ than their hvoritc hoⅥ 厂it-haPPcncd” St。 ry, At thC samc timc, of c° urse, the

Sermon° m

thc D诬 ount has grcatcr rclcⅤ

ancc to thcsc Indians than have some a8cs

in LcⅤ iticus, In P。 Ctry thCrc is obⅤ iously a grcatcr f° cus of attcntion uP。 nf° rmal clcn1cnts

than° nc n° rmally Hnds in PrOsC・

N。 t that contcnt is ncccssarily sacri6ccd in trans~

lation ofa pocn1,butthe c° ntcnt is ncccssarily c。

Only rarcly can° ne rePr。ducc b。 th

nst1ˉ ictcd

int。 ccrtain f° rn1al rnolds

c。 ntcnt and forl△ l in a translati°

in gcncral thc f° rm is usually sacriHccd f° r the sakc°

n, and hcncc

fthc contcnt On thc Othcr

hand,a lyric poerll translatcd as prose is not an adcquatc cquiⅤ alcnt° f the original

Though it may rroducc thc c° nceptual c° ntent, it falls far sh° rt° f rePr。 ducing thc cn10ti。 nal intcnsity and∏ aⅤ °r H° 、 vever,the translating ofsomc tyPcs of Poctry

by Prosc may bc dictatcd by hnportant cultural considerations, For cxa1nPlc, Homcr’ s ic P° Ctry rroduccd in Enghsh Poctic f°

and quccr~、 vith

n°

r∏1usually

sccms t。 us antiquc

thing° fthc livchncss and sp° ntancity charactcristic of H。

m cr’ s

stylc Onc rcason is that、 vc arc not accustomcd to haⅤ ing storics told to usin P。 Ctic

rm In our Wcstern EuroPcan tradition such ics are relatcd in Pr° SC F。 r dⅡ s reason E V F辶 icu ch。 sc Pr。 sC rathcr than Poctry as the1n。 rc aPProPriatc lucdium by vvhich to rcndcr Thc Ihad and The Odysscy f°

The Particular PurPoseS° f thc translator arc also imp。 rtant fact° rs in(lictating rl△ as PurPoSes

thC tyPc of translati° n (Df coursc, it is assumcd that thc translat。 gcncrally sirnilar to, or at lcast comPatiblC、

vith, th° sc of thc° riginal auth。

this is not ncccssarily so For cxamplc,a san Blas st°

amusing his audience,but an cthnographcrˇ

ryˉ

r,but

tellcr is intcrcsted only in

vho scts about translating such storics

may bC rnuch lnorc conccrncd in giⅤ ing his audicncc an insightint。

san Blas PcrSOn~

ahty structure since,h° 、 vcvCr,thc purPoscs of thC translat。 r arc thc prhnary ones

PRINCIPLEs OF CORREsPONDENCE t°

bc considcrcd in studying thc tyPcs of translati°

155

n 、 vhich result, thc princiPal

PurPosCS that undcrhc the ch。 icc °f onc 。r anothcr、 vay to rcndCr a particular

mcssagc arc imPortant ThC Pri1nary PurPose° f thc translat° r1nay bc informad° n as to both c。 ntcnt and form Onc intcndcd typc ofrcsPonSC t° suCh an inf° rmatiⅤ e tyPe of translation is largcly cognitivc,cg, an cthn。 graphcr’ s translation of tcxts frorll informants,or

n

a philosoPhCr’ s translati° n of Heideggcr A largcly informatiⅤ e translation may,°

the othcr hand, be designed t° chcit an emotional rcsponse of Pleasurc fron1thc rcadcr。 r listcner A translator’ s Purposcs Π1ay involⅤ c much morc山 an in儿 rmation Hc may,忆 r CxamPle,、 vant t° suggest a Particular tyPc of behaⅤ iour by lneans of a translati° n,

Undcr such circumstanccs hc is hkcly to ai1n at full intclligibility,and to rnakc ccrtain

mhora曲 ustmCl・ tS

h dctaⅡ

⒃

tllat tl△

c

κader may un(lCrqtand tllc hll iml’

licad°

ns

of the n△ essagc f° r his o、vn circumstanccs. In such a situation a translator is not

contcnt to havc rcctorS say,“ This is intclligiblc to us” Rathcr,he is lookng for some such resPonse t△ s,“ This is meaningftll for us” In tcrms of B山 lc translating, the Pe。 Ple n1ight undcrstand a Phrase such as“ t。 changc Omc’ s llaind ab。 ut sin” as mcaning“ rcntancC・ ”But if thc indi8cnous、 vay oftalking about rcntancc is“ spit on thc gr。 und in fr。 nt。 fr’ as in shilluk,1 sP。 kcn in thc sudan,thc translator、 vill obⅤ iously缸 m at thc morc mcaninghl idlom.On a simi1ar basis,“ whitc as snow” may bc rcndcred as“ 、 vhitc as cgrct fcathcrs/’ ifthC Pc° Ple of thC rect。 r languagc ith sn。、 v but sPcak。 f anything Ⅴcry、 ⅤhitC by this Phrasc arc not acquaintcd、 Ⅴ

A still greatcr degree of adaptati° n is likely to occur in a translati°

n、 vhich has

an imPcrativc PurPosC Here thc translator feels constraincd not rnerely to suggcst aP。 sSiblc linc° f bchaⅤ ior,but to makc such an action cxPhcit and c。

mPclling.Hc

is not contcnt to translatc in such a、 vay that thc pcoplc arc likely to undcrstand; rathcr,hc insists that the translati° n1nust bc so clear that no° nc can Possibly rnis-

understand In addition to the diffcrcnt tyPcs of n1cssagcs and thc divcrsc PurP。 lat° rs,° nc

sCs of trans~

luust also C° nsidcr thc extent to、 vhiCh ProsPcctiⅤ C audiences differ both

in dccoding ability and in PotCntial intcrcst,

Dccoding ability in any language inⅤ

olⅤ cs at lcast f°

ur Principal lcⅤ cls∶

(1)thC

caPacity° f childrcn,“ ・ hosc Ⅴ°cabulary and cultural cxpcriencc are lilnited;(2)the

capacity of ncⅥ = litcratcs, v￠ ho Can dccodc oral mcssagcs 、 vith hcili” but wh° sC ability t。 dccodc writtcn mcssagcs is hmited;(3)tl・ e capa。 0of d。 ublc~standard

thc aⅤ cragc litcrate adult,、 vh° can handlc b。 th oral and、 vrittcn1η cssages、 vith rela-

tivc casc; and (4) the unusually high capacity of spcciahsts (d。

ct。 rs, thcol°

gians,

vhcn thcy arc dcc° ding mcssagcs、 vithin thcir° 、 vn PhilosoPherS, scientists, etc), 、 arca of spcciahzation (DbⅤ iously a translation dcsigncd for childrcn cann° t bc thc samc as onc prarCd f° r sPcciahstS,nor can a transladon f。 r chⅡ drcn bc thc samc as Onc for a ncⅥ

litcrate adult `lⅤ

PrOSPCctivc audicnccs di∏ 辶r not only in dccoding ability,but pcrhaps cvcn lη

orc

in thcir intcrcsts,For cxamPle,a translation dcsigncd to sthη ulatc rcading for plca~ v surc、VⅡ l l,c quitc diffcrcnt from one intcndcd f° r a pcrs° n anxious t° lcarn h。、

to asselllblc a colllPhcated machinc, RJIorcoⅤ cr, a translator °f African myths for

pσ sons wk)“ mlDly wal△ t tc,satis灯

tl・

。r cu⒒ 。sity

al)。 ut

stlangc PcolDlCs and PlacCs

156

EuGENE NIDA

will Producc a difkrent piece of work Ⅱom onc wh。 rendcrs thcsc same myths in 、ho arc1u° rc intcrestcd in thc linguistic structurc af。 rl11acctable to li11guists, 、 undcrlying thc translation than in cultural n° vclty

Two basic Orientations in translating ‘

sincc‘ thcre arc,ProPcIˉ

ly spcakng,n° such things as idcntical cquivalents’

’

(BCll° c

1931and1931a∶ 37),Onc Inust in translating scck to⒔ nd the closcst P。 ssiblC cquivalcnt H°、 vcvCr, thcrc arc fundamentally t、 vo diffcrent tyPcs of cquivalcncc∶ °nc 、 vhich may bc ca1lcd formal and an。 thcr、 vhich is l)ri1narⅡ y dynan1ic, F。 rmal

cquivalcnce focuses attcntion on thc mcssage itsclf, in b。

th f° rln

and

Contcnt In such a translation one is conccrned、 vith such corresPondcnccs as PoCtry to P。 ctry,scntcncc

to sCntcncc,and conCt to concePt Vic、

vCd frolll this f° rn△ al

orientation,onc is concerncd that thc1)1cssage in thc rector language should rnatch as closcly as PossiblC thc diffcrcnt clemcnts in thc sourcc lan8uage This rncans,f° r r culture is c。 nstantly c° nlPared′ Ⅴ ith tl△ c exan1Plc,that thc l11essagc in thc rcct。 nη

cssagc in thc sourcc culturc t° The tyPc of translati° n

lcncc might bc caⅡ cd a

“

dctcrn1inc standards° f accuracy and correctncss

Ⅴ vhich m° st completely tyPincs this structural equiⅤ a-

gloss translation/’ in

、ˉ hich

thc translator atteml)tS t° ft11c° ri

reProducc as litcrally and mcanh1gfully as PosSiblc thc forn1and contcnt°

ginal Such a translation∏ 1ight bc a rendering of somc N1cdicval Frcnch text into Enghsh, intcndcd for students 。f certain asPccts of early Frcnch htcraturc not )ra requiling a k11o、 vlcdge of thc original language of thc tcxt Tl、 cir nccds call ⒒ rclatiⅤ f°

cly close aPProxiluation to the structurc of thc carly Frcnch tcxt,b°

th as t。

rm(c,g,syntax and idioms)and c。 ntcnt(c.g,themcs and concts) such a trans_

lati° n

§ dlly

`v。 uld rcquirc numerous footnotcs in ordcr to n1ake t11c text

C0111PrChCnsiblC A gloss transladon of this tyPC is des唿

ncd to PCrmit thc rcaclcr to i(lcnti灯

hirusclf as R111y as P。 ssil)lc 、 vith a PcrS。 n in the sourcc~languagc co11tcxt, and t。

undcrstand as much as he can of thc cust。 ms, 111anner of thought, and n△ eans° f

CxPrCSSion For cxamPlc,a phrasc such as“

holy klss”

(Romans16△ 6)ll△

a gl° SS

translation、 vould bc rcndcrcd litc1・ ally,and Ⅵ'。 ukl Pr。 bably l)c suPPlcluentcd、 Ⅴith

a botnote cxPl缸 ning that thiS was a customar) mcthod 。f grecting in Ncw Testamcnt tlmcs It1 c° ntrast, a translati°

n 、 vhich attcn1Pts to Produce a dynan1ic rathcr than

af° rmal cquiⅤ alencc is bascd uPOn‘

‘

the PrinciPle of CquivalCnt cffcct’

’

(F辶 iCu

and

PhilhPs 1954)・ In suc11 a translation °ne is not so c° nccrnCd 、 Ⅴith matching thc rCcePtor~languagc lllcssagc、 vith the s。 urcc languagc1ncssagc,but、 id1thc dynan1ic rclationshiP, that thc rclati。 nshiP bct、 ccn rcctor and Incssagc should bc sub-

stantially thc samc as that 、 Ⅴhich cxistcd bct、 veen thc original rccePt° rs and the

mcssagc, A translati°

n。 f dynan△ ic cquiⅤ alcncc airns at comPletc naturah)css°

f eXPrcS-

sion, and tries to rclatc the rector to modes of bchaⅤ ior relevant vvithin the vn culturc;it docs not insist that he understand thc cultural Patterns conteXt of his。、

of thc sOurce-language contcxt in order to connl)rchend thc mcssagc (Df coursc, thcrc are Ⅴarying de:reCs 。f such dynamic-equivalcncc translati。 ns, One of thc

PRINCIPLES OF CORREsPONDENCE

157

m° dern Enghsh translatl° ns vvhich,PerhaPS n1。 rc than any° thCr,seeks f° r cquiⅤ alcnt ef攵 ct is J.B,PhilliPs’ s

rCndcring ofthe Ncw Tcstamcnt.In Romans1⒍ 16hc

quitc naturany translatcs“ greet。 nc anothcr、 Ⅴith a h。 ly

kiss’

’

as“ givc

onc anothcr

a heartⅤ handshake all ar。 und,”

Between thc tw° polcs of仔 anslating(i,c.bCtwCcn stoct brmal eq“ Ⅴalcncc and c° n△ PlctC dynan】 ic cquivalcncc)thcrC arc a numbcr。

fintcrⅤ ening gradcs,rrcscnting various acctablc standards °f litcrary translating During the Past sfty years,ho、 vcvcr,therc has bccn a:uarkcd shift° f cmphasis i° n△ thc f° rmal t° thc

dynan1ic dirncnsion A rcccnt suⅡ

`lnary of oPini°

n on translating by literary artiSts,

PubhshCrs,cducat° rs,and Pr。 fCssional translators indicates clcarly that thc prcscnt dircction is to、

vard incrcasing cmPhasis° n dynan1ic cquivalcnccs(Cary 1959),

Linguistic and cultural distancc In any(hscussi° n。 f equiⅤ alences,、 vhether structural or dynan1ic,onc must al、

vays

bcar in 1uind thrcc differcnt tyPcs of rclatcdncss, as dctcrn△ incd by thc hnguistic and cultural distancc l,etⅥ

厂 ecn thc c° dcs uscd t。

c° nⅤ cy

thc mcssages In somc

olⅤ c comParatiⅤ ely closcly rclatcd languagcs ancl culturcs,cg.translations△ 。m Frisian into English,or i° m Hcl)rcw into Arabic On thc° thcr hand,the languagcs l△ aay not be rclated,cven though thc

instanccs, for cxamPlc, a translation n1ay inⅤ

culturcs arc closcly parallcl, c,g, as in translations Flolll Gcrman into Hungarian, edish are Ind。 ~Eur。 Pean languages, 。r⒒ oⅡ 1sⅥ ・ cdish into Finnish(Gcrman and sⅥ 厂 whilc Hunganan and Finnish bel° ng to thc Finn。 ~Ugrian hmily) In stiⅡ othcr

instanccs a translation may inv° lve n° t° nly diffcrcnccs。 f linguistic af⒔ hati。 n but also highly divcrsc culturcs,e g Enghsh into Zulu,。 r Greek into JaⅤ ancsc,2

veen source and rcctor codcs arc lcast,onc should cxpcct to enc。 untcr thc lcast numbcr ofscrious ProblCms,but Whcrc thc linguistic and cultural distanccs l)et、

as a mattcr of fact if languages are too Closcly rclated

°ne is likely to bc badly

deccived by the suPer⒔ cial sirnilaritics,、 vith the result that translations d° nc undcr thcsc circumstanccs arC oRcn quitc P。。r.Onc of thc scrious dangcrs consists of so-

‘

called‘ false fricnds,’

’

i,c borr。、 vcd。 rc。 gnatc、 vords、 vhich sccn△

but are not al、 vays s。 ,cg,Enghsh sPaniSh j孑 n° r口

',Enghsh virF1Ι

t°

bc cquivalcnt

dcm口 ,ad and French dcm￠ ndcr,Enghsh丿召n° r召 and

c and Latln virF1Ι s,and Enghsh clcdc。 n and Grcck dit。大。 n os

Whcn thc culturcs arc rclatcd but thc languagcs arc quite different,d△ lat° r

is callcd upon t°

makc a good lnany formal shiRs in thc translati。

c trans~

n HowcⅤ cr,

thc cultural sin1ilaritics in such instanccs usually Pr° ⅤidC a scrics of Parallchsms° f contcnt that makc thc translati° n ProP°

rti° natcly1nuch

lcss difHcult than、

languagcs and cultures are disParate In fact, differenccs betⅥ

vhen b。 th

￠ ccn culturcs causc

many morc sevcrc comphcations for thc translat° r than d° differcnces in languagc structure

Definitions of translating DcHnitions of ProPcr translatlng arc ahnOst as numerous and Ⅴaricd as thc Pcr~ sons、 Ⅳho havc undcrtaken to discuss the sul|∶ ∶ iect,This divcrsity is in a scnsc qLlltC )∷

158

EuGENE NIDA

understandable; f° r d△ crc arc Ⅴast difFcrcnces in the materials translated, in thc purPoses ofthc Publicati° n,and in thc nccds。 fthc Pr。 SPcctiⅤ e audicncc。 MorcoⅤ er,

hvc languages arc constantly changing and styhstic PrCfcrcnces undcrg。 c。 ntinual modi丘 cation Thus a translation acctablc in One Pcri° d iS。 Rcn quitc unacct_ ablc at a later dmc.

A number ofsigni6cant and rclativcly comPrchcnsivC clcHniti° ns° f haⅤ e

translati° n been。 ffcrcd Pr° ch犭 zka(GarⅤ in 1955∶ 111 ff)dc丘 ncs a good translation in

tcrms of cσ tain rcqtll℃ mcnts which mu虻 bc made° f tlle translator,namcly∶

“

(1)

Hc must undcrstand tllc Original wOrd thcmadcally an(l stylistically” ;(2)“ hC must oⅤ ercomc thc difcrences bctwccn the tw。 hnguisuc structures” ;and(3)“ he must rcconstruct thc styhstic structurcs of the° riginal、、 ork in his translation” In a dcscription。 f ProPer translati° n of Poctry,Jackson Mathc、・ s (1959∶ 67) statcs∶

‘ ‘ (Dnc thing sccms clcar: to translate a Pocm、 ’ holc is t。

pocln,A wholc订 anslad。 n

con△ PosC

will bc RⅡ thhl to thc n2d∠ rcr,and it wiⅡ

‘

anothcr

aPPr° xiΠ 1atc

the brm’ ° thc。。ginal;and it will haⅤ e a h托 °fi‘ own,which is thc v。 icc of thc 仕anslator” Richmond Latdm。 re(1959,in Brower195⒐ 56)deals with tlac same basic Pr° blC1n °f translating P。 ctry. He dcscribcs thc fundamental PrinciPlCs in ‘ ‘ tcrms of thc、 Ⅴay in、 vhich Greek poctry sh° uld bc translatcd,namcly∶ t。 makc F’

m thc Grcek Pocm a P。 cm in Engish whch,wl△ lle givhg a high minimum of vhich、 Ⅴould not bc thc kind。 f mcaning ofthe Grcck,is still a nc、 :Enghsh Pocn、、 fl。

pocm it is ifit wcrc not transladng thc Grcck which it translatcs,” No Pr° PCr dcnniti。 n 。f translation can avoid some °f thc basic dif6cultics ESPCcially in thc rcndcring of Poctry, thC tCnsion bct、 vccn form and contcnt and thc c。 nHict bct、 vccn f° rmal and dynan1ic equivalcnccs arc alvvays acutcly PrcsCnt

Ho、veⅤ er, it sccms to bc incrcasingly rcc° gnizcd d△ at adhercncc to thc lcttcr may indccd knl thc sPirit、 villiam A CooPcr(192⒏ 484)dcals with this P1・ °l)lcm rathcr ‘ rcahstically in his articlc On‘ Translating Gocthc’ s Pocms/’ in、 :hich hc says:“ If the language of thc original emPl° ys、 vord f° rmations that giⅤ c risc to insurmountable

。f

n, and ngures of sPccch 、 vholly

reign, and hcncc incomprchcnsiblc in thc。 ther t° nguc,it is bcttcr to chng to the sPirit of thC Poem and clothe it in languagc and Hgurcs entirely frcc fron1aⅥ 广 k`、 ′ ardness of sPccch and dif⒔ cultics

dircct translati。

f°

°bscurity of Picturc This might be callcd a translation fr° m culture to culture” It rnust bc rccognizcd that in translating poetry thcrc arc very sPccial Problcms inⅤ 。 ked,br

tlle brm of exPⅡ ss0n(rh艹 hm,meter,灬 sonance,ctc)is CssCndal

°f the mcssagc to the audicnce But all translatin:, 、 vhcthcr °fP。 etry °r Prosc, must bc c° nccrncd als。、 vith thc rcsP。 nsc °f thc

to con11nunicating thc sPirit

rect° r;hcncc thc ultirnate PurP。 sC° f thc translati° n,in tcrms ofits imPact upon

its intendcd audicnce,is a钆 ndamental factor in anⅤ evaluati° n。 f translations This rcason underhcs LcOnard Forstcr’ s de丘 nition(1958:6)of a good translati° n as“ onc

、 vhich

ful丘 lls thc samc PurPoSC in thc ncvclanguagc as thc original did in the language

in which it was written”

Thc rcsolution° f thc conΠ

ict bct、 vccn

literalncss of form and equivalcncc。 f

rCSPonsc sccms incrcasingly to faⅤ or thc lattcr,csPccially in thc translating of Poetic

matcriJs C,W Orr(194⒈ 318),br examPlc,(lc℃ 。bcs订 alldaung

as s。

mcwhat

cquiⅤ alcnt t° painting,for,as he says,“ thc paintcr(locs not rroducC CvCry clctaⅡ

°f the landscaPe” ~~hc selects、 vhat sccllls bcst t。 hiln Likc、 “ It is the sPirit,not only thc lcttcr, that hc sccks t。

visc f° r thc translator,

cmb° dy

in his o、

vn Ⅴcrsion”

PRINCIPLEs OF CORRESPONDENCE ards (1957∶ 13) cch。 Cs thc samc Point° OhⅤ cr Ed、广

m荻 e

truth in a tra“ lation.…

f

159

‘ ‘ Ⅴ ic、/: We CXPcct aPPr° xi^ thc tmcst PosS此 lC~fc,eF d

,What wc wantto hw必

ns l11ust Comc to us as thcy

the° riginal The charactcrs,thc situations,thc rcnccti。、 vere i11thc auth。 r’ sn△ ind and heart,n。 t neccssarily PrccisCly as hc had thclll on his hPs”

It is One thing, ho、 'cⅤ cr, to Pr° duce a gcncrahzcd dc盅 nition of translating, 、 vhcther of p° etry or prosc;it is oftcn quite another t° dcscribc in somc dctail thc signi⒔ cant charactcristics of an adcquatc translation,This fact SaⅤ

ory(1957:49-50)

highhghts by cont1ˉ asting dian△ ctrically oPPosed ° n a dozen i1nP° rtant Pini。 ns ° princiPlcs of translating Ho、 vcver,though So1η c disscnting v° iccs can bc f° und on ・ hat translating sh。 uld consist ° virtually all Pr° PosalS as t0 、 ∴thcrC arc scⅤ eral signi⒔ cant%aturcs

of⒍ anslating。 n which many ofthc m° st comPCtCnt judges arc

incrcasingly in agreemcnt

Ezra Pound (1954: 273) statcs thc casc for translations making ScnSC by ‘ But as carly as 1789Gcorgc CamPbCll

dcclaring for‘ Inorc sCnsc and lcss syntax”

‘ ‘

obscurc n should not bc charactcrizcd by scnsc” E,E Milligan(1957)alS。 argucs允 r scnsc rathcr tl△ an w° rds,忆 r hc PointS 。ut that unlcss a translation collall△ unicatcs,i c makcs scnsc to dle rect。 r,it has (1789∶ 445 ff.) argucd that translati°

not justihcd its cxistcnce

‘ ‘

sPirit and In addition to mahng scnsc, translati。 ns must alsO convcy thc manncr’ of thc 。riε inal (CampbCl1 1789∶ 445 f), F° r the Biblc translator, this ari° us、 vriters of thc ScriPtureS should bc mcans that thc indiⅤ idual stylc of thc Ⅴ

rcHcctcd as hr as P。 ssiblc(CamPbd11789∶ 547).ThC Samc sentimCnt is clcarly

CxPrCSsCd by Ruth M,Underhll(193⒏

16)h hCr treatmCnt of cc⒒ ain

°f translating magic imcantations of thc Papago Indians°

Pr° blcms

f southcrn Arizona:

‘ ‘ (Dnc

can h。 Pc to n1akc thc translati。 n cxact only in sPirit, n。 t in lctter” Francis storr

(1909)goes s° hr as to classi1translators into“

thc htcralist and thc sPiritudist

ls/’ and in d° ing so takcs his stand on thc Bibhcal tcxt,“ sch° ° t1】

c sPirit giⅤ Cth life”

Thc lcttcr killeth but

As evidcnce f° r his thcsis, Storr citcs the diffcrence bct、 vccn

vhich he contcnds rePrcscntS thc sPirit, and thc Enghsh the Authori`cd X/crsi。 n, 、 RcⅤ iscd、厂 erSion,、 vhich sticks t。 thc lcttcr,、 vith thc rcsult that the translati° n lacks a sPI￠ chJσ 氵h′ ・Thc

abscncc of litσ 盯y stylis“ °n thc En81i曲 RCxiκ d Committt・ c

was,h° wcⅤ cr,Corrcctc(1in the Ncw En匪 ish Bil)lc(Ncw TCStament, 1961),in Ⅰ vhich 。nc cntirc Pancl 、、 ′ as composcd of Pcrs。 ns with spccial scnsitivity to and

comPCtCncc in Enghsh stylc Closcly rclatcd to thc requircmcnt of scnsitivity to thc stylc of thc ori8inal is f° rΠ 1。 f CxPressi。 n in thc languagc into、vhich° ne

thc nccd for a“ natural and easy” is transladn思

(CamPbell 1789: 445 ″ ) Max Bccrb° hll1(1903: 75)considCrs that

the cardinal Fùlt of rnany、 vhO translate Plays int° Enghsh is thc faⅡ urc to bc natural

in expression;in fact,they makc thc reader“ acutcly c° nscious that thcir Ⅴcork is a translation

For thc mOst Part, thcir ingenuity consists in⒔

nding Phrascs that

eragc Enghshman” GoodsPccd(1945:8)echocS ‘ ‘ ith rcspect to Biblc translating by dcclaring that: Thc best thc samc scntimcnt Ⅵ・ c。 uld

n。 t possibly bc uscd by the aⅤ

translation is not onc that kes forCvCr t)cforc thc rcader’

s rnind thc fact that this

is a translatiOn,not an original Enghsh comPositi。 n,but onc that n1akes thc readcr

忆rgct that it is a tlanslauon at all and makcs him kcl that hc is l° °hng into thc ancient、vritCr’ s Fnind,as hc slˉ ould int° that。 fa contcmPorary ThiSiS,indccd,n。

160

EuGENE NIDA

hght matter to undcrtakc Or t°

”

cxccutc, but it is, ncⅤ crthcless, the task of any

icwPoint Ⅵ・ hcn hc J B PhilliPS(1953∶ 53)con⒔ rms the samc Ⅴ “ dcclarcs that∶ Thc tcst° f a real translati° n is that it sh° uld not rcad likc translation at all” ⒈ 1is sccond princiPlc of translatin8 re~cnf° rccs the ⒔rst, namcly a ‘ translation int° Enghsh should avoid‘ translator’ s Enghsh” It must bc rcc。 gnizcd, h° 、 vcⅤ Cr, that it is not casy to Produce a complctcly natural translati° n, esPecially if thc original 、 vriting is good btcraturc, Precisely bccause truly good 、 vriting intilnately re∏ ects and ercctivcly cxploits thc t° tal serious translatc,1ˉ

idi° matic

capacitics and sPccial genius of thc languagc in vvhich thc、 ,riting is done

A translat° r must thcrcf° rc n° t° nly contcnd、 vid1thc spccial dif丘 cultics rcsulting fr° n1such

an cfFcctivc cxploitation of thc total rcs。 urccs of the s。 urcc languagc, scck t0Pr° duce sOmcthing rclatiⅤ cly cquiⅤ alcnt in the rect。 r languagc h hct,Justin O’ Bricn(195⒐ 81)quotcS Raymond Guorin to the cffcct that∶ most conⅤ incing critcrion oF thc quahty。 fa、Ⅴ。rk is thc fact that it can only`hc bc Ⅴithout l° sing translated、 vith difHculty,for ifit es rcadily into anothcr languagc、

but als。

its csscncc,thcn it rnust haⅤ c n° Particular csscncc Or at lcast not onc of thc rarcst,”

An casy and natural style in translating, desPite thc cxtreme difscultics

。f

Producing it-ˉ csPCCially vvhcn translating an original。 f high quahty— iS ncⅤ crthcf the lcss csscntial to Pr° ducing in thc ulti1natc rcctorS a rcsPonsC si1nnar to that。 ori8inal rcct°

rs In。 ne、 vay or anothcr this princiPlc of“ shnⅡ ar rcsPonsc” has

bccn vvidcly hcld and crcctiⅤ cly statcd by a number。 f sPccialiSts in thc Rcld of translating EⅤ cn though Matthcw Arnold (1861, as quotCd in SaⅤ

“mil扩

himsclf Kjcctcd in ac・ tual Pracucˉ c thc PrincilDlc of“

。ry 1957: 45)

rcsp。 nsc,” hc at lc灬 t

seems to have th。 ught he、 vas Pr° ducing a shnilar rcsPonsc, for hc(lcclarcs that;

‘ ‘

A translation should affcct us in thc samc vvay as thC Original rnay bc suPPosCd t。

havc afFected its nrst hcarcrs” DcsPitc Arnold’ s° bjccti° n tO some ofthc iccr trans-

lations done by others, hc Ⅵ・ icⅥ fs of as at lcast strongly oPPoscd to the litcrahst Ⅴ such Pers。 ns

as F.W Ncwman(186⒈ xiⅤ ) Jowctt(1891),on tllC Otllcr hand, comcs somc、vhat closcr to a present_day concePti。 n。 f“ silllnar resP。 nsC” in stating that:“ an Enghsh translati°n ought to be idi° matic and interesting, not only to the

scholar,but t° thc lcarned rcader .

Thc translat。

, sceks t° Pr° ducc。 n his

r,

rcadcr an innPrcsSi° n sin1ilar° r ncarly similar t。 that produccd by thc° riginal”

soutcr(1920:7)CxPrcsSCS CssCntially this samc vic、 in translati。 n

v in stating that∶

“

C)ur ideal

is to Producc。 n the Π1inds° f° ur rcadcrs as nca11y asl)oSSil rel="nofollow">lc thc

san△ c effcct as、 Ⅳ as

Produced by thc original。 n its rcadcrs,’

’

and R A,Knox(1957∶ ymcnt

5)insiSts that a订 anslation shottld bc“ rcad with thc samc intcrcst and clll°

、 vluch a rcading of thc original vvould havc aⅢ ordcd,” In dcahng xxith translating fron△ an csscntially linguistic point of vicvv,Proch基 zka

(in Garvin19s5)rC Cn九 rccs ths samc vicwP° int,namdy,that℃ hc sh° uld

translati°

n

makc thc samc rcsultant imPrCssi° n on d1c rcadcr as thc original docs on

its rcadcr”

r a tlandation is to mcct thc four basic rcqtlIrcmcn“

of(1)makjng sense,(2)

conVcying thc sPirit and luanncr of thc。 riginal,(3)havin思 a natural and easy f° rm of cxprcssion, and (4) pr。 ducing a silllilar rcsPonsC, it is obⅤ i。 us that at ccrtain P° hts

the c。 nnict bctwccn content and忆

rm(or mcaning and manner)will be

acutc,and that one° r the。 ther must give、 Ⅴay. In gcncral,translators arc agrced Ⅴhcn thcrc is n° haPPy comPr° miSe, mcaning must haⅤ c Pri。 rity ovcr stylc that, 、

癞

ii

PRINCIPLEs OF CORREsPONDENCE (Tanc°

161

严、 hat。 ne must attcmPt, ho、 vevcr, is an cffcctivc blend ck 1958: 29). 、

‘ ‘ rnattcr

and lnanncr/’

for thcsc t、 v。

° f

asPccts° f any mcssagc arc insarably united

Adhcrcnce to Contcnt,、 Vithout consklcrati° n offor∏ 1,usually rcsults in a Πat rnediocrity,、 vith n° thing of thc sparklc and char∏ 1of thc。 ri思 inal On thc° thcr hand, sacrihcc of Incaning for thc sakc of rr。 imPrCsSi。 chan琶

n,and RⅡ l

t。 c°

ducing thc stylc may Producc Only an

mmulllcatc tllc mcssagc,The%rm,howcⅤ cr,may be

Cd morC radically than thc content and stⅡ ζ

l be substantially CquiⅤ alcnt in its

effcct uPoll thC rector Accordingly, corrcspondence in mcaning must havc Pri。 rity oⅤ er ncⅤ cr be done

corrcsPondCncc in style, Ho、 vcⅤ Cr, this asg of Prioritics must in a Purcly mcchanical fashion,f° r、 vhat is ultilYlatcly rcquired,esPe_

cially in thc translati。 n° fP° Ctry,is“ a rc-crcation,not a reProducti°

n”

(Lattilnore,

lll Brower195⒐ 55), Any surⅤ ey of oPini° ns。 n translating servcs to Con丘

°r

rn△

the fact that dcfniti。 ns

ns °f translating arc not scrⅤ cd by dctcrn△ inistic rulcs; rathcr, thcy dCnd on Pr。 babilistic rulcs ()ne cannot,thcrcforc,statc that a Particular transdescriPti°

lati° n

is good or l冫 ad、 Ⅴ ith° ut taking into considcrati。 n a myriad of factors,、 vhich

in turn must bc、 veightcd in a numbcr。 f dircrcnt、 vays,`Ⅴ ith apprcciably diffcrcnt ans、vcrs.Hence

thcrc、

this a good translati。 nP’

:ill al、

’

vays bc a Ⅴaricty of Ⅴahd ans、厂 CrS t0thc qucstion,“

Is

PrinciPles governing a transIation oricnted toward【 or1maI cquiⅤ alcnce In° rdcr to undcrstand s° mcvvhat1n° re fully thc characteristiCs of difFcrent typcs

°f translations, it is in1portant to analyzc in more detail thc princiPlCS that govern a translation、vhich attcmPtS t° rroducc a formal cquiⅤ alCncc such a f° rmal_ equivalencc(。 r「 —E)translati。 n is basically source-oricntcd;that is,it is designcd to rCVCal as rnuch as P。 ssible。fthc f° rn1and c° ntent of thc。 riginal rncssagc,

In(loing so,an F~E translati。 n attcmPts t。 rroducc scⅤ cral formal clcments,

including:(1)8rammtlticd units,(2)consistcncy in word usagc,and(3)mcanings in tcrn1s ofthc sOurcc contcxt Thc rr° duction of gramrnatical units rnay consist in∶ (a)translating nouns by n。 uns,vcrbs by verbs,etc;(b)keePing all Phrases and

ustin8the units);and(c)PrCsCrving 。f punctuation, paragraPh brcakS, and P° ctic

sentcnccs intacˉ t(i.c n° t SPlitting uP and rea曲 all f°

rmal indicat。 rs, c,g, marks

indcntati°

n

In attemPting to rroducC c° nsistency in word usagc, an F~E translati° n usually airns at so-callcd c。 nc。 rdancc °f tern1in° l。 gy; that is, it al、 vays rcndcrs a particular tcrm in the s° urce language d。 cun1cnt by thc corrcsPonding tcrm in the

rCctor documcnt,Such a principlc rnay,of coursc,bc PushCd t° an absurd cxtcnt, 、 vith thc result l)cing rclatiⅤ cly mcaninglcss strings of、 vords, as in somc agCs of thc so~callcd Concordant、厂 crSi0n ofthe Ne、 v Testament On thc Other hand,a ccrtain dcgrcc of c。 nc。 rdanCc may bc highly dcsirablc in ccrtain tyPcs of F~E trans~

lating For examPle, a rcader of Plato’ s E)ialogues in Enghsh may Prefcr rigid consistcncy in thc rcn(lcrin8of key (as in J° wett’ S tl anslati° n),so tl・ at he n)ay haⅤ c somc con11)rchcnsi。 n ofthc、 vay in、 vhich Plato uscs cc1・ tain、 vord symb。 ls to dcvcl。 P his philosoPhical systCm, An F~E translati。 n may also makc usc °f

162

EuGENE NIDA

brackcts,Parenthcscs,。 r cvcn⒒ alics(as in thc King Jamcs BiblC)R)rw° rds added t° make scnsc in the translati° n,but tllissing in thc° riginaI document, h】 ° rdcr t。 rroducC n1canings in 。 f thc sourcc contcxt,an F~E translati。 nn。 rmalⅡ mPts nrJt tt,makc a山 ∽ tmcn“ iI1idi。 ms,btlt mthcrto ⅡP1・ °ducc clt∝ such cxPrcssi。

ns morc° r

less litcrally,s° that thc rcadcr lllay bc ablc to pcrcciⅤ

c

son1cthing of the Ⅵ广 ay in `vhich thc original d° culncnt employcd local cultural elcn1cnts to convcy mcanings In many iI】 stanccs, ho、 Ⅴcvcr, onc sin1Ply cannot rroducc ccrtain formal ele1ucnts° fthc s。 urce lncssagc For cxamPle,therc may bc Puns,chiasn1ic。 rdcrs of、 v° rds, instanccs of ass。 nancc, or acrostic fcaturcs °f linc_initial sounds、 vhich complt,tely de灯 eq说ⅤdCIlt rcndσ hg In such h虻 allces one must emPl。 y cσ tah tyPcs of1narginal n。 tcs, if′ thc f辶 aturc in qucstion n△ crits a11cxPlanation In sOmc rare instances onc docs light uPon a roughly cquiⅤ alcnt Pun° r Play。 n vvords F。 eXaluPlc,in tra1△ v。 rd 、

isshdJ,“ Ⅵ:on)an” is derived fl om isb“ n1an/’ it is PosSiblc t。 usc a CorresP°

Enghsh Pai1ˉ

,Ⅰ ;vr刀

r

slatin8thC HCbrcw tcxt of GCncsis2:23,in which the Hebrew dn and`12‘

nding

In H0、 Vcvcr,such f° rn1al corrcsPondCnces are。 bviously

rarc,for languagcs gcncrally differ radically in bot11c。 ntent and form vill 。 A consistcnt F~E translation 、 bⅤ iouslⅤ c。 ntain much that is n° t rcadnⅤ intclligiblC t。 thc avcragc rcadcr Onc rnusttheref。 rc usually suPPlement such trans-

lations、 it11n1ar:inal notcs,n° t only to cxPlai11solt`c0f thC forl11al fcaturcs xx・ hich

mc。 fthc formal cquivalcnts cmploycd, for such cxPressions may haVc signiscancc Only in tcrms of coul(In° t bc adcquatcly rrescntcd,but also t° rnakc intclligiblc s°

thc sourcc languagc or culturc,

soIt1c tyPes oF strictly F~_E translations, c g

intcrlincar rcndcrings and

co:nPlCtely concordant translations,arc of li1nitcd、 'aluc;othcrs arc of8reat、 aluc For cxamPlc,translati。 ns。 ff° rcign-lanεuagC texts Prarcd esPccially for linguists rarcly attcmPt anything but closc F~E rcndcrings In such translati°

ns thc、 Ⅴording

is usuall)quite literal,and c、 cn the scgmcnts are oRt)n numbcred s°

that thc c° rrcs-

P。

nding units11ày bc rcadily c° mparcd.

From what has bccn said directly and indirectly about F~E translations in PrCceding sections, it lnight be suPposed that suc11 translations are catcgorically rulcd° ut,To thc contrary,thcy are oRcn l)crfectly`∶ ahd translations oF certai11tyPes

。f1ucssagcs for ccrtain tyPcs of audicnces. Thc1・

clatiⅤ c

Ⅴaluc and effcctivcness of

Particular tyPcs of translati。 ns for Particular audicnccs Posc an。 thcr qucsti。 n,and must not bc confuscd、 Ⅴith a description of thc nature of Ⅴari。 us kinds of transla_

tions At tl)is point、 ve are conccrncd only、

vith thei1ˉ

cssCntjal丨辶aturcs、 not xxith

thcir eⅤ aluation,

∶ ;⒒

verning translations oriented toward dynalnic ° 曼

:iPlC∶

In contrast 、ith formal-cquivalencc translati° ns 。thcrs arc °rientcd to、 vard dynan1ic cquiàlcncc.In such a translati° n thc f。 cus° f attcntion is clircctcd,not so vard the source nlcssage, as to、 vard t11c rcct° r rcsP。 nsc, A d)nan1ic_ t。、 nc conccrning、 vhich a cquivalencc (or D— E) tra11Slati° n may be dcscribcd as °

n△ uch

bihngual and bicultural Pcr:° n can justiHably say,“ That is just thc way

Ⅵ℃ w° ulcl

PRINCIPLES OF CORREsPONDENCE say it” It is important to rcahzc,h°

163

vcvcr, that a D~E translation is n° t mcrely 、

anothcr Fncssagc、 vhich is lnorc Or lcss siInilar t°

that of the s。 urcc It is a transla-

tion,and as such must clcarly rcncct the mcaning and intCnt of thc source

Onc、 vay

of de丘 ning a D~E translation is t。 dcscribc it as“ thc cl° scst natural

equivalcnt t° the s。 urcc languagc mcssagc”

This tyPc of dc⒖ nition contains thrcc

essenual tcrms:(1)cquiΓ ￠ FcnF,whch P° ints toward the s。 urce languagc mcssage, (2)n口 rurα vhich points to、 Ⅴ ard thc rcctor languagc,and(3)cFos召 sr,、Ⅴ hich binds thc t、 vo

`,、 oricntations t° gcdlcr° n thc basis of thc highest degrcc of aPproxirnation

Ho、veⅤ cr,sincc a D~E translation is(hrcctcd prirnarily to、 vard equiⅤ alcncc° f

rcsponse rathcr than cquivalcncc° f forrll,it is imPortant to dc6nc m° rc ftllly the irnPhcati。 ns ofthc、 v。 rd ndt〃 rczF as aPPhCd to such translations Basically,theˇ vord nclrurd丿 is aPphcablc to thrcc arcas of thc coΠ 11nunication ProceSs; f° r a ndFurd` rendering rnust⒔ t(1)thc rcctor languagc and culture as a、 vhole,(2)thC c。 ntcxt of the Particular rncssagc,and(3)the rect。 r^language audience, Thc c。 nf。 rmancc °f a translati° n t。 thc rcct° r languagc and culture as a

、 vh° le is an essential ingredient in any styhStically acctablC rcndcring, Actually this quahty of hnguistic aPpropriatcncss is usually noticcablc Only、 vhcn it is abscnt In a natural translation,thcreforc,thosc fcaturcs、 vhich、 v。 uld mar it arc conspicu~

ous by thcir abscncc J H Frcrc(1820:481)haS clCscribcd such a quahty by stating, ‘ ‘ thc languagc of translation° ught,、 vc think, . bc a Purc,imPalPablc and invis~ iblc clcment,thc luedium° f th° ught and fcchng and n。 thing morc;it ought ncvcr to attract attcntion to itsclf , All i1nP。 rtations fr° n△ forcign languagcs … 扩C … to bc弼 oⅡ cd.” Such an a内 tlstmel△ tto thc℃ Ccl,tor langu吃 c and ctllttlre must result in a translation that bears no obVious trace of f°

G A Black(1936:50)dcscribes Jamcs Th° ‘

reign origin,s。 that,as

ms° n’ s tlanslations of Hcinc,such

renderings arc‘ a rroduction of thc。 riginal,such as Hcinc hi1nsclf,if rnaster of

thc Enghsh languagc,、 vould haⅤ c givcn” o principal arcas of adaPtati° n, namcly, A natural translati。 n inⅤ olvcs t、厂 grallalllar and lexicon In gencral thc gramluatiCal m。 discations can bc made the morc rcadily,since lnany gral11111atiCal changes arc dictatcd by thc obh8atory struc_

turcs of thc rcctor languagc That is t° say, onC is obh思 cd t°

n△ akc

such

as shiRing word° rdcr,using Ⅴ erbs in placc of nouns,and subsdtuting nouns for Pr° n° uns Thc lcxical structurc of thc s。 urcc mcssagc is lcss rcadily a曲 uStmcnts

a曲 uS∝ dt。

。bⅤ ious

tl△

c随 mal△ tk rcqtllrcmellts of thc rcctor hnguagc,br in呲 ead of

rulcs t。 bc f° ll° 、 vcd,therc are numerous altcrnatiⅤ

c PoSsibiIitics Thcrc arc

in gcncral d1rcc lcxicaI lcvcls to bc c° nsidercd:(1)tCrⅡ 1s for vvhich thcrc arc rcadily aⅤ

缸lablc

a灯

由跤

ptlrallck,c g rivσ

,rrε e,sr。 nc,大 njft・

,cStC.;(2)ttSrms which idcntify ctlltur~

rmt。匀 ectS,bLlt witla somcwhat蚯 mⅡ ar ftlllcjons,c⒏

b。 o茨 ,whicl△

h

Enghsh Iucans an。 bjcct、 vith pagcs bound t。 gcthcr into a unit,but、 vhich,in Nc、 v Tcstamcnt ti1ncs, lncant a long parchmcnt or PaPyrus roⅡ cd uP in thC form of a scroll;an(l(3)tσms which ideⅡ i灯 ctlltural sPC0ducs,c,g,9Ⅰ n唧叼uc,h。 m召 r,叩 hdh, chcrvbii,,,and Jubi′ 召 e,to otc on圩 afCw i° m thc Biblc usu破 |tlnc srst sct of tcSrms inv° lves no pr° blcm In thc sccond set° f tcrms scvcral c° nfusi° ns can arisc;hcncc one must either usc an。 ther term which rcnccts thc忆 rm° f thc rc灸 rcnt,th° ugh not the equiⅤ alent functi。 n, or 、 vhich idcntines thc cquivalcnt function at thc

‘ CxPCnsC 。ff° rmal idcntity In translating tcrms of thc third class certain‘ forcign ’

assOciations’ can rarcly bc aⅤ oidcd No translati° n that attemPts t° bridgc a、 vidc

164

EuGENE NIDA

cultural gap can hoPc to Chn1inatc all traccs° fthe f° rcign sctting For cxan1Plc,in B⒗ lc trandathg it is qukc imP。 ssil’ le to rcm° vc such%rc螅 n“ °叻 CttS” as PhdⅡ s召 cs, sdddvcec凸 sofomon’ Fε

s ε cmP/色

vus fcncr口 rion,fiΓ Ⅰ n卩

血beddcd

ln tlae t叩

ci加 so/ˉ 亻

sdcr∶ jficc,and

0⒘

_ c,or sucla B1t,licd tl△ cmes郄口刀0inriraJ,召 d〃 ′

Ι dmb σ God,∫ l()r

tllcsc cxPⅡ

sS0¨ arc dely

[1t structum of thc mcssagc,

thc’ tl￡ :丿

It is incⅤ itablc als°

that 、 vhcn s。 urce and rcct° r languagcs rrcscnt Ⅴery

diffcrent culturcs thcre sh。 ukl be rnanⅤ l)asic thcmcs and acc° untsˇvhich cannot be

“

naturahzcd” by thc pr。 ccss of translatin8, F。 r CxamPlc, thC Jivar。 Indians of Ecuad。 r ccrtainly do not undcrstand 1 Corinthians 11:14,“ 1)ocs not naturc teach

us that R)r a man to wcarlon8hair is a dlshon° r to him?`for in gencralJimro mcn let thcir hair grow long,whilc JiⅤ aro a(luk w° mcn usually cut theirs rathcr cl。 sc Similarly,in∏ 1any arcas of Wcst A△ ica thc bcha访 or ofJcsus’ disciplcs in spreadinε lcaⅤ cs and branchesin his、 vay as hc rodc int° Jcrusalcm is rcgardcd as rrchensiblc; f° r in acc。 rdance vvith West African custom thc Path t。 be、 valkcd on °r ridden oⅤ er by a chicfis scrupulously clcancd of all littcr,and anyone、 vho thr0、 vs a branch (cⅤ crtheless, thcsc cultural in such a person’ s 、 vay is guilty of gricⅤ ous insult 公

(liscrancies orcr lcss dif丘 culty than1η ight bc imagined,cspccially if fo°

tnotcs arC

used t° P° int out the basis for thc cultural (livcrsity; f° r all Pe。 Ple rCc。 gnizc that °ther Pc。 PlCs bChaⅤ c differently fr° ln thcmsclvcs, Naturalncss of cxPrcssion in thc rcct° r languagc is csscntially a Pr。 blcm° f co-suitability— ˉbut。 n scⅤ eral lcvels, °f、vhich thc m° st imPortant arc as f°

ll° 、 vs∶ ’ onc1nust oRcn say,“ G。 d loves’ instead of“ God is l° vc” );(2)grammatical catcg。 rics(in s。 mc languagcs so callCd (lica∞ n。 mintatiⅤ cs must agrcc in numbσ widl tllc su丬 cd,so that“ tllc two qhall Pκ

(1)w。 rd classes(e g ifthcrc is n°

n° un for“ loⅤ c”

be。 nc” cannot l)c sai(l, and accordingly, onc must say‘ ‘ thc

tⅥ 厂 o Pcrsons Shall act

ugh thcy are onc Pcrs。 n” 、 (3)sCmantlc dasscs(swCar words in onc languagc may bc bascd uP° n thc pervcrtcd usc 。 f divinc namcs, but in an° thcr Ianguagc may bc Primt△ rⅡ y cxσ emcntal and anatomical);l+)disc。 uⅡ c” pCs(№ mc languagcs lnay rcquirc direct quotati。 n and othcrs indirect); and (5) cultural

just as th。

Contcxts(in S° mc sooctics thc Ncw Tcstamcnt practice of sitting down to tcach

陡cms哎 rangc,if

not unbec°

min9

In additi° n to bcing aPpropriatc to thc rcctor language and culture,a natural

translation must bc in acc。 rdancc、 vith the c° ntext。 f thc particular1uessagc Thc Pr° blCll△ s are thus not rcstrictcd t。 gr° ss gra∏ 11natical als°

and lcxical featurcs,but1nay

inv° lvc such(lctailed mattcrs as intonation and sentcncc rhythn△

1954∶

(Ezra P。 und

298).The tr° ublc is that,“ Fettcrcd to mere vvords,the translat。 rl° ses thc

SPirit° f thc° riginal author”

(Manchester1951:68)

∞ 喋J刂 Ⅰ 冤黹

黥 u瑟找:漯哭s鞯 J留熙 `翟 T占浊卩捏∶生 T裙:i器犭叫L丁找【帑Ⅰ ffFⅢ廾 I￡ i蕊 ;∶ i∴ anomahes,aⅤ °idcd in a succcssful translati° n, 、 vhich immediatclⅤ strikc thc rcadcr l讳 f∶

:∶

1∶

l∶ i￡

But vulgaritics arc much lcss °fa Pr。 blCn1 than slang or colloquiahsms Stanley

Ncwman(1955)deals with this problcm of lcⅤ

cls of v。 cabulary in his analysis

of sacrcd and slan￡ :languagc in Zufì, and PointS Out that a terΠ 1 suCh as n,c`汝虿 rclated t° English△ r,,cr氵 cdn,is not aPProPriatC f° r thc rchgious atn△ osPhCrc of thc ,

kiva Rathcr,° nc ll,ust sPcak。 f Alncricans by rncans of a Zuii exPrCSsion lneaning,

PRINC1PLEs OF CORRESPONDENCE htcrally,“broad-hats’

’

, F° r

165

thc Zuîs,uttcrin8mcFi大 d in a kiⅤ a ccrcmony、 vould bc

as out of placc as l,ringing a radio into such a mccting

OnomatoPocic CxPressions arc considcrcd cquiⅤ alent t° slang by thc sPCakcrs °fs。 lη c languagcs In s。 mc languagcs in A3ica,R)r cxamPlc,cCrtain hi8hly imita tivc cxprcssions(somcti1ncs caⅡ cd idc° Phoncs)havC bCCn rulcd。 ut asinaPPr° priate t。 the dignised c。 ntext of thc Biblc, Undoubtcdly the critical attitudcs 。f sOmc rnissionary translat。 rs toⅥ /ard such vivid,but highly colloquial,f°

rms。 f cxprcssion

havc c° ntributcd to the fechng° f rnany Africans that such、vords are inaPProPriatc

in Bibhcal contcxts In some languagcs, hoⅥ /cⅤ cr, SuCh onomat。 P° cic usages are not only highly dCⅤ cloPCd,but are rcgardcd as esscntial and bccoming in any tyPc 。f disc。 urse For cxamplc,、 Vai、 vai,a language of British Guiana,uscs such cxPrcs~ sions vcith grcat frcqucncy, and、 vith。 ut thcm onc can scarccly c。 ∏1rnunicatc the cmotional tonc。 f thc lncssage,for they providc thc basic signals for understanding thc spcakcr’ s attitudc t0、 vard the eⅤ ents hc narratcs,

Some translat° rs arc succcssful in aⅤ 。iding vulgarisms and slang, but faⅡ into thc crr。 r of luaking a rclatiⅤ cly straightfor、 vard mcssagc in thc s° urcc languagc

sOund hkc a comphcatcd lcgal documcnt in thc rcctor language by trying too hard to bc c。 mPlctcly unambiguous;as a rcsult such a translator spins out his de丘 ni_

tions in long, tcchnical Phrascs In such a translation littlc is lcR of thc gracc and naturalncss° f thc Origina1.

Anachronisms are anothcr rncans of

Ⅴiolating thc co-suitability° f lllcssagC and ‘ Enghsh、 vhich used‘ iron。 xide” in ’ Vould bc tcchnically correct, but Ccrtainly anachronistic On thc PlacC of“ rust’ 、 ‘ ‘ contcxt, For cxamPlc, a BiblC translation int°

othcr hand,to translatc‘ hcaⅤ ens and carth” by‘ uniⅤ Crsc” in Gcnesis 1:1 is not so raclical a darturc as onc rllight think, f° r thc pcoPlc。 f the ancicnt vvorld had a

‘

highly(lcvCl° PCd conct of an° rganizcd systcm c° n△ Prising thc‘ hcavcns and thc ’ ‘ carth,’ and hence‘ universe” is not inaPProPriatc Anachr。 nisms involve tvv。 tyPcs

。f σr° rs:(1)u“ l.g cc,ntemPo’ ary words whkh fal蚯灯 b炙荻 h虻 01・ lcally山腚 rmt Peri。 ds, e.g translating‘

‘ dcm。nP° ssCSsed”

as“ mcntally distrcsscd,’

’

and(2)using

°ld~fashioned language in thc rcctor languagc and hcncc giⅤ ing an iluPrcssion 。f unreahtⅤ APPr° PriatCncss of thc message、vithin thc c° ntcxt is not lucrcly a mattcr。 thc rcfcrcntial c° ntcnt of thc、

v。

f

rds Thct。 tal irnpression of a1ncssagc consists not

mcrcly in thc objccts, cⅤ cnts, abstractions, and rclati° nshiPs symb。 li'cd by thc

、 vords, but also in thc styhstic sclecti° n and arrangcmcnt of such sylnbols, Morc° vcr, thc standards °f styhstic acctability for Ⅴarious tyPes of disc° ursc /hat is cntirely aPProPriatc in spanish, dircr radically fronn languagc to languagc 、、 ‘ f°

r cxamPlc,1nay turn。 ut to bc quitC unacctable‘ PurPlC ProsC” in Enghsh,and

thc En:hsh prose、 ve adn1irc as digni⒔ cd and cffcctiⅤ c oRen seclus in sPanish t。 be colorless,insipid, and flat~ Many sPaniSh litcrary artists take dehght in thc fl° vcry 、 clegancc of thcir language, 、 vhⅡ c n1° st Enghsh Ⅵ 厂 ritCrs prcfer b。 ld rcahsΠ 1,

prccision, and movemcnt It is csscntial not。 nIy that a translation aⅤ ° id ccrtain。 bvious failurcs to adjust

dle lnessagc to thc c° ntext,but als。 that it incorPorate ccrtain Positivc clcmcnts of

style、・ hich Pr° vidc thc Pr° PCr cm° tional tonc f° r thc disc。 urse. This cmotional

tonc must accurately rcncct thc P。 int of Ⅴic、 v of thc author Thus such clements as sarcasn1,irony, or、 vhilnsical intcrcst lnust all bc accuratcly rcHected in a D~E

166

EuGENE NIDA

translation Furthcrm。 re, it is csscntial that cach ParticiPant intr° duccd int° thc mcssagc be accuratcly rePrcsCntcd Thatis tO say,indiⅤ

iduals rnust bc Propcrly char~

actcrizcd by the aPPr。 Priatc sclccti° n and arrangcmcnt 。f、・ ords, so d1at such 士辶atures as social class° r gcograPhical dialect、 vill bc immcdiatelⅤ cvidcnt Dˇ Ι orcoⅤ er,caCh

Charactcr n1ust bc Pcrn1itted t。 haⅤ c the sa1nc kind ofindi、 iduahtⅤ and

personahty as thc author hirnsclf gavc thcrll in thc original mcssagc, A third clcmcnt in thc naturalncss。 f a D E translation is thc extcnt toˇ vhiCh

the mcssagc 丘ts thc rcceptor langua8c audiencc This apPropriateness lllust be judged on the basis° f the levcl of cxPericncc and thc caPacity for dccoding,if onc is to ailn at any real dynar11ic cquiⅤ alcnce (Dn the other hand, onc is n。 surc ho、 v thc original audicnce rcspondcd or、 lators, f。

t al、 vays

vcrc supposcd to resPond :iblC trans~

r cxamPlc,ha、 c。 Rcn rnadc quite a P° int of the fact that thc languagc of

thc New Tcstament xs・ as Koinc Greck,thc language。 f“ thc man in thc s汀

eet,” al`d

hencc a translation shouId sPcak t° thc man in t11c strcet Thc truth of thc mattcr is that n1any Ncw Tcsta】 ncnt rncssages、 vcrc not dirCcted Primarily to thc1nan in

thc strcct,but to thc man in thc congregation F° r this rcas° n,such cXPrcssions as ’ “ Abba Fad1er/’ Jf曰 rclntlr乃召,and“ baPtizcd into Christ’ could bc uscd、 vid)rcasonable exPCctation that they、 vould bc undcrstood A translati。 n、vhich ain1s at dvnan1ic cquiⅤ alcncc incvitably inⅤ

°ff【 ,rmal a(】 ju哎 ments,R)r

°lⅤ cs a nun△ bcr

onc cannl,t haxc his忆 rmal cake and cat h dⅤ namicallⅤ

too somcthing must giⅤ e!In gcncral,this lil△ litation involⅤ es threc PrinciPal arCas∶ (1)叩 ccial lkcrary forms,(2)sCmanticJly cx。 cclltⅡ c cxprcssions,and(3)intra organ1sIu1c lncanlngs The translatin思 °fP° Ct1・ y。 bⅤ iously involvcs lη orc a(ljustn△ cnts in litcrar) f°

rm

than(l。 cs PrOSC,for1・ hythmic f° rms diffcr far morc I・ adically in forn1,and hcncc in csthctic aPPCal,AS a resu】 t,ccrtain rhythn1ic pattcrns1uust oRcn bc substitutcd f° r

vhcn Grcek dactyhc hcxamctcr is translatcd in iambic pcntamctcr, °thcrs, as 、 M。 rc° ver,somc ofthe m。 st accePtable translating of rhyn1cd Ⅴersc is accomPhShCd by substituting frcc vcrse In Bible translati11g thc usual I)roccdurc is to attcmPt a klnd of dignincd Pr。 sc、 Ⅴ hcrc the original cmploys Poct】

ˉ y,sincc,in gcneral,Bibhcal

rm

Contcnt is rcgardcd as n1uch morc imPortant than Bibhcal f°

Whcn sc1nantically cx。 centric PhrasCs in thc s° urce languagc arc mcaninglcss or n1islcadi11g if translatcd htcralIy into the rcctor lanε

uagC, onc is obhged to

makc s。 mc ad卜 lqtmCllts in a D~Et1anslatio11F。 r cxaml)lc,t11C scmitic idiom“ 要r(l

‘

uP the l° ins。 fy。 ur n1ind” rnay nlean n° thing rnorc than‘ Put a bclt around thc hiPs

’

of your th° ughts’ if translated litcrally,under such circumstanccs one Inust Changc

‘ an cxocentric to an cndocentric typc of cxPrcssion, c.g, ‘ gct rcady in your thinking” D√ 【 ore° Ⅴcr, an idion1 may not be mcrcly n1caninglcss, but may cvcn ConⅤ ey quitc thc、 vr° ng111caning,in Ⅵ・ hich casc it1uust also bc m。 diicd, C)Rcn, ‘ ‘ f° r cxa11nPlc, a sirnile111ay bc substitutcd f° r thc Original 1nctaPhor, cg sons of ’ ‘ ’ fr。 m

thundcr” 1naⅤ bccomc‘ 1nen likc thundcI・

.

Intraor8anisn1ic mcanings su`龟r most in thc process of translating, for thcy dend s。 largcly uPon thC t。 tal cultural contcxt of thc lan思 uage inˇvhich they are

uscd,and hcncc arc not readilⅤ transferablc to othcr lanε uagc-culturc contcxts In ord rdPcinos,usually translatcd as“ humblc” thc Nc、 :Testament,for cxamPlc,d1c、・ ‘ in Enghsh,11ad vcry dC⒔ °r‘ l° 、 vl)” nitc cmotive connotations in the Greek、 vorld, “ “ “ whcrc it c扩 ried thc PelorajⅤ e meamngs。 f“ low,” humiliated,”

dcgladed,” mcan,”

PRINCIPLES OF CORRESPONDENCE

167

and“ basc.” Howcvcr,thc Chri虻 ians,who camc Pon0Pally i° m the l°wcr strata ∶丨哇 J1里找 }喙 %咒宵 11段 Fd‖JJ⒉ 扌、}`t【 △ l:∶ ∶ ⒒ 苫 ‰ Tcstament into Enghsh cannot exPcct to carry all thc latcnt cmotivc mcanings in “ the Greek word Si1nilady,such translauons as“ anointcd,” ˇ1cssiah,” and“ Ch1・ lst” cannot do hlljustice t。 thc Grcck Chiisr° s,which had assOciadons intimatcly hnkcd with thc hoPes and asI)irations of thc early JuclC。 Christian community Such lcly to tcrms of theol° gical cmotivc clcments of1ncaning necd not bc rclatcd s° hnport Thcy apply to all lcvels。 fⅤ °cabulary In Frcnch,for examPle,therc is no tCrm quitc cquiⅤ alCnt to Enghsh J,on,c,in contrast、 vith h° sc,and in Enghsh n° thing quitC likC FrenchJo厂 er,which in many rcsPcct厶 likc English homc,but ds。 means 1Ι

‘

“

hearth” and‘ hreside”

as、・ cll

as‘

‘

f°

cus’

’ ‘ and‘ salon。 f a thcater” En△ otiⅤ ely, thc

Enghsh wor(lh° mcis dosc t。 French`乃 /cr,but rc炙 rendally hoi,lc iS uSually cquiva Cd l)y an aPProPriatC pronoun) lcnt t。 mdison, Jl￠ iFdrion,and che'(f° ll° Ⅵ厂 l・

Notes This idi。 na is l)ascd uPon thc rcquircmcnt that PlaintiffS and defcndants sPit

。n thc gr。 und in fr° nt° f cach° thcr、vhen a casc has bcen Hnally tricd and cnt1nctcd out Thc sPitting indicates that all is forgiⅤ en and that the accusations can ncⅤ cr l)e br° ught into c° urt again

PuniS11n△

Wc als。 cncounter cC1・ tain rarc situations in vvhich thc languagcs arc related

but the culturcs arc quitc(lisParatc For examplc, in the casc° f Hindi and English onc is dcaling with tw。 languagcs丘 on△ thc samc languagc hmily,l)ut thc culturcs in qucSti° n arc、 9cry diffcrcnt In such instanccs,the languages arc als°

hkcly to be so distantly rclatcd as to makc thcir linguistic af⒔

mattcr of rnin°

r conscqucncc

hation a

Chapter 14

κatharina Reiss

TYPE'KIND AND IN

DI∨ ID∪ ALITY

OF TEXT∶ DECISION MAKING IN

TRANSLATION Tra″ s/ared by S〃 5a/T/<`古 ro/,

1 General preliluinary remarks

"I⒒ tion of a¨

盯牡 T烈措坩盆冫泫厶 ∵ 早|儿摭鞯 :求哩莨 I紧卩 ΓL丨 targCt languagcl tcxt that is l。 nctionally cquiⅤ alcnt to an SL tcxt[sOurce

languagcl(2mc(ha:sL and TL+1me山

or,who bccomcs a n)

um:tlac transl茁

sccondary sendcr;thus tIˉ anslating: sccondary c。 lalltlunicati。

1 1 1 Thc usc of two natural languagcs as Ⅵ厂 Cll as the enlPloymCnt° fthe mcdium 。f thc translator nccessarily and naturally rcsult in a changc of rnessagc during the communicatiⅤ c Process Thc tl△

‘

has P° i1】 tcd out that an‘ idcaΓ

’

e° rctiCian。

c。 mmunication

is en1Pl° ycd, l9ecause thc rcccivcr al、

f communicati° n,Otto Hasdo″ (1969), hcn° nc singlc language is rarc cvcn、 Ⅴ

vays l91・

exPectati。 ns,which arc differcnt【 om th。 sc this fhctor thc“

c° mn1unicatiⅤ e difft・

n knowlcdge and11is。 “n ofthc se11dcr H F,Plctt(1975)callS

ings his o、

rcncc” In translating,thcn,such diffcrcnccs arc

’ all thc1nore to bc expcctcd At this P° int I distinguish bct、 vecn‘ ‘ intentionaΓ and

“

’

unil)tcntional’ changcs affccting thc translati。 n. t丿

,,inFcnrioIa口 f cJ,夕 nJcs n△ ay arisc lr°

lll thc diffcrcnt languagc structures as、

fron1di∏trenccs in translating con1Pctcncc iS dl忐 e杏 la g盯 c(F叉 nch∶

hbrmation abotlt a托 n;no in凡 rmation ab° ut thc mcans of仟 aⅤ cl) pcr⑽

Ex,⒈ Jc洳

1971

malt・

Ⅳell

as

DECIsION MAKING IN TRANSLATION Ich bin zum Bahnhof gcgangcn(GCrman:n。

169

informati° n about

thc Pcrs° n;inbrmation about thc mcans of travcI)

=Linguistically conditioncd comlnunicativc difercncc,

Ex ⒉ La

Francc cst vcuⅤ c(P°mPidou at thc dcath of dc Gaullc) Frankrcich ist Witwc~Frankrcich ist Wit、 vc gc、 vordcn~ Frankrcich ist vcrwitwct~Frankrckh ist vcrw缸 st【 orphancd]1 Lingu^tically conditi。

“

Frankrcich”

ncd:La Francc~Wltwc IWi(1owl

is ncutcr in Gcrman,Thc ima8e。 “ Waisc”

odd t° a pcrson ignorant of Frcnch

f“ wid° w” is

[orphan】 is als°

ncutcr;thc imagc of an cmotional attachmcnt Progran11ncd (li:￡crcntlⅤ

JnrcnriondF chcIn卩 es frcqucntly occur in translating, if thc airns pursucd in thc trans_ lati° n

arc different fr° ryl thosC of thc Original;if,bcsidcs thc lan思

uagc di"crcncc of

thc TL rcadcrs,therc is a changc in thc rcading circlc,ctc, sinCc this、

vill cntaⅡ a

Ⅵ广no attemPt any morc to strivc for a functi。 nal cquivalcncc bct、 /ccn thc sL and the TL tcxt, but for ‘ ‘ vith the f° reign function” It adcquacy of thc TL rcvcrbahzation in accordance 、 f。 ll° 、 vs that,bcsidcs a text tyPology rclcⅤ ant to translating, a translation tyPology sh。 uld bc、 vorkcd out change of functi° n in thc act of communication,there is n°

1.2 Con△

I△

unication comPrises linguistic and non-Ⅱ nguistic action

1,21Writtcn tcxts an(l tcxts Put in wriung(matCrial br translating Purposcs)arc to bc charactcrizcd as“ onc way Communication” (Glhz1973)・ ThiS mcans,on tl△ e

onc hand, that n。 n-hnguistic clcn1cnts contribuung t。 (gestures,facial cxPrCssions,spccd ofsPccch,int。

。ral com1nunication

nation,ctc)are Partly ⅤCrbahzcd

(=allCⅤ iatlon of thc tcxt andysis),0n the odacr hand,thc tcxt analysis is madc n° f such

morc dif丘 cult by thc li1nitation of thc Possibilitics of cxPhcit verbahzati。

clemcnts as 、 vcll as by thc spatio-tcmPoral saration bct、 vccn addrcsscr and addresscc and the lack of fecdback durin8thC act。 f communication;thcsc factors lcad,among other reasOns,to a、 =ariable undcrstanding of a givcn tcxt,

122 Acti° n

is intenFiondF bch虿 vior in d J″ cn

sj‘ uα

rion(VcrmCCr1972),“ Intcntion”

1ncans hcrc sPccch purposc, sPCCCh ailll, Imotivc lcading to lan8uagc c。

n1rllunica_

n(LCⅥ∷ and。、`ski 1973~_5: 288) Thr。 ugh thc intcntion,verbalized by thc author in his tcxt, this tcxt rcccivcs a coln1nunicativc function for dlc Pr° cCss °f ti°

communication In ordcr t°

l)e ablc t° establish this intention the translator rcccivcs

cant assistancc if hc detcrn1ines to、 f°

vluch tcxt-tyPc and tcxt^Varicty(rclcⅤ ant

r translating)any giⅤ en tcxt bCl° ngs

′ 、、 rittcn

tcXts rnay haⅤ c singlc or plural intenti° ns Plural intentions Inay bc of

vith it, the tcxt bc samc rank and 。rdcr Mostly, hoˇ vcver, °nc intention (and, 、

function)iS don1inant: Ex 3∶

C、:or o und u und a spricht man in11ncr wic cin k;soll cs wic cin c crklingcn,l奇 sst lnan die Ccdillc sPringen

(mncmo∝ chlalcal

rhymc:

170

KATHARINA REIss Intcnti° n1~t°

c° nⅤ cⅤ a1ˉ ule

Intention2~t°

facⅡ itatc1・ cn1Cn1berin8by

cl1ˉ

brm

tist沁

Intcnti° n3~to‘

‘ s、

giving the tcxt an

VCeten” thc lcarning Pr° ceSs l)y giⅤ i11g thc

text a Plcasing forln)

CounterexamPlc3a∶ Ein Wicsel/sass auf cinen1Kiesel/inn1ittcn Bachgcricsel

,

(Christian NI° rgcnstcrn) Intenti° n1~thc

commur1icati° n of an objcctivc hct Intention2~artistic crcation to conⅤ cv an aCsthctic

11uPrCSSl。 n

The(l° 1uh)ance of intcnti° n2is c8tabhshcd thr° ugh the tcxt itsclf∶ te Ticr/Tat’

“

I)as rafhnicr-

s un)des Rcimcs、 ⅤⅡlen” NIax Knight giⅤ cs⒔ Ⅴc Enghsh、 crsions,and

1。 LeⅤ ∫κg盯汛

dl d由 Cm灬

A wcascl

cq“ v泱 nt(1969∶ 103-4):

A ferrct

PCrchCd on an cascl

nibbhng a carr°

withi11a patch of tcascl

t

in a garrct

etC

1.3 Languagc is(a1,l° ng other hctors)a tC1nPo1ˉ al Phcnomcn。 n and thus subjcct t。 thc c° nditi。 ns of ti1nc This also aPPhcs to languagc in、

Ⅴrittcn tcxts and thcrefore

to d1csc tcxts themsel、 es,a fhct° rⅥ ・ hich is signi⒔ cant f。 r translating

1 3 1 A natural conscqucncc of this fact is, ⒔rstly, thc necessity of rc-translating one and thc same SL tcxt, if the TL has changcd to such an cxtcnt, that the

TL version rcHecting PrcⅤ ious language conditions d° cs n。 t guarantee functi° nal cquiⅤ alencc any morc(e・ g” Bible translations,thc translations of classical auth° rs) 1 3 2 A furthcr c。 nscqucncc of this fact lnay bc thc loss° f undcrstanding of thc original sL tcxt functions,bccausc of a change in the situation,in、 vhich thc sL text fulsllcd its function,and/or bccausc°

ation(c,g"Caesar,C°

r冫 l扌

f the in1Possibility of rcconstructi1】 8this situ-

nCnrcri氵 dc3召

:/′

1c@~electio1】 eering PalllPhlet=oPCrati、 c

`f@f‘

cial contcxt-110、 : a historical reP° rt an(l als。 translatcd as such=i】廿ormatiⅤ c text;Jonathan swiR,GLJfìvcI、 TrdΓ c厶一 satirc On contemp。 rary social ills = exPrcssivC tCxt 、 vith an oPcratiⅤ C text 丨 SCC 2 1 1 bclo、

v⒈

Torn 。ut

of its original s°

secondary lonction;today only rccognizablc in this ftlnction by thc exPcrts spccial~ izing in this Pcri。 d; for the adⅤ cnturc

。rdinary

rcadcr (als° of thc

° riginal)

~ a fantastic

talc=cxprcssiⅤ c text)

2 The translating prOccss Pl,Jsc cn/‘ 7扌 9口夕sjs

In order t。

PlacC a R1nctionally cquivalCnt TL tcxt bcsi(lc an sL

text the translat° r sh° uld clariF`f thc f11nctions of thc sL tcxt This n1aⅤ

be donc in

a thrcc~stagc-proccss,、 Vhich1nay,in PriI1ciPlc,be carried。 ut cithcr by starting from

DECIsION MAKING IN TRANsLATION

171

:ith thc text as a、 vh° lc,or by bcginnin思、ith d1e smallcst textual unit and cnding飞 Λ

Ⅵith thc analysis° f thC sn1aⅡ cst tcXtual unit For

thc tcxt as a、vholc and cnding

Practical as vvcll as for tcxt-thcOrctical considcrations,I haⅤ

c choscn thc proccss of

ProcCCding fr。 n1 thc lar8cst to thC sn1allcst unit, (In practicc, thc conscicntious 汀anslator rcads dlc wholc tcxt丘 rst to gct an imPression;f1・ om a tcxt hnguisdc point ° f vicw,the tcxt is nowadays rcgardcd as thc P1・ lmary language蛀 gn,)Bel° w,ths three~stage ProcCSS xlill be PrescntCd as a tcmporal scqucnce f°

r purcly mcthodo-

lo:ical rcas。 ns. In l)ractice, thc saratC stagcs of analysis dovctaⅡ

, particularly if

thc tra11slator is cxPcriCnccd

2.1 Total functi。 n in the framework ofwritten1orms of cOrnlllunication ‘ ’^^ a Phen。 mcnon goi11g bcy。 nd a singlc 2,1,1 Estabhshmcnt 。f thc ‘ rexr~F厂 Pe’ hn8uistic or cultural contcxt, bccausc thc follo、 ving csscntially di汉 crcnt forms 。f

“・ rittcn c° mmunication may bC rcgardcd as bcing Prcscnt it1 cⅤ cry sPccch vith a culture l)ased° n thc“ ・ con1n1unitⅤ 、 11ttcn、 :ord and als。 becausc cvcrV author of a tcxt ought to(lccide in PrinciPlc on onc of thc thrcc f° rlη s bcforc bcginnh1g to f° rn△ ulatc

his tcxt

QLJcsFion∶

WhiCh bask commulllcativc form is realizcd in d1ec° nσ etc℃ xt with

thc hclP of、 vrittcn texts?

b

Thc c。 ∏1111uniCation of content~informativc tyPc Thc coΠ ununication of artistically。 rganizcd content~cxprCssive tyPe

c

Thc c° n1n1unication of contcnt、 vith a pcrsuasiⅤ e charactcr~oPcratiⅤ C tyPe

a

H1ds in oricnFdri° n∶

scmantic as wdl as Pmgmatic oncs(contCnt an(l knowlcdgc of

’

thc、 v° rld),f° r instancc,“ prc-signals’ ,i,c,titlcs or hcadhnes(novCl,lavv, rort ’at thc ‘ )r‘ rnctapropositional expressions’ °f an accidcnt, s。 nnct, strikc call, ctc,) 〈

bc空 nning。 f a tcxt(GrosSc1976)(cg,“ Hcrcwith I authorizc .” in thc casc。 f a gCncral P° wCr。 f attorncy,c∝ ,);mCdiuln∶ pr。托ss】 onal Pcllodicals,pamPhlcts, the1】

c、

vs sCCtion of a nc、、 spaPcr,Ctc

usc。 f a

languagc∶

The ParticuIar icqucncy of、 vords and Phrascs of cvaluation(poSitiⅤ c for thc addresser °r for thc causc t0 、 VhiCh hc has c。 mmitted hi1nscl凡 negativc for any obstadc to his colnmitmcnt),d1C Particular fl cqucncy。

⒔gures may, alla。 ng °thcr

f cert“ n rhet°

"cal fact。 rs, lead t° the c° nclusi。 n t11at thc text is

oPCrativc Dccisivc question∶

arc、 c dcaling wkh a sPccch。 bject caPable of

making an aPPcalP

b

‘ ‘ The

featu1・ c that sPccch clcments arc caPablC°

f Pointing l)eyond themselvcs

‘ ‘ thc princiPlc of linkage” (rhymcs,lCit mc,tiR,Pt△ rallel诋 ms,rhytllm,etc)and the\mns忆 rm欲 ion of

to a signiRcance of thc tlae mttterial of

Ⅵ厂 h0le”

(C)r°

sSC 1976),

Ⅱality” (Muk扩 oⅤ sk∫ )m叮

lead to tlle conclusion that the text

bcl。 ngs to thc cxPressiⅤ c tyPc,

c

shoukl the elen)cnts quoted undcr a and b be abscnt,the conclLIsion may be that thc tcxt is informative

Thus a‘

‘

r° ugh

grid” l)as bccn estabhshcd for the analⅤ sis

172

KATHARINA REIss

212J亻 ixed~forI,,s

r wc acct thc tllrcc tt,xt tyPes,the in%rmatlvc,CX阝

es蚯

t

and thc opcrativc,Pe,as the basic允 rms of writtcn communication(intcr cultural), uld bc takcn int° that thcsc tyPcs arc not only rcahzcd in thcir“ Purc” ‘ ’ forⅡ、 that is, that thcy d° n。 t alvvays aPPcar in thcir‘ fully rcahzcd f° rn△ 、and it it sh°

sh° uld

also bc c° nsidercd that,for a

。f a tcxt varicty, or if、 vc haⅤ c

Ⅴaricty of rcasOns(changC in thc conventions 、 vith Plural intcntions) the con111,unicativc

t。 d。

intcntion and coⅡ )rnunicatiⅤ c forn1cannot bc unambigu° usly adaPtcd t。 cach other, h△

thc nrst casc∶

tcxts mcrcly aPPcahng to an afnrmative attitudc° f the addrcsscc

、 vith。 ut intending to trigger off imPulsCs of bchavi。 r, eg, nc、 vsPaPer articlcs cxPresSing oPinions (no fully rcahzcd form °f the °Perativc tcxt) In thC Scc。 nd casc∶

vcrsised legal tcxts in the Middlc Agcs;in ordcr f° r thcir content to bc accept-

ablc,thcy had t。 bc prcscnted in vcrsc forn1=grcatcr dignity。 f rhymcd languagc! (MixCd ft)rm betwccn inft)rmati、汀 c and cxPlesS卜 C tC灶 tyPc,)

2 1,3 Ⅱdtliri° n召 F yP召 s2B讧 hler’ s thrcc functions of thc linguistic sign,in analogy to 、 vhich I haⅤ c is° latcd thc thrcc main tcxt functions, arc cxtended by Roman Jak° bson t。 includc thc Phatic and thc Poctic functions Would b。 th of thcsc func~ tions bc suitablc t。

isolatc tcxt tyPCS rclCvant to thc ch。 ice。 f a translating rncthod?

Not so, in my opinion! Relatcd t°

cntirc tcxts and not only to singlc lamguagc clcments,thc Phatic ft】 ncˉ tion(=the establishmcnt and main∝ nance of )is rcalizc(l in all thrcc。 f the basic f° rms of Colll1nunication,i,c,the Phatic function docs not lcad t。

Particulars of the tcxt c° nstruction,

For instancc∶

Picturc Po虻 card分 °mah。 li(lay:inbrmatlⅤ c tcxt With Phatic hnctlon Original birthday pocΠ ⒈ cxPrCssivc tcxt、 Vith Phatic hnction Me1nory aid in an adⅤ crtiscmcnt slogan:。 PcratiⅤ C text、vith phatic functi。 n

Thc phatic function docs not arise fr°

n△

the tcxt f° rlu,but fr。

n△

thc usc t。、 vhiCh

the text is Put・

Likevvisc,the Poetic function of thc language signs is reahzcd in all thrce° f the basic c。 n)rnuniCauⅤ c f。 rms∶

Socccr rortagc:

informativc tcxt,partly vvith P。

‘

cg,‘ dcr~Ι ann

Ctic languagc clcmcnts,

in△ fahlgruncn Trik°

t,”

“

Erstaunhch

matt war Holzenbcin,fchlcdos Grabowsk, cindrucksv° ll Ncubcrger” (rhet。 rical triPlc sgurc) Lyrical Pocn⒈

cxprcssive tcxt~thc p0etic function dctcrlllines thc

、 vh° lc Salcs promoton∶

tcxt

(C.g,lll vσ qe%rm)° pclˉ at卜 c∝ xt with clcmcn“ 。f ‘ loan structure” (Hantsch1972) P。 Ctic language‘

H° 、 vcvcr,in Ⅴ ievv of thc rclcⅤ ancy for translating purposcs,an additional typc, a“ hypcr~typC/’ Sh。 uld bc is。 latcd as a suPer-structurC for thc thrcc basic tyPes∶ Fhc IlauFFi m召 d1口 Fr召 xr9∷ Pe

The nced%r this arises fr° m thc fact that thc translating

DECIsION MAKING IN TRANSLATION

173

’

material docs not onlv C。 nsist of“ auton° mous’ vvrittcn texts,but als° ,to a】 argc vritin8, arc PresCntcd vhich, though Put d° vvn in ˇ cxtcnt, Hrstly of Ⅴerbal tcxts, 、 oraⅡ y, aIld, sccondly, of verbal texts,

、 VhiCh are °nly Part of a largcr、 Ⅴ holc and

are Phrased、 vith a vic、 v to, and in c。 nsidcration of, thc“ additional inf° rmation” suPPhcd I)y a sign systcn1othcr than that of languagc (Picturc + tcxt, music and tcXt, 8csturCS, facial exPrcssi。 ns, bunt~uP scCncry on d1c stagc, shdcs and text,

ctC) Thus,、 vhcn thc rnessagc is verbahzcd,the multi medial tyPc PosscSSes its oⅥ

厂 n

vhch。 ught to t)c taken into in translati11g,besidcs~and above ~the rcgulalldcs of thc thrcc basic凡 rms。 f writtcn c° mluunicauon Thcrc亢 rc I rcgula1iucs,、 v n。、

Put this tyPe abovc thc thrce basic f°

rn1s,though,forn1crly,I Placcd it beside

veⅤ cr,Ⅵ ˉ then1 H。、 c should als° considcr a suggcstion madc by a rcSCarch grouP of thc PhdiPs c。 nccrn, according t0、 vhich thcsc cⅩ tra-hnguistic conditi。 ns sh° uld bc

regardcd as thc basis f° r a tyPology of rncdia rclcⅤ ant t。 translating

2.2 Thc sccond Stagc 。f thc analysiS airns at thc cstabhshn1ent。

f the FcxF ,d'iC9、

ie , thc classiRcation of a giⅤ cn tcxt aCCording to sPeci⒔ cally structurcd soci°

~

cultural Pattcrns of collalnunication bel° nging to spcci⒖ c languagc comn1unities.

Text、

Ⅴcrsial conct in linguistics Thc denotation of text variety as vvcll as that。 f tcxt type is at PrCsCnt still uscd f° r thc mOst Ⅴaricgatcd tcxtual Phcnomena.Thc1ˉ cforc,I mcan、vhdc(lcfnc text、 aricty as suPCr~individual arictⅤ is still a contr。

aCts of sPCCch。 r、vriting,、 vhich are linkcd to rccurrcnt actions of coⅡ 11uunications Particular Pattcrns of languagc and structurc haⅤ c dcⅤ eloPcd bccause ˉrccurrcncc in shη ar collalnunicative constcllations The Pf,召 nom召 n° n oftcxt aricty arc Partly varicty is n。 tc° n丘 ncd to。 nc languagc ThC vari° us kinds of tcxt Ⅴ

and in xxˇ hich of thci】

i】

not con丘 ncd t。。nc languagc or onc culturc, but thc habits of textuahzation, thc a considcrablc PattCrns of language and structurc oRcn diffcr from onc anothcr t。 extent Hcncc, the cstabhshn1ent of thc tcxt varicty is。 f decisive imPortancc for thc translat° r, so that11e lnay not cndangcr thc functi°

nal cquivalcncc °fthe TL

tcxt b) naiⅤ ely adoptiI)g sL convcntions.

ExamPlcs: Es、 ar cinmal:tc・ xtual oPcming signal h1Gcrman br hirv talcs In thc namc。 fthc Pc° Plc:f° r Ⅴcrdicts `・

2×

41incs+2×

31incs∶ struCtural Pattcrn for thc s。

nnct

Dircctions R)r use in Frcnch and Gcrman:According t。 thc sPcciHc text Ⅴarietv therc is a distributi。 n° f structurcs con11non to both languages Thc iⅤ e brn1at1d imPcrsonal exPrcssions~con、・ c11tions in Gcrman Thc indennitc Pr。 n。 un“ on” -+insnitivc Phrasc~c° nvcntion in Frcnch 0ne singlc cxamplc lna)not always suⅢ cc for thc cstabhshn】 cnt° f thc tcxt varictⅤ Ex 4∶

Enghsh dcath notice:

FRANCIS On Thursday,March17,Jcnny,bClo、

:Cd wik of T° ny

Francis and motbcr。 f And10ny scrvicc at St Mary’

s Chu1・ d1,

,

174

KATHARINA REIsS Ell。

ughton,950am,Tucsday,March22,followcd by crcmatlon

N。 lcttcrs or fI。、、crs,Pleasc The translati。 n int°

Gcrman would bc m。 rc Or lcss as bllows(thC italicizcd words

and cxprcssions charactcrize conⅤ cntions observed in Gcrman):

Am17 M基 rz Γ c^rdrb

m0nc gchcbtc Frau,i,,eⅠ n召 licbc A/luttcr

JENNY fRJNc^Js Ell° ughton∫ il,N口 Il,cn dCr Ⅱ nfcho冖

Jcn(or∶ in uc、 r Traucr)

Tonv FrancIs ln1t AnthonⅤ

Traucrgottesdienst: IDicnstag,dcn22,3,9.50in St Maricn(Elloughton) Anschlicsscnd cJ。

匆F

die Feucrbcstattung

Von Kondolcnzschrcil,cn und Kranzspcndcn birrcn ,,召

Π ir

h♂ Πichst Hbsrdnd zu

J,n,cn

2.3 Third stage of thc analysis: thc analysis of stylc (d△ e analySis of a Particular reground This analysis is tcxtual surhcc) N° w thC rcxF ind1T・ idu召 ‘thc忆 ìs Placed lll r’ s‘ dccisive battlc” is fought on thc °f suPrcmc h11Portancc, l)ccause tbC translat。 leⅤ el 。 f thc tcxt individuaI, 、、hcrc st1・ atcgy and tactics arc di1ˉ cctCd by tyPc and varlCtⅤ

nncction bc undcrst° od to mean thc ad h° c selcction °f p。 ssibilities of c。 n11)inati° n suPPhcd l)y thc languagc ’ S)・ Stcm,Thc lIqc0flanguagc in a要、 Cn sL tcxtis hvest唿菠cd lll° r〈 lcr to d汪 iI i11 ・ dctail,丘 rstly,Ⅵ hat linguistic rncans arc uscd to reahzc sPcci⒔ cc。 n1municatiⅤ e f11nc~ Lct stⅤ le in this c。

hnguistic signs and of thci1ˉ

u。 ns,and,sccondly,hOvv

thc tcxt is constructed 111is dctaⅡ cd scmantic,syntactic

and Pragmatic analysis is ncccssary,bccausc,as is、 vcll kn0、 vn,not cvcn in onc single languagc(lo fo1・ lη and function sho⒒ a1∶ 1 relation Thc samc Phcnolη

Cnon aPPhes

to thc relation° fsL to TL 2.4 At this Point I scc,as it xx crc,a“ juncturc” bctⅥ /ccn thc srst Phasc ofthe ProcesS

of translation,thc PhaSe。 f analysis,and the scc。 nd Phase° f the ProceSS° f transla~ tion, thc phasc of rcvcrbahzati° n, for it is alrcady hcrc that thc translator, at any ratc thc exPcrienccd translat° r,Pays hced to possil)le contrasts, Thc(lctailed semantlc, syntactic and pragmatic analysis is carricd out in sluall stages of analysis, Pr。 cecding fr。 m t1】 c 、 v° rd, the syntagma, thc PhrasC, thC sentcncc,thc seCtion(Para￡ aph or chaPtcr)uP to the lcvel of the cntirc tcxt. :1ˉ

ThC ProccSs of rCVcrbahzation is a linear one c° nstructiI】 g thc TL tcxt 。ut 。f、v。 rds, syntagmas, clauses, scntences, ParagraPhs, ctc DuriI1g this ProcCSs 。f rcⅤ crbahzation tl△

a dccision has t。

be madc f° r cach elemcnt of thc tcxt、 vhether

e hnguistic siε ns and sequcnccs of linguistic signs selected in thc TL in co° rdin-

ation Ⅵ,ith a sign forl【 l and sig1】 Rlnction can guarantec thc f辶 lncti° nal cquivalencc f° r、 vhich a translator shouId striⅤ e, by duc c。 nsidcration of tcxt varictY and tcxt

tyPc

Dξ

CIsION MAKING IN TRANSLATION

175

3 Phase of reverbalization Rclc、 ancc of thc classiHcati。 n oftcxttyPe a11d tcxt Ⅴaricty to thc translating l’ roccSs

Thesis: Thc tcxt tyPC dCtcrn1incs the gcncral rncd1°

d of translating;

The text varicty dcmands c。 nsklcrati° nf° r languagc and tcxt structurc conⅤ cntions

3.1 Normal cases If functional cqui、 alcncc is sought during thc proccss of translation,this n1cans∶

vrittcn to conⅤ ey c° ntcnts, thcsc c° ntcnts should also bc a If thc SL tcxt is 、 conⅤ cⅤ cd in thc TL tcxt N1odc of translatiI、 g∶

Frdns′ dr氵 on dcct,rdinJ FO r乃 e sensc clnc/m召 dnin胃

in ordcr t。 1uaiI1-

Ⅵ・ hat is conveycd in1Phcitly in thc sL tcxt shoukl bc cxphcated in thc TL and、 ice Ⅴersa This ncccssity ariscs, on thc °nc htll)(l, "。 n) structural cⅡ fcrcnccs in the t、 vo tah1thc inⅤ ariabⅡ ity of thc c。 ntcnt To this cnd it lnay l,c ncccssary that

ed,and,on thc° thcr hand,fron1dircrences in thc collcctivc Prag_

languagcs involⅤ matics of・

thc two language communidcs involvc(1,

Ex,5a∶

Vo“

v()us il△

scs♂ or击

troduisez Par

troite Γ誉

ouⅤ

σtklκ

Cn

Γ ous∫ orFdnr c。 nr″

… (=exPlicit)

sic'” cI,,纟 cn sich durcl,(lic scbmalc(Dffnung(J,or“ by rubbing against i“

“

walls、

(=impliot)

durch'、 v奇 ngcn” in Gcrman contains thc imagc of rubbing against an

Cd8c Ex,5b∶ (aftcr Klaus Rtllkcr)A r。 rt by a Frcnch Prcss agcncy about thc f1・

al△

sculcn1cnt huit d芑

Partcmcnts Pour Poher Nur ad1t aller fl anz。 sischcI)Dartcments

PrcsidCntial clcctions in Francc∶ q“ s vot志 rcnt en n△ ajorit誉

litcral translad。 stiΠ 11ntcn

n∶

in ihrcr Mehrhcit f谊 rP° hcr

cquiⅤ alcnt t1・ anslation:Nur acht dcF faundcrr franzt∶ 9sischen

DartCmcnts sdmmten in ihrcr Mchrheit fttr Pohcr, b

Ifthc sL tcxtis、 vrittcn in order t° cOnvcy artistic contcnts,tbcn the contents

h1thc TL sh。 uld bc c° nvcycd in an analogously artistic organization Modc oftransladng:rrdIls丿

dfinJ,id召 nr:∫ ’cd亡 ion(not in the腚 nse

Got・ the u陡 s)

Thc订 al.slatα

idcnti丘 es、 Ⅴith thc artistic and creativc intcntion of thc SL author in order t。

lllain-

tain thc artlstic quahty of the tcxt

Ex⒍

(Oltcga y G灬啶 Ent1・

cvco que es

〃 js召 rjd丿￡甲 rmJ° rddσ Tr。 ducoon) u呲 cd una csPccic de JfFin,° 日bcnccrr句 c,古 kim。 t∶

SuPCrⅤ iviente de una fauna(lcsaParccida,PucSt°

frcntc a otro hombre,dc crecr quc cs cl otr。 ticnc raz♂ n,

quc cs usted capaz,

yn。 ustcd quicn

176

KATHARINA REIss litcral translatlon:“ cillc Art lctztcr Abcncerr句 ft)r tl△

c”

(、

vithout content

c Gcrmall rcader) “ cinc Art AusnahmcRdl” (abSencc。 f the ardstic

contcnt trans1adon∶ c。

mP。 ncnt⒌ mctaPh)邗 and litσ ary

alltlsion)

functionally cquiⅤ alcnt translati° n:“ eine Art lctzter Ritter ohne

Furcht and Tadcl’

’

(0nc elemcnt。 fthe a⒒ isuc orga血 zation

in Ortcga’ s essay is thc many vcrbs

and n。 uns alluding t° scafaring, cithcr dircctly or in a⒔

gurativc scnsc,in sPitc of

thc hct that d1c sul,jcct has n。 tlling to do with seah1・ lng This is an indicau° n that

hc k aware ofJakob Grimm’ s qaying,accor由 ng to which translating rcscml,lcs a ship luanncd tO sail thc scas,but though it safcly carriCs thc goods,it ruust land at shorc、 Ⅴith a diffcrcnt soil under a diffcrcnt air, Thc mctaphor is obⅤ ious bccausc all thc imagcs PrcsCnted by O⒒ cga° n the su勹 cd of translation dcriⅤ c f1・。m what

schlciennachcr,Humb° 1dt and Goethe haⅤ e s"d about thc ProblCm,Thus,hc must haⅤ c

known Grimm’ s IllctaPh0r as wcl1.Hencc,thc translator is satisHcd in cho°

sing

as shiRcd cquiⅤ alents concts fr。 ln scafaring,、 vhcrc thcre arc nonc in thc。 riginal,

if thcsc arc casilY availablc in Gcrman The rcason is that at°

‘ ‘

thcr ti1ncs,vvhcn in

thc sPanish languagc the ass。 ciation vvith seafaring” is irnPhCd, an cquivalcnt Gcrman cxPrcssjon is n0t aⅤ ailablc∶ drribcIr = cln大 orl,t,,Cn, instcad of F丿 gJcIr ThiS iS 。ne° fthc cxamPlcS I mean when1・ c钇 rrhg to“ thc anal° gy ofarusuc brm” ) c, IF thc SL tcxt is、 vritten to conⅤ ey pcrsuasiⅤ ely structurcd contcnts in ordcr to

°f behaⅤ i° r, thcn thc c° ntents Convcycd in thc TL must l)e caPable。 f triggering ofF analogous imPulSes° f behaⅤ i。 r in thc TL rcadcr,

triggcr off imPulSes

Ex,7:

Black is bcautiful

aPpcaring in Enghsh in a German sales Pr° m° tion could n。 t bc rctaincd in thc translation into Enghsh° fa、Ⅴ holc salcs This sl° gan

promoting tcxt,if that tcxt is intcndcd f° r south African buycrs,

ⅣI° dc 。f translating: 虿ddPrirc of persuasiⅤ

rr口 nsF口 r1iaJ,

ThC Psychological mechanisms of thc usc

c language should bc adaPtcd t° tlac nceds °f the nc、 v languagc

communitⅤ 3.2 Since f° rrll and functi° n of language signs do not sho、 v a relation of1:1, the

samc SL scquCncc may bc rePrcsentcd in d△ e TL by any othcr languagc scquencc dcnding in、 vhich tcxt type and tcxt variety thcy aPPear and、 vhich functi° n thcy may have to fulnll thcrc,

Ex,8:

El nii。 lloraba b句。ef

dJ口

虿deF3durismo

Text varicty: social nc、 vs;tCxt tyPe:informatiⅤ

c,

Das Kind wchte ul1tcl dcm%亻汤ss出 Ex.⒐ M犷 cclh。

lloraba b句 od唧

u4d召 F bdur^mo,como antes call盯 a al

advertir召 F sdbor dc`口 sd` (S基 nchCz-SilⅤ a,Marcchn°

,Pan y

Ⅴino)

DE‘

Tcxt va1・ lcty∶

CIsION MAKING IN TRANsLATION

177

narrativc;tcxt tyPc:cxPrCSSivc(Parallchslns;rhythn⒈

elcmcnts of art厶 tlc organizatlon:rctained in the TL)

M盯 cclho w⒍ n∞ unter dem隔 “εr d召 r%I!丿 ’ ,雨 e F∶

Gescf,m￠

c茨

des s召 Fzcs gcsch、 vicgcn

er zu∞ r be血

hatte

Ex.10:s° u renε ∫mmer口 Ⅱ e,blen a

fol cst qui s’ y⒔ c Tljs sayin8of Francis I is rncnti° ncd in a historⅤ b° °k Text varictⅤ :scho° lbo。 k;tcxt typc∶ inf° rmatiⅤ c, FI口

ucn Jndern"ch ofr,w∝

血nen

tratlt,ist∝ hon

dtlmm

b Mcntioncd in a drama by Victor Hugo(transl l冫 y Gcorg Btichner),Mα rid Tudor. Tcxt Ⅴaricty∶ (lrama;tcxt typC:CxPrcssive Dn肫

沾 ond召

(sCⅤ σal

'F虻

hJ召 dc刀

Tdf,0n Narr奴

,wer山

r trauen mag

scmantic shiRs,rhymc and rh/hm rCt菹 ncd) “ c Itclll in an adⅤ crtisemcnt f° r、vinc∶ souvcnt fcmme Ⅴ aric Lcs Ⅴins du Postnlon nc Ⅴaricntjamais,” LitcrarⅤ allusion in c° njunction、 vith

pun lucmory aid and thc

‘ arousal of symPathy in thc‘ conn。 isscur” Thc allusi。 n sh° uld bc re~Pr。 grammcd∶ Text ⅤarictⅤ :thc adⅤ crtising of products;tcxt type∶ oPeratiⅤ C Frduε nf,crzcn sind FrtIJcrjscr,,P。

stillon~Wcinc bctrugen nie

3.3 Problematic cases r tllc tlnκ e ba蚯

c brms° fc° mmul△ lcation

arc not Kalized in thcl1・

mkcd brms,212),thCn tllc Principlcs of“ anslathg忆 r as aids f° r a dccisi。 n

℃uK” 忆rm

thc thrcc bt△

in cascs of conHict, In princiPlC, thC modc。

thc cntirc tcxt apphes to all tcxt clcmcnts,cven if thcy do not bcl。

ltf.

sk” Pes κrⅤ c

f translating for

ng to the same

tyPe as thc don1inant typc If,f°

r instance,clcmcnts of p。 ctic language are used、 vhcn contcnt is conveyed

(in允 rmatiⅤ c tyPe)— thc S。 callcd l。

an structures(Hantsch1972)— the Lanslati° n

ought to strivc br an analogously PoCtic form忆

r th° sc

clcmcnts H° wcvcr,if this

is not PossiblC in thc TL、 vithout l° ss° f thc unity of content and artistic f° rm,thcn the rctcntion of c° ntcnt is dominant in informatiⅤ c tcxts and is t°

l)c PrCfCrrcd to

thc maintenancc of an artistic form.

Ex, 11: Fùn gibt cs△ eilich

rn。

dcrnc N。 madcn,f谊 r dic ein Caravan nur dcr

zweitscsh♂ nste肠 hn ist(s讧 ddc口 Fsche z召 iFui,J,strcⅢ icht)

Text、 iaricty:nc、vsPaPCr itCm;text tyPc:inf°rmativc

Wc haⅤ e hcrc an itcrn rcfcrring to an oPini。 nP。 ll am。 ng。 Ⅵ:ncrs° f camPing places as rcgards the bchaⅤ ior of Gcrman h。 liday makcrs Thc“ StreiⅡ ichtcr” [a ncwSpaper columnl in the sJddcurscFl召

z召 irun召 [a nc、 vsPaPerl

arC° RCn distinguishcd by an abun_

dancc° f cntertaining Puns and othcr kinds。 f Play、 vith language At thc samc tilnc, h° wcⅤ cl,the su叻 cct。 inⅤ arhbly a toPical statc of胡㈤Ⅱ,and tlac main hndi。 n 。f thc tcxt is thc c。 ∏11nunication of contcnt, In translati° n Puns and° thcr kinds

178

KATHARINA REISs

of play with languagc、 vⅡ l havc t。 bc ign。 rcd to a grcat extcnt sO as to kc thc content inva1ˉ iant

∴ If,ho、、 cvCr,artistically structurcd contcnts in a tcxt of dnc cxPrcssivC tyPc havc to bc convcycd and i∴ during this pr。 ccss,thC artistic organization llilight be l)arn1ed by thc rctcntion of thc samc c° ntcnt ele1ncnts,thcn thc rulc apPhcs for cxPrcSSivC tCXts that thc c。 ntcnts

Ex 12:

may bc changed

une P芑 qucrctte,° u b。 uton d’

htcrally∶

une Pri1neⅤ 志 rc,。 u

un coucou,ou un

or

(samucl BCcket) .cin Ginscl,`山刀 ,cJ,en,odcr cin Hi1nmclssc乃

°dcr cinc sch`Jsse`bJuJ,,e odcr cinc Buttcrb`口 mc

FtIss召

ε n,

`c乃 .(in、 arlancc of

contcnt)

Ehuar ToPhoⅤ en∶

cin Tauscndsch。 nchen,cinc Pri1ncl,cinc

・oSC schlissclblume,einc Buttc∴ 】 1ˉ

FiL1ally,if,in c。 nⅤ cying contcnts、 vith a PersuasiⅤ c form intcndcd to triggcr off

irnPulsCs° f bchaⅤ i° r, thc unchangcd adoPti。n of ClCments of content。 r(loanCd)

clcmcnts。 f artistic structurc frolm the sL tcxts docs n。

t haⅤ c

an opcrativc cffect,

thesc clc1ucnts may bc rlaccd by othcr clcmcnts fulslling thc dcsircd functl。

n,

Ex 13: Fuchsc fahrcn Firestonc-Phocnix Foxes usc Firestone_Phocnix(falsiHcati。 n° f

ass° ciation,loss。 f

alhtcration;imP° rtant clcn1ents of thc° Perative use of languagc) PrOS Prefer Firestonc-Phoenix(changc of contcnt to retain PositivC assoCiation and alliterati。 n)

If opcrativc tcxt clcmcnts aPPCar in di∏ 辶rcnt tcxt tyPcs,then the adapting mcthod thcsc singlc elen△ ents as long as this is I)ossiblC vvid△ out any h泸 m to0tllcr thc c° ntcnt to be convcyed on tl・ C casc ofthc hhrmathc” PC) or to thc artistic organization as a、 vhole(in thc casc。 f thc cxPrCSSivc tcxt) of translating also aPplies t°

3・

4 sPeciaI cases

If thcrc js a(li&艮rcncc bct、 vccn thc Original tcxt functio11and thc function of the translation,thc tcxt tyPology rclcⅤ ant to translation as、 :cll as thc cstabhs11n1cnt of

thc givcn tcxt、 ˉ ariety are。 f no signiicancc at all for thc qucstion`、 'hat lu° dc° f t1ˉ

anslating should bc ad。 PtCd t° attai111uncti。 nal cquivalencc h1that case a9`c’ ′ 〕 ⒏

n shottld Kpl衣 c thc tt・ xt。 P。 logy in order to suPPIy汕 itablc c。 tt,ha for the m。 de。 f translating As has bccn111cntioncd ab° ve,in changcs of functi° n thc 缸m ofd1c translaung pr。 ccss is not a11ymorc thc att耐 nmcnt of a hncti° nally TL gfε rdns`dFj°

tcXt,but a TL tcxt Possessing a brm which is adcquatc to thc“ Rrei:n hnction,” Thc critcria arc not to bc dcriⅤ cd分 oln the qucstion‘ ‘ to what cnd and f° r wh。 m has thc tcxt been盯

rⅠ

rrCnP/’ but fr。 rn

‘

thc qucsti。 n‘ to、vhat end and fc)r、

Ⅴ h° m

is thc

tcxt rr口 nsFdFctJ7”

E,g”

a‘

‘

gra∏ uuar t1ˉ ansIation”

~ Aim of thc translation:

vhethcr thc puPⅡ is to exan△ inc 、

ith Ⅴ。cabulary and grammatical structurcs of thc acquainted Ⅵ厂

DE‘

CIsION MAKING IN TRANsLATION

179

thc tcacher Rcgardless of、 Ⅳhich text tyPc is rcahzcd l)y thc SL tcxt,only、 ocabulary and gran`mar arc Considered

forcign languagc; translated R)1・

Eg,intcrhncar、

crsions

Airn °f thc transIati。 n∶ thc rr。 duction of thc SL tcxt for rcscarch purPoscs;tranSlated Ior thc studcnt ignorant of thc SL,

Eg,sumInarics° fc。 ntcnt ~Ai1n° f a cc1・ tain

the translation;c。 nuuunication of contcnts rclcⅤ ant f。 r

furthcr usc;translatcd upon sOn】 cb° dy’ S Ordcr

Note 1

Translator’ s rcmarks in square l)rackcts

Chapter 15

James s■

HoImes

THE NAME AND NATURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIES1

1△

“

s蕈 F:卢 jtc燕丁 takcs place has bccn fairly、

:}兮廾

aⅣ

∶点奎三芷 r雀 ;I∶

`cll desncd l)y thC sociologists of sciencc and rcscarch,3

As a nc、 Ⅳ ProblCm or set of Problems colncs into、 t11(:rc is an in∏

ux。 f

i瞅 st:y%∶ 「 t报

rescarchcrs f1・

icw in thc wodd。 f

lcan】 ing,

°ln adjaCcnt arcas,l)ringing with tlacm tlle Para

d唿 ms an(lm。 dels that haxⅡ e ProⅤ Cd l1uithl in tbeir°

wn⒔ dds Thcsc paradigms

and m° dcls arc thcn br° ught t。 bcar on thc ncⅥ 广Problen1,、Ⅴith onc oft、・ o rcsults In sOIuc situations thc problcln provcs an1enablc to cxphcitation,analysis,cxPhca~ tion, and at lcast partial soluti。 n、 vithin thc bounds of onc of thc Paradigms or n1° dcls,and

in that casc it is anncxed as a legitimatc branch of an cstabhshcd⒔

eld

°f study In 。thcr situations thc Paradigms °r m。 dcls fail to ProducC sumcicnt rcsults, and rcscarchcrs bccon△ c axx=arc that ne、 v mcthods are nccdcd t° aPProach thc Pr° blcna In ths sccond tyPc ofsituati° n,the rcsultis a tcnsion bet、 vccn rcscarchcrs invcs~

tigating thc ncvv ProblCm and colleagucs in thcir former ⒔elds, and this tension can gradually lCad t。 thc cstabhshment。 f nc、 v channCls of c。 mn1unication and thc

dcvcloPment° f、 vhat has been called a ncvv disciPhnary utoPia,that is,a nc、 v sensc of a sharcd intercst in a common sct of problcms, apProachcs, and°

bjcctivcs()n

v grouping ofrCsCarchcrs As W O Hagstron1has indicated,thesc ∴ tⅥ 0sts,the cstabhshmcnt。 f col111nunication channels and thc(lcⅤ cloPmcnt of a (⒈ sciPlinary ut【 Dua,“ m献 c it Poss曲 lc%r soentis‘ to Ⅱenu、 witb thc cmer虫 ng thC Part of a nc、

1972

THE NAME AND N;ATURE OF TRANsLAT10N sTUD1Es disciPhnc and t°

clairll lcgitilnacy for thciI・

Point。 f

sity bodics° r gr° uPs in thC largcr socictyΓ

”

vic、 v、vhCn

181 apPcaling to univcr~

1.2 Thoug11t11erc are no doul,ta、 w sdn。 lars who would o叻 cct,l)articularly among thc linguists, it vvould sccn1to mc clcar that in regard to thc colnPlcx of Prob~ lcms clustcrcd round thc Phcn。 mcnon of translating and translati。 ns,s thc scc。 nd situation n。、:aPPhcS ARCr ccnturics of incidcntal and dcsult° ry attcntion from a scattcring of authors, Phil。 thc。 l° gian

l。

gians, and htcrary scholars, Plus hcre and thcre a

or an k如 osyncratic linguist, thc sut,Jcct°

a markcd and constant incrcasc in interest on thc Part。

f translati。 n11as

cⅡ 。yed

f sch° lars in1・ cccnt

yCars,

/orld War as a kind° f turniL1g Point, As this intercst1】 as sohdi~ 、 vith thc Scc° nd、、 §ed and cxPandcd,lnorc and11a° rc scholars havc n△ 0Ⅴ cd int° the⒖ eld,Particularly fron1the adjaccnt sclds of linguistics,linguistic PhiloSophy,and litcrary studics,but

flom such secmin掣 y more rcmotc disciPhncs aS in凡 rmation thcory,logic,and mathematics,cach ofthen1carrying、 vit11hi1n Paradigms,quasi-paradigms,l【 l0dels, and mcthod。 l° gics that hc felt could bc l)rought to bcar° n this nc、 ˉProblCm At⒔ rst glancc, thc resulting situation today、 vould aPPear t。 bc one。 f:rcat als°

、 Ⅴith no c。 nscnsus regarding thc tyPcs of1n。 dcls t° bc tcstCd,thc kinds 。f rneth。 ds t。 bc apphed,the Ⅴarictics of tcrluinology t。 be uscd M。 rc than that, confusi° n,

thcrc is n° t cvcn likcn1indcdncss about thc contours of thc Hckl,thc Pr。

blCn1sct,

the discil)hnc as such Indccd,scholars arc not so much as agreed on tbc、

ery namc

f°

r thc11c、 ⒖Ckl NcvcI△ hclcss, bencath thc suPcrhcial lcvcl, therc arc a11umbcr of indications

that f° r

thc6ck)° f rescarch focusing on tbc problcms° f translating and translations

Hagstro1△ s disciPhnary utopia is taking shapC,If this is a salutary(lcvcloPmcnt(and 1’

I beheⅤ c that it is),it bll° wS that it is w。

戊h our whilc t° hⅡ hcr the dcⅤ

Pmcnt

cl。

by c° nsciously turning our attention to n△ attcrs that arc scrvin8to in1pcdc it

1.3

Onc of thcse imPcdirncnts is the lack° f aPPr° Priatc channels of co】 nmunicati° n For sch° la1ˉ s and rescarchcrs in thc⒖ cld,thc channcls that do cxist still tcnd t° run via thc° ldcr disciPhncS(Ⅵ ith their attcndant norms in rcgard t。 m° dels,n△ cthods,

and telmlllologD,S。 that Papσ s on thc su匀 cct° f tlanslaton arc dispcrκ d oⅤ cr

Ⅵidc Ⅴaricty ofscholarly⒔ ckls and j° urnals for practising translators r ° ther c。 n1mulìcation channcls, cutting acr° ss disci丨 )lines t° rcach aⅡ sch° lars、 vorking in thc6cld,fr。 n】、 ⅤhatcⅤ cr

periodicals in a

lt is clcar that thcrc is a nccd F° thc traditi° nal

background

2.1 But I should likc t°

f° cus。 ur attention on t、 vo othcr imPcdi1ncnts to thc dcvclopˉ mcnt of a disciPhnary utopia The nrst。 f thcsc,thC lesscr° fthc t、 vo in imPortancc,

182 JAMEs s HOLM Es is thc sccmingly triⅤ ial m荻tcr。 fthc

namc忆 r

this ncld。

f rcsca1・ ch

It would n。

at this c。

nkrence,忆 r

t

ne

be、 vise to continue rcferring to the disciPhne by its subjcct Inatter as has been d。

the Π1aP,as the Gcncral scmanticists c。 nstandy rcmind us, distinguish thc tⅥ /。 can only furtllcr c° nfusi° n

is not thc tcrritory,and failurc t。

・ ritings dcahng`Ⅳ ith trans~ Through thc ycars,diⅤ erse tern1s haⅤ c bccn uscd in、、

‘ ‘ ’ ns, and 。ne can ⒔nd rcfcrcnccs in Enghsh to thc art’ 。r ’ ’ “ ‘ ‘ the craft’ of translation, but alsO t。 thc PrinciPlcs’ of translati° n, t11e funda~ ’ ‘ mcntals’ or the‘ philosoPhy” si1nilar recur in French and Gcrman,In s° luc cascs thc choicc of term renects the attitude, P° int 。f aPPr° ach, °r backgr° und Ⅴritcr; in othcrs it has becn dctcrn△ incd by thc fashi° 11 °f tl△ c n△ 。1ucnt in of thc 、 lating and translati。

‘ ‘

sch。 larly tcrminology

Thcrc have been a kw attcmPts t° crcatc morc“ lcarnc(l” tcnus,most ofthcm 、 vith thc highly actiⅤ c disciPhnary sufHx -ology Rogcr G。 f6n, R)r instancc, has ‘ suggcstcd thc dcsignation‘ translatology” in Enghsh,and eithcr its cognatc or FrcIcfLIc~ r。

F叼 ic

°l° gy suⅢ x dcHⅤ cs

in FKnch6But since the

iom GKck,puhsts mjcct a

hCn thc Other elemcntis not eⅤ contan1ination of this kind,all thc ln。 rc so、 ˉ

en from

nsFt,rio or Renaissancc Frcnch ‘ ‘ 、,ay out, for n1ctaPhorol。 gy”

Classical Latin, but from Latc Latin in t11c casc of Fr口 in that of rr虿 ducrjon Yet Greck alonc offers n°

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ vould hardly bC of aid to us in makng our rnCtaphrascolo8y” ,or‘ rnctaPhrastics’ 、

othcr

,

‘ ‘

grouPs in thc largcr 7 such。 ther as‘ ‘ anslatistics’ ’or‘ ‘ hich haⅤ c transhstics” , l)Oth° f、Ⅴ bcen suggcsted,、 v。 ukl bc morc rcadily undcrst。。d,but hardly morc accePtable subjcct clcar cⅤ cn to university bodics, let alonc t。 socictⅤ

t1・

/’

2.2.1 T、vo

further,lcss classically constructcd tern△ s have comc to thc fore in rcccnt ycars

One。 fthesc °f

began its hfc in a longer forΠ

1,‘

‘

thc thcOry。 f translating” or“ thc thc° ry

tramslation” (and its corrcsPonding forms:“ Theoric(lcs1Jbcrsetzcns’

’‘ ,‘

th芑 orie

dc

In English(and in Gcrman)it has蚯 ncc gonc the way。 f∏1any such ‘ ‘ ,and is n。、 v usually comPrcssed int° translation thcory” ((丿berscrzunJsfJ’ cor】 c) la tra(lucti。 n” )

It has bccn a Pr° ductiⅤ C dcsignation, and can bc cⅤ cn morc so in futurc,but only if it is rcstrictc(l to its ProPCr rnCaning For,as I hoPc to luake clear in the c°

ursc

of this PaPcr, tbcrc is much valuablc study and rcscarch bcing done in thc disci~ Plinc,and a ncc(l for much m。 rc t° bc d。 nc,that does n° t,strictly spcakIng,fall

Ⅵ厂 ithin

thc sc。

Pc。 f

thc。 ry f° rmation

2.2.2 Thc scc。 nd tcrm is onc that has,t。灬

allintents and Purp。 SCs,Ⅴ V0n the丘 cld in Gcrman

a dcs1gnati∞ for tk elldrc由 s0/白 nc:Ths is the℃ rm l/llcrscr7un卩 sTl

IssCnsC乃

∮

,

corlstruCted ttD brm a Parallcl t° sP啊 ch雨 sscn℃ h矽 ,山 FerdFur【 ,arld many "sscnsch∮ °tl△ σ 肫 sscnsch妒召n・ hF1・ ench,thc・ ∞ mPtarablc dcs唿 na№ n,“ scicnce dc la仔 aclLlc~

gaincd ground,as havc Parallel in various othcr languagcs. in Enghsh、 as Eugcnc Nida、、 vho in 1964 dnosc to cnddc his thcorcdcal handbook 丁owclrds α sCjcncc ∷

tion” ,has als°

Onc ofthe F1rst to use a Parallcl~sounding tcrn△

^广

THE NAME AND N.⒋

TURE OF TRANsLATION STUDIEs

183

Γrdnsfdrin臼 9It sh。 uld bc n。 tcd, th。 ugh, that Nida di(l not intcnd thc Phrasc as a namc f° r thc cntirc Hckl of study, but only for°

ne asPect of the Proccss of trans_

lating as such10 0thcrs, most of them n° t natiⅤ c spcakcrs° f Enghsh, haⅤ c bccn m° Kb。 ld,adⅤ 。c菠 hg thc tcrm`0encc of translati° n” (or气 ranslation κicncc” )灬 thC aPPr° Priate dcsignation for this emcrging(hsciPhnc as a、 vh° lc lΓ 、 Ⅳo ycars ago this rccurrent suggestion vvas f° ll° 、 vcd t)yS。 lncthing likc can° nization of thc tcrm 、 Ⅴhcn Bausch,Klcgraf,andˇ VⅡ ss to° k thc dccision t。 make it thc rnain titlc t。 thchˉ analytical bil)liograPhy。 f thC cntirc6cl(l ll

k was a dcosic,n that I,允 r one,rcgⅡ t It is ntlt tl,敲 I° 匀ed to tl△ e∝ rm rJbc卜 tht・ re arc托 w ifally Ⅴ aW ar驷 mcn“ 吃扯nst tla荻 dc蚯 gmtion

scFzunJs泐 sscn义 hfI丿吁 :,忆 r

brthc su勹 cct h Gcrman The Pr° bkm is notthatthc山 sciPhne is l△ clt a Ⅱ 乃 ssensch∮ not引 lⅡ 1ss召 nscJ,σ ∶m can ProPer圩 bC called s0cnccs Ju艾灬 n。。ne today wcluld t酞 c iss⒃ 雨 th tk∝ rms sP阳 ch耐 ssensc乃犭 l al△ d△ rcrdr〃耐 ss召 nsch∮ ,WhlC

,

btlt tl△ at

morc than a fc、 v、 v0uld qucstion、 vhether linguistics has yet rcachcd a stagc of Prcci

sion,formahzati。 n,and paradign△ formation such that it can ProPCrly bC dcscribed as a scicncc, and 、 vhⅡ c Practically cveryone、 vould agrcc that literary studics arc not, and in thc f° rcsccablc ftlturc、 vill n。 t bc, a scicncc in any true sensc of thc English wor(l,in thc samc way I qucstion whether wc can with any justi⒔ cau° n usc a designation f° r the study °f translating and translati。 ns that places it in thc c。 n1I)any

of rnathematics,physics,and chcn1istry,or cvcn biology,rather than that °fs° ci。 logy,history,and PhiloS。 phy— or for that rnatter of litcrarⅤ studies

2.3 Thcrc is,ho、 vcⅤ cr,anothcr tcrm thatis actiⅤ c in Enghsh in thc naming of ne、 v disci~ PhnCs・

ThiS is thc

distincti°

、 Ⅴ。rd

“

studics”

, Indccd, f° r disciPhncs that vcithin thc °ld

n of the univcrsitics tcnd to fall undcr thc humanitics or arts rathcr than

thc scicnccs as nclds 。f lcarning, thc vcord 、 vould sccm t。 bc al1nOst as actiVe in

E℃ h此 aS thC wOI・ cl Ⅱ1ssensc乃 dfrin Gcrman Oncl△ ccd ody thlik cllˉ R¨ 血 n sttl山 cs, Arnerican studics, Com1n° n、vealth studics, PoPulation studies, con11nunication studies Truc,thc w° rd ralses a托 w ncw comPlications,among them thc hct that it is(limct】 lt ttl dc0vc an a曲 ec・ ti、・ d忆 rm Ncverthclcss,tllc dcs蟪 nat0n\ranslatlon

’ 、 Ⅳ0uld sccn1to bc thc n△ 。st aPProPriatC of all th。 se avaⅡ ablc in Enghsh, and its ad。 ption as thc standard tern1for thc(lisciphne as a vcholc Ⅵr。 uld rcm。 vc a studics’

fair am。 unt of confusion and n1isundcrstanding I shall set thc cxan△

PlC by111aki11g

usc° f it in thc rcst° f this Papcr A greatcr irnPcdhncnt than thc lack° f a gcncrally acctCd name in thc、 Ⅴay。 f thC deⅤ eloPmcnt of transIati° n studies is thc lack 。f any gcncral consensus as to thc scopc and structurc ofthc disciPhnc,what c° nstitutes thc6cld o【 translation studicsP A ft・

ww° tlld

Say it coincidcs with c°

mParati′ :C

(or contrastiⅤ e)tCrn1inological and lexic° graPhical studics; scⅤ cral lo。 k uPon it as

vith comParativc or contrastivc hnguistics; many practically idcntical 、 considcr it lar:cly syn°

nym° us、 vith

、:ould

translati。 n thc。 ry, But surcly it is different,if

not al、 Ⅳays distinct,fr。

m the丘 rst tⅥ 广 °of thcsc,and1nore than thc third,As is usuallⅤ to bc found in thc casc of cmcrgimg disciphnes,thcrc has as yct becn littlc meta_ reflection on thc naturc of translati。

n studics as such_ˉ at lcast that has madc its

、 vay into Print and to my attcntion, Onc of thc fcⅥ

/cascs that I have found is that

184 JAMEs s HOLM Es of

Ⅵ严 crncr Kollcr,wh。

setzungswisscnscha△

has giⅤ cn the fc,llowing ddincation of the su匀

ist zu vcⅡ

tc・

“ ubclˉ

bs⒏ :血 r

hcn als ZusammcnI∶

Forschungsbem讧 hungcn,dic v° n dcn Phinomcncn‘

ect∶ i1】

alle

:ssun8ullcl ubc1ˉ tH)crsctzcn’ und‘ ubcrsctzung’

ausgehcn° dcr auf dicsc PhJnomcne zielen” (Translation studies is t。 bc undcrst° 。d as a col|cctiⅤ c and h1clusive designation for all rcsearch actiⅤ itics taki11g thc Phcnomcna of translating and translation as their basis or focus,12)

3.1

vould 、 vs that translation studies is,as no onc Isupposc、 Such(lisciphnes,it has often bccn PointCd° ut,haⅤ c “ ˉ tw° m句 or。匀ccuvcs,which Carl G HemPel ht△ s Phrased灬 to dcsα lbc particular PhCnomcna in thc、 v° rld of our cxPcrience and to estabhsh gcncral PrinciPlCS by 1;As a ickl of purc rcscarch mcans of、 vhich thcy can bc cxPlained and Predictcd” Fr° nn this dehneation it foll°

dcny,an cmPirical disciPhnc・

~that is t° say,rcscarch l)ursued f° r its o、 vn sakc,quitc apart fron△

any dircct Prac-

tical aPPhcati° n outsidc its 0、 vn tcrrain ~ translati。 n studics thus has t、 vo

main

。bjcctiⅤ cs: (1)t。 dCscribe the Phem。 mcna oft1・ anslati11g and translation(s)as thcy rld of our cxpcricnce, and(2)t。 tnanifcst thcn1sclvcs in the lsⅠ °

cstabhsh gcncral ,hich these PhcnomCna can bc exPlaincd and PrcdictCd.Thc princiPlcs by mcans of、 t、Ⅴ °l)ranchcs of Pure translati° n studics conccrning themselvcs、 vith thcse objectives can be dcsi8nated dcscrjPFjyc rrdns`￠

(TD)and rhco,cricd`rrd ns灿

rio刀

Fi。 n

sF1Idics (I)TS) or rrdns`drion descri`FⅠ on

sruJics(ThTs)or rr口

ns`drⅠ on r乃

corl'(TTh)

3.1.1 e‘ r口 ns~ Of these t、 o,it is PerhaPs aPPr。 PriatC to giⅤ c⒔ rst considcration to d召 scriPrⅠ Γ

n sFudics,as the branch of thc disciPhnc`vhich constantly maintains the closest

ith thc cmpirical Phcnomcna undcr study Thcrc、 Ⅵˉ `dFi。

m0j。 r

vould scclla to bc thrcc

klnds of research in DTs,which may bc disdnguishc(l by thcir focus as

product_oricnted, functi° n-oricntcd, and Pr° cess-orientcd

3.1.1.1 Producr~orjcnFcd DΓ s,that arca。 f rcscarch、 vhich dcscribcs existing translations,has

traditionally bccn an irnPortant arca of acadcΠ

)ic rcscarch in translation studics

Thc starting Poi1△ t for this tyPe of study is thc(1csc1ˉ iPti。 n of indiⅤ idual translations,

or text-focuscd translati° n(lcscriPti° n A sccond Phase is that ofcon1ParatiⅤ c translation dcscriPti° n, in、 vhich

comParativc analyses arc madc of Ⅴarious translati° ns Ⅴarious languagcs Such indiⅤ idual ns Pr。 Ⅴ ide thc matcrials f° r surⅤ cys of largcr corPuses and c° n】 ParativC descriPti° of thc saΠ 1c tcXt,cithcr in a singlc languagc or in

of translations,for instancc thosc n1ade、 vitbin a sPeci⒔ c Peri。 d,languagc,and/or

tcXt or disCourse tyPc.II)Practicc the corPus has usually been restricted in all thrcc

r mcdicⅤ al Enghsh 、 vays∶ SCvCntCCnd△ _century hterary translations into Frcnch, 。 Biblc translations But such dcscriptivc SurⅤ cys can als° bc largcr in scoPe,

THE NAME AND NxATURE OF TRANSLATION sTUDIEs diachr。nic as、vcll as(aPPr。 Pr。 duct^°

xirnatcly)Synchronic,and onc。 f

ricntcd DTs Π

ìght Possibly bC a gcncral hist° ambiti° us such a goal lllay s° und at this tirnc

185 thc cⅤ cntual g。 als of

ry of translation~ho、 vever

3.1.1.2 FuncFion-° rie,,red DΓ s is not intcrcstcd in thc dcscription° sclⅤ cs,

but in thc dcscriPti。

n °f

⒈

f translati。 ns in dlcΠ

thcir functi° n in the reciPicnt S。 ci° -cultural

situation:it is a studv of contcxts rather than texts.Pursuing such qucsti°

ns as、 vhich

tcXts Wcrc(and,oRen as imP° ltant,were not)translatcd at a cclˉ taln timc in a ccrtain placc,and、 vhat inΠ uenccs、 vcrc cXcrtcd in consequcncc,this area° fresearch is one that has attracted less c° nccntratcd attcnti° n than the area just n△ entioned,

though it is。 ften intr° duccd as a kind of a sub_thcme° r countcr-thcmc in hist。 ries of translati。 ns and in litcrarⅤ hist。

~

rics Grcater cmPhasis° n it could lcad t° thc

dcvcl。 Pn△ cnt of a丘 cld of translation s° ciology for (。 r~_lcss fchcitous but m° re accuratc,sincc it is a lcgitin△

atc area of translation studics as、 vcll as。 fs。 ci° logy_

socio-translati° n studics),

3.1.1.3 Procε ss-oricnred D丁

sc° nccrns itsclf、 vith thc proccss0r aCt of translati。

httlc black box” Pr。 blClal of、 vhat cxactly takcs PlacC in thc“ as hc crcatcs a nc、 v,more or lcss rnatching tcxt in an。

subjcct°

°fthe

n itsclf, Thc

translat。

r’

s“ n1ind”

ther languagc has bccn thc

f much叩 cctllati。 n° nd△ c Part。 ft1anslaton’ s tlac。 ribts,l)ut

tllcrc has

bccn Ⅴery littlc attcmpt at systcmatic inⅤ estigation of this ProcCSs undcr lab° rat° ry vhiCh, if mplcx onc, °nc 、 c° nditi° ns. Adn1ittedly, thc proccss is an unusually c° ‘ ‘ bably bc thc m。 st complcx tyPc of cⅤ cnt I, A, Richards is corrcct,

rnay vcry Pr。 14But psychologists havc dcvcl° duced in thc cⅤ olution of thc c。 smos,” yet Pr。 Pcd and aIˉ c devcl。 Ping lⅡ ghly soPhisticated mcthods f° r analysing and dcscribing othcr c° mPlCx

、 vill

mcntal Proccsses, and itis to bc h° Pcd that in futurc this Pr。 blc∏ 、 t° 0,

bc giⅤ cn closcr attention,lcading to an area of study that rnight be called trans~

lation psychology or Psycho-translation studics,

3.1.2 The other main branch° f Pure translati。 n studics, ∠ fleorer1cd`rr召 ns`召 Fion ‘ rdns`dr∫ on lati。

rJlcorΓ

srtJJI召 s

or

,is,as its namc imPhCS,n° t intcrcstcd in dCscribing existing trans-

ns, obscrvcd translati° n ftlncti° ns, or cxPcrilllCntaⅡ y dctcrrllincd translating

n studics,in combination 、 vith the inf° rmation availablc fron1rclatcd nelds and disciPhnCs, to cvolvc princiPlCs,theorics,and rn。 dcls、 vhich vvⅡ l scrⅤ c to cxPlain and prcdict、 Ⅴhat translating proccsses,but in using thc rcsults of dcscriPtivC translati°

and translati° ns arc and、 vill bc,

186

JAMEs s HOLM ES

3.1.2.1 Thc ultin1atc goal of the translati。 n thc° rist in thc broad scnsc must undoubtcdly

bc to dcvcloP a full,inclusive theory accoΠ un。 dati11g so many cIcn1cnts that it can scrvc to cxPlain and Predict all Pbcnon1cna falling`vid1in thc tcr1・ ain of translating and translation,to the exclusi。 n of all phcn° mcna falling outsidc it,It hardly needs t°

bc P° i11tcd° ut that a卩 cnerd′

FrcJns`口

ri‘

,n∠ r,召 orJ

in such a truc scnsc ofthc tcrm,if

indccd it is achicvablc,

vⅡ l ncccssarily bc highly fk)1ˉ n1ahzcd and, 11° 、、 ⅤcⅤ cr thc scholar n1ay strivc aRcr ccon。 my,also highly con1PlCx

Most。 f thc thcOrics that havc bccn Pr° duccd t° than Pr° lcgomcna to suCh a gcncral translati°

date arc in rcahty littlc In° rc

n thcOry.A good sharc° fthcm,in fact,

arc not actuaHy thcorics at all,in any scholarly sense of thc ter∏ 、 but an array of axioms,Postulatcs,and hyPothcses that arc so formulatcd as t° be both t° 。inclusiⅤ e also n° n~translatory acts and n° n~translati° ns)and t。 o CxClusi、 c(shuttin:

(c。 vering

out son1c translat。 ry acts and some、 vorks gcncrally rec。 gnized as translau。 ns)

3.1.2.2

’

Othc1ˉ s,th° ugh

thcy too may bear thc designation of“ gcncral’ translati° n thcorics ’ ‘ (△ CquCntly Preccdcd by thc sch° lar’ sI)r。 tcctiⅤ cly cautious‘ to、vards’ ), arc in fact not gcncral thcOrics,but Partial or sPeciHc in thcir scoPc,(lCahng、 Ⅴ ith only onc or a fe、 :of Partia】

thc Ⅴarious asPCcts of translati° 11thcory as a、 vholc, It js in this arca of

thc° ries that thc1)】

°st

signi⒔

cant advances haⅤ c l)ccn made in l~ccent ycars,

ill Probably bc ncccssary for a grcat dcal and in fact it、 Ⅴ c。 nducted

。f furthcr rcscarch t。 bc

in then1bcf° rc、vc can cⅤ cn bcgin t。 think ab。 ut arriving at a true gcncral

thc。 ry in thc sensc I have just outlincd PdrFⅠ

口F∠ rdns′dFion Frlc。 rics arc sPeci⒔

Cd in a

nun11)cr of、 vays I、 vould suggcst, though,that thcy can l)e grouPcd togcthCr into s】

x n1aln kinds

3.1.2.2.1 First of all, thcrc are translati° n theorics that I havc callcd, 、・ ith a s° mc、vhat un。 rd△ od° x cxtensio11of thc tcrn△

,扌 22召 Jiun卜 rcsFhcFcJ rrdns`dFj° nF/lcr,ric、 ,aCCOrding to thc Incdiunn that is used 、Ι ediun)-rcstrictcd the° ries can l)c furthcr subdivided into tl△ c° Ⅱ cs°f translation灬 pσ 忆rmc(lb)humans(human tlanslad° n),as Pσ brmcd

by c。 ml)uterS(machne订 anslati° n),and

as Per%rmcd by the two in c° 功uncti° n

(n1ixCd or luachine~aided translatl。 n) Human translation brcaks (l。、ˉ n into (and

‘

rcstIîctcd thcorics。 r‘ the° ries” 11ave l)een dcvel。 Pcd for)。 raI translati。 n or intcrPreting (、 vith thc fu1・ thcr distinction l)ctⅥ /ccn consecutivc and sin1ultanc。 us) and

Ⅴrittcn 、

translati°

n Numcrous cxamplcs of Ⅴaluablc

rcscarch int° machinc and

machinc~aidcd translation arc no d。 ubt fan1iliar to us all, and PerhaPs a丨 into oral human translation

s°

scvcral

ˉ 「 hat cxarnl)lCs ofmcdjun⒈ rcstrictcd thcOrics oF、 Ⅴrittcn

translation d° not con1e to n1ind so casⅡ y is largcly o`ving to d1c fact that thci1ˉ auth° rs

theories,

have the tcndcncy to Prcscnt then1 in thc guisc of unmarkcd

°r gcncral

THE NAME AND N・

ATURE OF TRANsLATION sTUDIEs

187

3.1.2.2.2 Sccond, thcrc arc thcorics that arc arca-restrictcd Hrc虿 ~rcsrrⅠ cretl FJ,corics Can be vhiCh is 。ft、 vo cl。 sely rclated kinds; rcstrictCd as to d△ c languagcs inⅤ olⅤ cd or, 、 usua1ly not quitc thc samc,and occasi。 nally hardly at all,as to thc culturcs inⅤ olⅤ cd In both cascs, lan8uagc 1・ cstriCtion and culturc rcstriction, thc dcgrce 。f actual lin1itation can varv Thc。 rics are feasible for translation bct、 vccn, say, Frcnch and

Gcrman(languagC-P“ r rCStHctcd thc。 rics)as oPP° sCd

to translatlon lllthin SlaⅤ

ic

languagcs (languagc-group rcstrictcd the° ries) or Ⅱ。 m R。 mancc languages t° Gcrmanic languagcs (languagc-gr。 uP Pair rcstrictcd thcories) si1nilarly, the。 rics n1ight at least hyPothetically bc deⅤ cloPcd for translation、 vithin S、 :iss culturc(oncculturc rcstrictcd),or f° r translati。 n bctvveen S、 viss and Bclgian culturcs(cultural~

ithin vvcstcrn EuroPc (cultural_gTouP PPosed to translation、 Ⅴ Pair rCStrictcd), as 。 rcstrictcd) 。 r bct、 veen lan8uagcs rcflccting a prc~tcchnol。 gical culture and thc /CstCrn Culture (cultural-group pair rcstrictcd). 、 languages ° f contcmP。 rary 、 Languagc-rcstrictcd thc° rics havc cl° sc af丘 nities、vith the、 Ⅴ ork l)cing donc in comPcarc△

tiⅤ

guagc

s be rcmcmbcrcd that a lan~ n grammar muqt bc a dlⅢerentthing【 om a contl灬 tl1・ e8Fammar

C linguisdcs and styhstics(though it must alwaⅤ

P“ r translau。

dcⅤ clopcd

for thc purPosc oflanguagc acquisition) In thC⒔

cld。 f culturc_rcstricted

[1mlturc Ksmcti。 ns,” bchg ￡ ssith languagc rcstrictions, somctirnes gct introduced int。 language_ rcstrictcd thcOrics, 、 Ⅴhcrc they are。 ut of placc in all but thosc rarc cascs、 vhcrc tllcohcs thcrc h灬 l,ccn l⒒ dc dct"lcd Ksearch,thclt】

:丿

c。 nfuscd

culturc and languagc boundaries c° incidc in both thc s。 urcc and target situations It is morcoⅤ er no doubt true that somc aspccts of d△

eorics that arc prcscntcd as gcncral

in rcality Pcrtain only to thc Wcstcrn cultural area

3.1.2.2.3 vith Third, there arc r虿 n炎 -rcsrrjcred rf,eorics, that is tO sav, thcorics that deal 、 disc° urscs

or tcxts as、 vholcs, but c° nccrn thcmsclⅤ cs、vith lo、 vcr linguistic ranks

or levels Traditi° nally,a great deal。 f、Ⅴriting on translation vvas cOnccrncd ahn。

st

cntirely、 vith the rank of thc、vord,and the、 Ⅴord and thc、 Ⅴord grouP arc still thc

ranks at、vhich much tern△ i11ologically oricntcd thinking about scicnti⒔

c and tcch~

nological translati° n takcs Placc A/1ost linguistically oricntcd rcscarch,on thc。 thcr

hand, 11as untⅡ

vcry rccently takcn thc scntcncc as its uPPcr rank liIllit, largcly

ignoring thc n△ acro_structural asPccts° f cntirc tcxts as translation Pr。 clcarlⅤ disccrnil)lc trcnd a、 vaⅤ

s・ olll

SCntCntial linguistics in thc dirccti°

blCms The n of tcxtual

hnguistics、 Iill,itis to bc h。 pcd,cncouragc lin思 uistical1y oricntcd丈hcorists to1noⅤ c bcⅤ ° nd scntcncc~rcstrictcd translation thcOries to the m。 rc cornPlex task。 f devcl~

’ oping text_rank(or“ rank-frce’ )the。 ries

3.1.2.2.4 F。 urdl,there

arc rexr FΨ e(or discoursc tyPc)rcs‘

ricε

ed rJlcOI1es,dcaling with thc

Problcm of translating spcci⒒ c tyPCS Or gcnrcs of lingual n1cssagcs, Authors and

188

JAMEs s HOLM ES

1tcrary sch° lars haⅤ c l。 ng conccrncd thcmsclⅤ cs 、 vith thc Pr° blclus intrinsic t° translating litcrary texts or specinc gcnres。 f litcrary tcxts; thC0l° gians, sirnila1ˉ ly, haⅤ c dev。 ted

much attention to questions° f hovv t° translate thc Biblc and od1cr sacrcd、 orks In rcccnt ycars somc cff° rt has bcen rnadc to(lcⅤ cl。 P a sPcci⒔ c thc° ry for the translation。 f scienti丘 c tcxts Allthcse studies brcak do、 n,h° Ⅵ:cⅤ er,bccausc

rmalthc。 ry of mcssagc,tcxt,c)r disCoursc tyPcs Both likc a f° of t)Pcs °fc。 lllllluniCation, as furthcr dc、 clopcd by the Pra思 ue

Xl C still lack anythiI1ε

Buhlcr’ s thc° ry

structurahsts,and thc deΠ nitions oflanguagc varictics arriⅤ cd at by linguists particula11y of thc British school ProⅤ

ide material for criteria in dc⒔

ning tcxt types that

、 v° uld lcnd thcmsclvcs t° 。 Pcrati° nahzati° n1nore aPtly than the inconsistcnt and n1utually contradictory(lcnniti。

ns。 r traditi。 nal genre thcories. ()n thc Othcr hand,

thc tra(litional thc。 rics cannot be i8n。 rcd,f° r they continuc t。

creating the exPectation criteria of translati。

n readers. Als。

Play a largc Part in

requirin思 study is thc

iluPortant qucstion of text~tyPe ske、 Ⅴing or shifting in translati° n

3.1.2.2.5 FiRh,there arc r1fllc-rCsFIicrCd芒 hCohes, Ⅵˉ hich hll into t、 0tyPcs∶ thCOries regardin: thc translation。 f contcmporary texts, and thc° ries haⅤ ing t。 (lo、 vith thc transla-

tion° f tcxts fr。 1Il an oldcr Period, Again therc、

v° uld

sccn1t° bc a tcndcncy to

prcscnt onc ofthc thc° ries,that haⅤ ing to do、 vith contcn11)orary tcxts,in thc思 uise of a gcncral thcOry;the othcr,thc thc° ry of、 vhat can pcrhaPs bcst bc callcd cr° ss~ ten△

P°

ral translatior1, is a :】

】 attcr that has lcd t° much disagrecn1cnt, Particularly

among litcrarⅡ y orientcd theorists,but t。

fc、 f

gcncrally、 ahd c。 nclusions

3.1.2.2.6 Fh1ally,thcrc arc Pr° ′ rCsFricred c刀 ⒈ l・

onc

cs,thcOrics vvhich coninc thcmsclvcs t。

rl,c° '氵

or rnorc sPcciHc Pr。 blcms、、ithi11thc cntirc area of general translati。

nt11eor),Prob~ lcms that can rangc 〔 ion1such broad and l)asic qucstions as the lhnits° f、・ aliancc and inⅤ ariancc in translation or thc naturc of translati。 n cquivalcncc(or,as I should prcfcr to call it,translation n1atching)to such m° rc sPcciHc mattcrs as thc translation of ryletaPh° rs° r° f ProPcr namcs

3.1.2.3 It should bc n。 tcd that thc° ries can分 cqucntly bc rcstrictcd in1norc than°

nc、vay

ContrastiⅤ c linguists intcrcstcd in translation, f° r instance, 、 vill Probably Pr。

ducc

thcOrics that arc not only languagc-rcst1・ ictcd but rank~and ti⒈ nc-rcstrictcd,ha、

i11g

to do、 vith translati° ns bct、 vccn sPeci⒔ c PairS of c。 ntclnPorary temPoral chalccts at

Γ 11c sentencc rank, 冂

the° rics。 f litcrary sc11olars, si111ilarly, usually arc1ˉ estrictcd as

to rncdiun△ and tcxt tyPe,and gcncrally also as t。 t°

culturc grouP;thCy normally havc

do、 vid1、vrittcn tcxts、 vithin thc(cxtCndcd)Westcrn litcrary tradition This does

not ncccssarily reducc the、 v° rth。 f such Partial the° ries,for cvcn a thcOrctical、 tudy

砜

THE NAME AND NATURE OF TRANsLATION sTUDIEs

189

vaⅤ ~saⅤ a thcorⅤ of thc manncr in、 vhich sub° rdinatc clauscs 、 vritten Enghsh— can in contcmporary GCrman noⅤ cls should bc translatcd int。、 haⅤ c imPhcations for thc m° rc思 cncral thcory to、 vards、 vhich sch° lars must surcly 、 vork It、 v° uld be、visc, though, not to losc sight of such a truly8cncral thcory,

rcstrictcd in cⅤ crⅤ

and、 viscr still not to suCCun△ 1)to thc dclusion that a b。

dⅤ

of restrictcd the°

ries~

for instancc,a comPlex。 flanguage-rcstrictcd thcOrics。 fho、v to translatc scntcnccs ~can bc an adequatc substitutc for it,

3.2 ARcr this rapkl°ⅤcrⅤ icw of the t、 vo】 uain branches° f Purc1ˉ escarch in translatiom studies, I should likc t。 turn to that branch° f thc disciPhnC、 vhich is, in Bacon’ s ‘ 、 Ⅴ°rds,“ °f usc” rathcr than‘ °f hght’ ` aPphcd translation studics,15 3.2.1 In this disciPhnc,as in so luany othCrs,thc nrst thing that comcs to n1ind、 vhcn。 nc consi(lcrs t11c apPhcations that cxtcnd bcyond thc lilnits of thc disciphnc itsclf is that° f tcaching Actually,tbc tcaching of translating is of t、

vo tyPCs、 vhich nccd t。

bc carcfully chstinguishcd, In the° ne case, translating has bccn uscd f° r centuries as a techniquc in f° rcign-language teaching and a tcst° f forci8n languagc acquisi~

tion I shall rcturn to this tyPe in a Inomcnt In thc sccond Casc, am° re reccnt PhCn。 men。 n,translating is taught in sch° 。ls and c。 urscs to train Professi° nal transf rrdnsFdFo' rrdininf, has raised a numbcr of lat。 rs This scc° nd situati° n, that 。 qucsti。 n that fairly c1・ yf。 r ans、 vcrs∶ quCstions that haⅤ c n△ eth°

ds,tcsting tcchniqueS,and curriculun△

t。

do Pri1narny vvith tcaching

Planning It is obⅤ

i。

us that thc scarch

忆rwd⒈ bundcd,rdhble answσ s to these qucsdons con呲 ittltes a m句 or tarca(and 忆r tllc time bong,ade小 t,rh召 m句 or arCa)。 f ⅡsCarch in aPPlied tlanslati。 n虻 ttclics.

3.2.2 A sccond, closcly rclatcd arca has t° d。、:ith thc nccds f° r translati° n aids, l)oth lor usc in translator training and to mcct thc rcquircmCnts of thc PractiSin8trans~ lat°

r, The nceds are lnany and Ⅴari° us, but fall largcly into t、 vo Classcs: (1)

lcxico8raPhical and tcrn1inological aids and(2)gra∏ 11nars,Both thcsc classcs of ai(ls havc traditionally bccn proⅤ idcd by sch° lars in° thcr,rclatcd disciPhncs,and it c°

uld

hardly bc argucd that、 vork on thcrll sh。 uld be takcn° Ⅴcr in roFO as arcas of aPPhcd translation studics But lcxic° 8raPhical aids often fall far sh。 rt° f translati° n needs, and comtrastiⅤ e gran11nars clcveloped for languagc-acquiSition purPoscs are not rcally

an adequate Substitutc for varictyˉ 1narkcd translati° n-n1atching gra∏ 1rnars, 1^hcrc would scem to be a need hr schc,lars lt△

appllt・

d translation s仅

lclks t【 ,clao、

and

dcHne the sPCci丘 c requircments that aids。 f thcsc kinds sh。 uld fulhl if thcy arC t。 meet thc nccds of Practisi11g and PrOsPective translat°

rs,and to、 vork together、 vith

lcxicol。 gists and contrastiⅤ c li11guists in(lcvcl° Ping thcn△

190 JAMEs s HOLMES 3.2.3 A third arca° f aPPlicd translation studics is that of Fr口

ns/c,rj°

nòìcy.Tl1c task。 fthc

translation sch° lar in this area is to rendcr inf° rmcd adⅤ icc to othcrsin dc⒔ ning thc place and lôle of translators, translating, and translations in s。

cicty at largc∶

such

qucstions,lor instance,as detcrn1ining、 vhat、 vorks nccd t。 bc translatcd in a givc11

“.hat thc s。 cial and ccon° n1ic P。 siti° n。 f the translator is and should bc,or(and hcrc I return to thc P。 int raiscd ab° ve)飞 Ⅴhat Part translating socio-cultural situation,

should Play in t11e teaching and learning of foreign languagcs In regard to that last Pohcy question,since it sh° uld hardly be the task。 f translati° n studics t° abct thc usc of translat1ng in places vvherc it is dysfunctional, it、 v。 uld seeln t。 mc tl△ at Priority should bc8iⅤ cn to cxtensiⅤ e and rigorous rcscarch to asscss the efscacy of translating as a techniquc and tcsting lncthod in languagc lcarning η Γ 11c chancc that it is not cfncaci。 us 、、ould aPPcar to bC S° grcat tbat in d)is casc it ilnPcrativc for Pro8ran】

1・

、 Ⅴoukl sccm

Csearch to be Prcccdcd by Pohc) rescarch

3.2.4 Af° urt11,quitc diffcrcnt arca of aPPhcd translation studics is that of rr￠ icism ThC lCⅤ cl of such criticisn△

is today still frcqucntly vcry lo、

nsFdrion cr1F-

v, and in many

vid1in thc scld of translation cloPments 、 studics D。 ubtlcss the activitics of translati° n intcrPrctation and cvaluation Ⅵ1ll al、 vays elude thc grasp of objccti、 c analysis to somc cxtcnt, and so continuc to countrics still quitc unin∏ uenced by (lCⅤ

rcHcct thc intuitivc, in△ PreSsi。 nist attitudcs and stanccs of the critic But closcr bet、 veen translati° n sch° lars and translation critics could d。 a great dcal t°

reduce the intuitive elcment to a morc acctablC leⅤ

cl

3.3.1 ARcr this bricf survey of thc n△ ain branches °f translati° n studics, thcrc arc t、 vo furthcr poi】 1ts that I sh。 uld likc to makc The Hrst is this: in vvhat1】

dcscriPtivC,thC。 rctical,and aPPhcd transIati° n studics ha、

as Prccedcd,

csCnted as thrce fairly disti11ct branchcs。 f thc cntirc disciPhnc,and t11c Ordcr of PrCSCntation n1ight be taken t。 sug8est d△at their imP°

rt f° r。nc

c bccn l)1・

anothcr is unidircctional,translation

n suPplying thc basic data upon、 vhich translati。 n the° ry is to bc built, and thc t、・ °of theln Pr。 vi(hng thc schola1・ ly⒔ ndings、 l)ich arc to bc Put t。 usc in

descriPti。

aPPhCd translati。 n studics In rcahty, of c。 ursc, thc rclati° n is a ("aIcctical onc,

rJ扩

e拷

丬:gtWT扌 i扌岁 Ⅰ拙 T:∶ ;:ki∶: instance, cannot do、 ith° ut thc s° hd,sPeciHc data yicldcd by rcsearch in descriPtivc and aPPhCd translation studics,、 vhile。 n thc Other11and° ne cannot cvcn bcgin 盅

芯 Ti1al;∶ ⒒ 嬲 `Ⅰ

to、Vork in one ofthc othcr t、 vo iClds、 vithout havin:at lcast an intuitive the。

rct-

ical hypod1csis as one’ s starting Point ln Ⅴicxsr 。f this (lialcctical rclati。 nship, it f° ll。

、 vs that, though thc nccds of a givcn momcnt1nay

Ⅴary, attCntion to a⒒ three

branchcs is required if the disciPhnc is to gro、 :and flourish

THE NAME AND NATURE OF TRANSLATION STUDIEs

191

3.3.2 Thc sccond point is that,in cach of the thrcc branchcs of translati° n studics,thcrc er chmcnsi° ns that I havc 11° t mcntioncd, di1ncnsions haⅤing to do 、 vith thc study, not of translating and translati。 ns, but of translation studics itself, arc t、 vo 111rd△

Onc。 ft11csc dhncnsions is】 1istorica⒈ thcre is a Held° f thc historv° f translation thcory, in、 hich s。 111c`・ aluablc、 v。 rk11as l)ccn d。 11c, l)ut als。 °nc of d1c hist° ry of translation(lcscription and。 f apPhcd translau° n studies(largCly a history of trans~ Ⅴirgin tcrrit° ry, ∏1ight bc callcd thc mcth。 dological or meta-

lation tcaching and translat。 r training)both of、 vluch are fairly、 vell Likc、visc therc is a di1nension that

thcOrctical, conccrning itsclf、 vith Pr。 blCn1s。 f、vhat lnethods and modc】 s can best

ˉ ics, Ⅴarious branchcs° ft11e disciPhnC(h° 、・ translation thc° 】・忆r instancc,can bc forn1cd br greatest、 ahdity,。 r、 hat analytic lncthods can bcst bc uscd in rcscarch in thc

be uscd t。 achevc tlac most objcctive an(l mealllng凡 l dcscr” tivc rCstllts),t)ut also dcvoting its attcntion to such basic issucs as、

vhat thc(hsciPhnC itsClf comPrises・

Tbis PaPer haS madc a fe、・excursions into thc⒒ rst° f thcse t、 v。 (hn)cnsions, but all in all it is llaeant to bc a contril)ution to the scc。 nd It docs n° t ask ab。 vc all for agrccn1cnt Translati。 n studics has rcachcd a stagc Ⅵ hcrc itis tiluc to cxan1inc thc subjcct itsclf Lct thc mcta~discussion l,cgin

Notes Vritten in August1972,this Papcr is PrcsCntcd in its second Pre^Pub⒈ cation 、 reⅤ isions DcsPitC the intcrvcning ycars,m° st 。f〗 aly rcmarks can,I bchcve, stand as thcy、 vcre formulated,th。 ugh in onc or t、 ol)laCcs I′ vould Phrase mattcrs somc、 vhat dif「 crcntly if I wcrc、 vriting t。 day In scction 3 1 2 24,for instancC,subsequcnt dcvcl° pmcnts in tcxtual hnguistics,PaIˉ ticularly in Gern1any,arc n° te、 Ⅴord1y More dircctly relcⅤ ant,

brm with。 nly a kw哎 ylistic

the dcarth° f rneta~rcHecti° n on the naturc of translati° n studics,rcfcrred to at thc bcginning of sccti° n 3, is somc、vhat lcss striking today than in 1972,

again thanks largcly to Gcrman scholars Pardcularly 1・ clcvant is Wol仔 am ‘ Wilss’ s as yct unPubhShcd paPcr‘ Met11odischc Problen1e(lcr allgcmeh1cn und angc、、 andtcn LIl)crsctzungsll:issenschaft’

st11dics hcld in Gcrmershcim,、 Ⅴcst

n

Gcmany,31May1975 `rcad at a colloquiutn

on translati°

“ Cukural Gr。、・ th in sCicncc” , in Barry Ban、 ess (ed,), ・ socio`‘ 丿 s。 cn∞ ∶scFec‘ ed Rc口 cJ1叼 s(H盯 mon(lsw∝ tll,MⅡ dl“ cx:Pcngon; 乙 Modcrn s° 0t,logy Rcachngs),PP 126^141 (abHdgcd rrlllt of“ somc Michacl A/1ulkay, ,‘

o/ˉ

A丬 ’ cctS °f cultural Gr0、 vth in dη c Natural scicnccs’

’

, ~SOcj口

[19691,No,1),qt】。tau。 nP 136 see e g 、 V O Hagstrom,“ Thc Diffcrentiation of DisciPlincs’ ’ ,in Barnes,

` Rc,ctIrC/,, 36

PP 121-125("Printed△ Basic Books, 1965】

4

Hagstrom,P 123

。m Ha:strom,TJle ScicnF彡

c Coi,lIl,1氵

nt厂

[NCw York∶

,PP 222-226)

Herc and thr。 ughout, thcsc tcrn1s arc uscd onl) in thc strict sc11sc of intcrhngual translati11g and translati。 n, (Dn the thrcc tyPcs 。f translati。 n in thc br。 adcr scnse of the v￠

。rd, intrahngual, intcrhngual, and intcrsen1iotic, scc

192 JAMEs s HOLMEs R。 man B1ˉ

Jakobs。 n, “On Linguisuc AsPccts 。f Translation” , in Reuben A,

owcr(cd),On Tr'刀 J口 rj@n(Cambridgc,Mass∶

ˉ

Ht△rà】 d tInivc1ˉ

1959),PP 232^-239 Rogcr GofHn,‘ ‘ P°

〕泔】黥 7

〖

ur une forn1ati° 11univcrsitairc sui8enc1・

F11Ι

g宵

is、

sity Prcss,

(lu traducteur;

e岁 ∶∶ 兄 :漱骂扩 ∷ 罚丨轼犭 :罗 cX∶

c

lⅠ

scc thc Hagstron△ quotation in scctjon 1 1 ab° ve

8

。嚣点 ∮

lF井

Υ

挡

T∶

蛋

扌碳

Eugcnc Nida,rc,⒃

10

i弼 Ⅰ

ir∶ 芏瑕 ; s`c0d′ R咖 ″n∝ ∞ PiJn。 9Ft,s

⒒

rds d s。 en“ 犭乃dns`jrin卩 ,'"汕口ncf P'。 ccdurcs Jn1・ o`vcd jn B氵卜 LIrjn卩 (Leiden∶ BrⅡ l, 1964) ‘ è rrtIns丿 Cf Nida’ s latcr cnh思 htcning rcmark。 n his use。 f the tern△ ∶‘ thc science of translation(。 r,pCrhaPs n1° rC accuratcl) statcd,thc scicntifc dcsciiP‘ 丿 tln° f thc ’ ‘ ‘ sscS involⅤ ed in translating)’ Scicncc。 f Trans】 atl° n” , EugCnc A Nida, Proc召 r'dn卩 u‘ vc,4511969],483-498,qu° tation P 483n 1;1ny ltalics)

,

11

Klc⒏ f,arld Wd△ all)Wilss,Tfle s。 εncc J

Κ -、 cllaltl BaLlst。 h,Josef

TrdnH口历onj△ n Ⅱn矽 ric￠ FB沾九 rd`△ 叼

(T。 l,ln姿 n∶

Tihngσ Bcit吒姿

⒛r

`。 1 1 (197o;TBL,No 21)c。 vCrs thc)cars 1962 1969;、 ′ Linguisuk) 、 ol H

(1972;TBL,No 33)thC ycars 1970-1971 PluS a suPPlcmcnt° vCr thc years CoⅤ cred bⅤ thc irst、 °lun1c

12

、 Verncr

Koller,“ tibersct7cn,tIbcrsetzung und tIl)ersctzcr Zu sd1wcdischc11

symposicn讧 bcr

Pr° blcmc dcr Jbcrsetzung”

c铱

1愚展扌

, B口 bc',

17 (1971), 311, qu。 ta-

找z:准 c少 PJ七 :r1拣瑟 lsJu 沈 σ Γsym№ m、韫∵骰、± :湾跟氵丫 "lllaIl hndε F摺 :℃ TeLf亻卩叩弘 :胃乾点 f留 :T】￥ ♀ 找苕 ::∶ c天 c芭

J∶

\iI∶

:∴

r瑟

;:;∴

}夂

{,3∶

:∶

l了

l∶

/′

i

∶琵 :熙氵 a1扌旱滢 ::Jf且〓冱∶l\i&rl}‰ i1鼎1叩 ii=丿 ’ 垦孓 rf℃ 兢厶 fll;:齐甘 ;僬螂 :1;t∶ 孓、 ck∶

14

:l;{Ⅰ

:∴

}∶

`right(ed,),

I1∶

5冫

;IⅠ1d∶

:【1∶

`盖

:〖 ;li且

:ually not bct、 fccn t、 v° tyPcs° f rcscarch in thc

Chapter 16

George ste∶ ner

THE HERhllENEUTIC MOTION

HE HERMENEuTIC MOTION,thc act。

f clicitati°

na11(l al)ProPria

tivc Janskr° f meaning,is允 u1・陀ld Thcrc is initiative trust,an investmcnt o{ bchef, undcr、 vrittcn by prcvi° us cxpcrience but istem。 logically cxposcd and ‘ ’ Psychologically hazard° us,in thc mcaningfulncss,in thc‘ scriousncss’ 0f thC facing or,strictly sPcaking,adⅤ crsc tcxt,Wc Venturc a leap:、 vc grant db in`rio that therc d,that thc transfer、 vill not bc Ⅴoid All undcris“ so1nething thcre” to bC undcrst。。 hich is translation, standing, and the dcm° nstrativc statcmcnt of undcrstandin8Ⅵ ・ ith an act oftrust This con⒔ ding、 1ll,ordinarily,bc instantancOus and un~ Ⅵ厂 n】 PlCx base lt is an oPerativc convcntion、 Ⅴhich dcriⅤ cs fr。 m a scqucnce °fI,11cn。 lncnological assumPti° ns about d1c c。 hcrence 。f tl`c 、 v。 rld,about thc Prcsencc。 f rncani11g in、 cry different,perhaps formally antithetical semantic systcms, about thc Ⅴahdity 。f analogy and pa1・ allcl Thc radical gcncrosity of thc translator C‘ I grant bcf° rchand that thcrc n1ust bc s。 mcthing starts

cxalnincd, l)ut it has a c°

’

‘

thcrc’ ), hiS trust in thc‘ other” ,

as yct untricd, unmaPPCd altcrnity of statCmcnt, ConCcntratcs to a Phnos。 Phically dramatic(lcgrec the human bias t0、 vards sccing

thc、 vorld as syn)l)ohc、

as constitutcd of rclatiOns in、 vhich“ this” can stand for“ that”

and mustin hct bc ablc t°

d° s°

,

if tbcrc are to bc mcanin8s and structures

But the trust can neⅤ er bc hnal Itis bctrayCd,trivially,by nonscnse,by thc discoⅤ ery that“ there is nothing thcrc” Concr忿

t。

ehcit and translatc.N。 nscnsc rhy1nes,P。舀 sie

rc,glossolaha arc untranslatable bccausc they arc lcxically non~c。 ∏11nuniCativc

or delibcrately insigni⒔

cant Thc comnlltmcnt of trust will,h。 wc、 cr, bc tested,

morc Or lcss sc、 crcly,alSo in the col,△ lη on run and Pr° ccss of languagc acquisition

and translation(d1ct`vo being inthnatcly conncctcd) 1975

“

This rneans nothing” asscrts

194

GEORGE sTElNER

the exasPcratcd chⅡ d in front。 f his Lath1readcr。 r thc bcginncr at Bcrhtz Thc

scnsation comes 、cry

°f a blank, sloPing Surfacc 、 vhiCh thers giⅤ cs n。 purchase s° cial inccntive, thc ofHci。 us eⅤ idencc of precedcnt ~“ 。 —kcs onc at thC task,But thc donahave n1anagcd to translatc this bit bcf° rc you” — cl。 Se to bcing tactilc, as

tion oftrust rcmains ontologically sP°

ntanc° us and anticiPatcs Proof,often by a lon思

,

/altcr Bcnja∏ 1in,、 Ⅴhich、 Ⅴill bc translatcd only arduous gap(thcre are tcxts, says、、 ’ “ aftc1・ us’ ) As he sCtS Out, thc translator Fuust gamblc on thc c° hcrcncc, 。 n thc syn引 )ohc plcnitude of tbc 、 vorld c。 nc。 mitantly hc lca、 cs hirnsclf 、ulnerablc,

though only in extren1ity and at thc thc。 rctical edge, to t、 V0dialcctically relatcd,

mutually dctcnnincd mctaPhysical risks Hc may⒔

nd that“ anything” or“ ahuOst

anything” can rncan“ c、 erything” This is thc Ⅴ crtigo()f scl⒏ sustaining rnctaPh。 ric° r anal° gic

enchainmcnt eXPcriCnccd by medicval cxcgctists Or hc may fnd that therc

is“ notl)ing

thcrc” lI.hiCh Can bc di、 0rccd hˉ oln its forn1al auton。 my,that every lη can-

ing`Ⅴ orth cxPrcsSing is:n。 nadic and、

:Ⅱ

l not cntcrinto any alternatiⅤ c rnould Thcrc

is Kabbahstic spcculation,to、 vhich I wil】 rcturn,about a day on、 Ⅴhich、 v。 rds、 Ⅳill ‘ shakc()ff‘ thc l)urdcn。 f haⅤ ing to mcan” and Ⅵill l)c。 nly thCmselvcs, l)lank and rePletC as stonc

ARcr trust comcs aggression The second m。 ve° f an(l cxtractive Thc1ˉ

cleⅤ ant

the translat。 r is incu1ˉ

siⅤ c

analysis is that of Heidegger`vhen hc focuscs our attcn-

tion on undcrstanding as an act,on thc acCcss,inherently aPPr° Priativc and tbcrcf° rc ‘ vi° lcnt,。 f￡ r芡 cnr,Fn氵 sto Dds召 in Dd-scin,the‘ thing therc” ,“ the thing that is bccausc it is there” ,

°nly comcs into authcntic bcing、Ⅴhcn

it is c・

o1nPrchCndcd, i c trans-

latcd,1 Thc P° stulatc that all c° gnition is aggressiⅤ c, that evcry ProPositi。 n is an inroad on thc、 v° rld,is,of coursc,Hcgchan Itis Hci(lcggcr’ s contril)ution to l)aⅤ c sho、 :11that undcrstanding, rec° gnition, intcrPrctati。 n arc a con△ PactCd, unaⅤ oid_ 「 e can1nodulate Hcidcg8cr’ s insistcncc that undcrstanding is ablc1n。 dc of attack,、、

‘

not a mattcr of rneth° d but。 f Pri1nary being, that‘ bcing consists in thc under~

standing of othcr bcing” into thc morc naiⅤ c, hn】 itcd aⅩ iom that cach act of c° mPrehensi。 n must aPPr。 P。 atC an。 thc1ˉ entity(、vc translatc in‘ o) Con1prchen~ ‘ ’ sion, as its ctymology sho`vs,‘

c。 n1PrChcnds’

n° t only cognitivcly l)ut l)y cncirclc~

mc11t and ingcstion. In thc cvcnt of interlingual translation this manocuⅤ re of comPrchCnsi。 n is exPlicitly inⅤ as亓 c and cxhaustive saint Jcromc uses his hmous ‘

i1nage of n△ caning brought h。 mc captiⅤ c by thc translator We‘ brcak” a codc∶ dcci~

phcrment is disscctive,lcaⅤ ing the shcll snlasl)cd and thc、 1tal laycrs striPPcd・ EⅤ cry

°lch‖ d,but als° thc cn1incnt translator,、 vill n° tc thc shiR in substantivc Pres_ encc、vhich f° ll° 、 vs° n a Protracted or difhcult cxcrcisc in translati° n: the tcxt in thc。 ther languagc has l)cc。 mc ahnost】 natcrially thinncr, thc li:ht sCCn1s to unhindcred through its loosencd6bres For a sPcll the density of hostilc° r scduC‘ tiⅤ c‘ ° therncss” is dissiPatcd Ortcga y Gassct sPcaks of thc sadncss。 f thc translat° r aRer%dul℃ Thcrc is also a saclncss aRer succcss,thC Augustinian rrjsε 丿、、 hiCh Fj‘ Ι foll。、 vs on thc cognatc acts of crotic and of intcllcctual P° sscssi0n, sch°

Thc translat。 r invadcs, cxtracts, and brings hon△ e Thc sirnile is that 。f the 。PCn^cast1uinc lcft an cmpty scar in thc landscaPc As、 :e shall see,this〈 lcsP° ha。f thc tion is illus° ry or is a1nark of falsc translation But again, as in thc case translator’

s trust,thcrc are genuinc b。

bccn cxhausted by translatiol1 Far m°

rdc1ˉ linc

cascs, Ccrtain tcxts or gcnres have

rc intcrcstingly,othcrs haⅤ c bcen ne8ated l)y

ˉ trans⒔ guration,by an act。 f aPPr° P】 iatiⅤ c Penetration and transfcr in excess of thc

∷目巴唇 -i甚

I繁 ;

.


195

rdcrcd, morc acsthctically Plcasing, Thcrc arc originals original, morc °

、 ve no

longcr turn to bccausc the translation is of a highcr rnagnitude(thc sonncts of Louise vill Labo aRcr Rilkc’ s tJilldichrunf), I 、

c°

mc back to this Parad。 x of bctrayal by

augmcnt The third moⅤ cmcnt is incorPorativc, in thc stron思 scnsC of thc 、 Ⅴord The mcaning and offor∏ 1,thc cmbodirncnt,is notrnadc in orinto a vacuum Thc nativc scmantic丘 cld is alrcady cxtant and cr° 、 Ⅴdcd. Thcre are innumcrablc shadings of assirnⅡ ati° n and PlaccmCnt of thc nc、 vly acquircd, ranging △om a c° mPlCtc domcstication, an at-homcncss at thc c。 rc °f the knd 、 vhich cultural irnP。 rt,of

history ascribcs to,say,Luthcr’

s Biblc° rròrth’ s Plutarch,all thc、 vay to the Perma-

’

ncnt strangcncss and1uarginahty of an artifact such as Nab° k° Ⅴs“ Enghsh-languagc”

’

Onq″ n・ But 、 vhatcvcr thc dcgrec of“ naturahzati。 n’ , thc act 。fimP。 rtation can tentially(hslocatc or rcl。 catc the、vholc。 f thc nativc structure.The Heidcggcrian P°

“ Vn being is modiHcd by Cach 、 ve arc、 Ⅴhat、 vc undcrstand t° be” entails that。 ur°、 occurrcncc of comprchcnsivc aPproPriati。 n, No languagc, no traditional symbohc sct or culttlral cnsemblc imPor“ without1・ lsk° f bcing tlans忆 rmcd,Here tw°

hmi

hcs of rnctaphor,Probably rclatcd,。 ffcr thcmsclⅤ cs,that of sacramcntal intakc or incarnation and that° f infecti。 n Thc incrcmcntal Ⅴalucs of c。 lllllaunion piⅤ ot on thc moral, spiritual statc °f thc rcciPicnt・ Though all(lcciPhcrmcnt is aggrcssivc and, at onc lcⅤ cl, dcstructiⅤ e,thcrc arc diffcrcnccs in thc motivc of appr°

priation

and in the c。 ntext of“ the bringing back” , Whcrc thc natiⅤ c matrix is dis。 ricntcd

、 vill not snd a Pr° Pcr locale vill not cnrich, it 、 f mimicry(FrCnch nc。 ~ It will gencrate not an intcgral rcsPonse but a wash° Ⅴcrsions) There can be dassicisln in its north~EuroPcan, Genual), and Russian contagi° ns of holity triggcrcd by the antlquc or R)rcign imPort ARCr a timc,thc vdl rcact, cndeaⅤ 。uring to ncutrahze or exPcl thC f° rcign body natiⅤ c organis1η 、 or iln1naturc, thc irnportation

1uch。 f Europcan romanticisln can bc sccn as a riPostc t° this sort of infecti° n,as an attemPt t° Put an Cn11)argo on a Pleth° ra。 f foreign,rnainly Frcnch cightcenth_

rˇ

ccntury g° ods In cvery Pidgin、 vc scC an attcmPt t° PreSCrvc a zonc of natiⅤ c sPeech non)ically cnf° rccd and a failurc of that attcmPt in thc facc of Pohdcally and ec° hnguistic invasion 1ˉ hc dialcctic of cmb。 dirncnt entails thc P° ssibility that、 vc luay

bc consumcd, This dialcctic can bc sccn at thc lcvcl° f indiⅤ idual sensibilitⅤ Acts。 f transla-

tion add to our1ncans;vvc comc to incarnatc altcrnativc cncrgics and rcsOurccs of 、cling,But wc mayl)c mastcrccl an(l ma(lc lamc by what wc haⅤ c importcd Thcre are translators in、 vhonl thc、・ cin of pcrsonal,original crcati° n gocs dry l讯 acKcnna y submcrging his o、 vn bcing Writcrs havc ccascd 分om Ⅴ°icc。 fthc f° rcign tcxt had CC)了 nC to Chokc thcir o、 vn Socicties、 Ⅴ ith ancient but cr° ded istclrllol° gics of ritual and sⅤ mbol can be knocked。 ff balance and madc t° l° sc behcfin thcir° sx n idcntity undcr thc voracious ilnpact of Prcmature 。r indigcstiblc assirnilation, The cargo cults of Ncw Guinca,in which thc nauⅤ cs w。 rship what缸 rPlanCs b0ng in, SPCakS 。f

Pl。 tinus literaⅡ

translation, son1cti1nes too latc, bccausc thc inhalcd

Pr。 vidC

an uncannily cxact,ran1i付 cd imagc。 f thc risks of translation,

This is。 nly anothcr、 Ⅴay of saying that thc hcrmcncutic motion is dangerously

incomPletc,that it is dangcrous because it is incomPlete,if it lacks its fourth stagc, thc Pist° n~strokc, as it、 vere, Ⅵ:hich completcs thc cyclc, The a-Pri° riStic move_

mcnt of trust puts us off balancc Wc‘

‘

’

lcan t° 、 vards’ thc c° n【 l° nting text(eⅤ ery

196

GEORGE sTE1NER

Ⅴards and launching at his target) Wc cncirclc and invadc c° 8nitiⅤ ely.Wc con△ c homc laden,thus again off balancc, ‘ havin8causCd(liscquilibrium throughout thc systcn1by taking a、 translator has exPerienced this Palpablc bcnding to、

vay fr° m‘ thc Othcr”

and by addin:, th° u8h P。 Ssibly 、 vith ambiguous conscqucncc, to our oVVn Thc vo仔 Ltilt.Thc hcrmcncutic act rnust co1npcnsatc Ifitis to be authentic, systcm is n° 、 it rnust rncdiatc int° cxchangc and rcstorcd Parity The cnact1uent of rcciI)rocity in ordcr to rcstorc balancc is the crux° f thc moticr and rnorals° f translati° n Butitis vcry difscult to Put abstractly The aPPr°

‘

priatiⅤe‘ raPturC” of thc translator - the

^

、 vord has in it, of course, thc root and

meaning of Ⅴiolent transport~lcaves the 。riginal 、 vith

a dialcctically enig1uatic

rcsidue, Unquestionably thcrc is a di1nensi° n of loss, °f brcakagc~hcnce, as、 vc

havc sccn, thc fear °f translation, thc tab。。s on rcⅤ clatory exP° rt 、 vhich hedgc sacred tcxts,ritual non1inations,and f° rmulas in luanⅤ culturcs But thc rcsiduc is c Thc 、 Ⅴ。rk translatcd is cnhanced, This is s° at a

also, and dccisiⅤ cly, positiⅤ

numbcr。 f

fairly obⅤ

ious levels Bcing methodical,PcnctratiⅤ c,analytic,enumcra_

tivc,thc Proccss0f translati。 n,likc all rnodcs of f° cuscd undcrstanding,、 vill dctail,

illuminc,and gcnσ d|body folth its。匀cct ThC Over determinaton oftl△ e intcr ‘

PrCtative act is inhcrently inflati° nary: it Proclairns that‘ thcre is m。 rc hcrc than mccts thc cⅤ c” ,that“ thc acc。 rd bet、vccn content and exccutiⅤ c f° rm is closcr,rn° rc ” Vorth trans~ dchcatc than had bcen obscrⅤ cd hithcrt° , To class a sourcc-tcxt as 、

lating“ to d唿血灯 k immcdlatdy and to hvolⅤ c止 lll a dynamic of maglllH∞ latcr rcⅤ icw

(subjcct,naturally,t。

don

and cven,Pcrhaps,(lismissal),ThC m。 uon of

°f the original I△ ist。 rically, in 。f cultural c° ntext, of the Pubhc it can rcach, thc lattcr is lcR morc Prcstigious,

transfcr and Paraphrasc cnlar:cs thC stature

But this incrcasc has a morc imPortant, cxistcntial PCrsPcctivC, Thc rclations of a

Ⅴariants,cⅤ en ParodiCS,arc too diⅤ crsc t。 allo、 v 。 f amy Single thcorctic, dc丘 nitional scheme They catcgorizc thc cntirc question of the meaning of lucaning in ti1ne, of thc existcncc and cffccts °f thc hnguistic fact。 utside its sPeci丘 c,initial form But there can bc no(loubt that ccho tCXt to its translati° ns,in1itations,thcmatic

cnrichcs, that it is more than shado、 v and inert silnulacrum Wc arc back at the Pr°

blCΠ 1ofthc n1irr° r、 Ⅴ hich n° t° nly re∏ ects but als° gcneratcs light Thc original

tCxt8ains fr°

n△

the ordcrs° f divcrsc relationshiP and〈 listancc estabhshcd bet、 veen

itsclf and thc translati° ns Thc rcciProcity is dialcctic∶

’

ncvv“ formats’ 。f signi⒔ cance

arc initiatcd l)y distancc and by contiguity. Somc translati。 ns cdgc us alys・ ay from

the canvas,others bring us uP closc This is s° cven VVhcrc,PCrhaPS Cspccially、 vhcrc,thc translati。 n is Only Partly

adequate Thc⒘

s。 f the tlanslat° r(I will giⅤ c

"lin思 ProjCct as° n to a scrccn,thc rcsistant vitahtics,thc。

common cxamPlCS)localizc,dley PaquC cCntrcs ofsPcci丘 c gcnius

in thc Origina1. Hcgcl and Hcidcggcr Posit that bcing must engagc othcr bcing in

ˉ

ordcr t。 achic、 ic sd± dc丘 nition This is truc On|in Pa⒒

oflanguage wⅡ ch,at thc

vn hn1its of diacritical PhonCtic and grammatical lcⅤ cls, can function insidc its °、 difcrcntiation。 But it is Pra8matically truc。 f all but thc ln° st rudnncntary acts。 f

%rm and cxPrCssi()n.E妊 stence in hist。 r)i,thC daim to rec。 gnizable identity(style), arc based On rclations to othcr articulatc c° nstruCts Of such relations,translation is the m。 st graPhic

Nevertheless, therc is unbalancc, Thc translat° r has takcn to°

PaddCd,embroidered,“

read into”

much~he has

°r too little~hc has skirnpcd,ehdcd,cut。

‘

~

ut


197

。utflo、 v of energy fron△ thc s。 urcc and an 、 vh° le inΠ 0Ⅵ厂int0 thc rcctor altcring both and altcring thc harmonics of thc system P芑 guy puts thc mattcr °f incvitablc damagc dc丘 nitivcly in his critique ‘ ‘ a、 vk、

vard c。 rncrs, Thcrc11as bcen an

of Lec。 nte dc Lisle’ s translati。 ns of soPh。 cles:

cC quC la r芑 aht造 nous cnscignC

i1nPitoyal9lcment ct sans aucunc cxcti。 n,c’ cst quc toutc oPoration dc cct ordrc, toutc op誉 ration de d忐 Placcmcnt,sans aucunc cxction,cntra↑ nc irnpitoyablcmcnt

et irrovocablcment unc doPcrdition,unc alt(∶ )ration,ct quc Cctte doPcrdition,ccttc

translation will,thcrc忆 rc,seck to cquahzc, th。 ugh thc mcdiating sts nlay bc lcngthy and obhque VVhcre it falls

alt忐 rati。

n cst t° tllours consid苔 rablc,” 2Gcnuine

short of the° riginal,thc authcntic translation makcs thc autonomous virtues of thc

original m° c Prccisely visiblc(V。 Ss is wcak at charactchstic忆 cal P。 ints in his 1・

Homer, but thc lucid h。 ncsty of his m。 mentary lack l)rings ()ut the aPPr° Priate strengths° fthc Grcek) WhCrc it sureS thc original,thc rcal translation infcrs that the s° urcc-tcxt PosscssCs P0tCntiahtics,clcmcntal rcscrvcs as yct unrcahzcd by

itsclf This is schlcicrmachcr’

‘ s notion of a hcrmcncutic Ⅴ vhich‘ kn° 、is bcttcr than

thc auth° r did” (PauI cclan translating APollinairc’ s sdòm莒 ) Thc idCal, neⅤ cr accomPhshcd,iS° nc oft° tal c° untcrPart° r rc-pctition~an asking again一、 vhich is not,ho、 vcvcr,a tautology No such pcrfcct“ doublc” cxists, But thc idcal lnakcs

exPhcit thC dcmand f° r equity in thc hcrmcncutic proccss, Only in this、 ,ay,I think,can vcc assign substantivc rncaning to thc kcy n。

ti。

n

‘ °f“ Hdehty” Fidchty is not literahslu or any tcchnical(lcvicc for rcndcring‘ sPirit” ic haⅤ er again in discussi。 ns of Thc、vh° le f。 rn△ ulation, as Ⅵ c f° und it° ver and° Ⅴ 9hjr丨 transl汕 on,“ llllPeles心 xt△ E:`】 C The traⅡ lator,thc cxc箩 ust,thc Ⅱatlcr isˇ 丿 nf Fo his tcxt,1nakCs his rcsponsc rcsPonsiblC,。 nly xS-hcn he cndeavours to restore thC balance of f° rces, of intcgral PrcsCnce,、vhiCh his aPProPriativc comPrehension has

disruPted FidChty is cthical,but als。 ,in thc full sense,cConon1ic,By ⅤirtuC° f tact, and tact intcnsihcd is ln。 ral vision,the translator-interpretcr cIˉ catcs a condition of signi丘 cant

exchangc Thc arro、 vs of rncaning,of cultural,Psychological benefaction, moⅤ e both、 -ays, Thcrc is,ideally, exchangc`vithout l° ss In this rcsPCct,transla~ tion can bc Pictured as a negation。 f cntr。 Py; order is Prcscrvcd at both cnds of thc cycle, s° urcc and recePt。 r・ Thc gcncral lnodel herc is that of LoⅤ i~strauss’ s HnrJ,rclP° ′ o召 ic srruc‘ urt,Fe 、 vhich rcgards social structurcs as attempts at dynan1ic v° mCn,and material g° ods cquilibriulll achicⅤ cd thr。 ugh an cxchangc of`vords, 、 All caPturc calls for subscqucnt comPcnsati° n;uttcrancc sohcits rcsPonsc,Cx。 gamy and cnd° gamy arc mcchanisms。 f cquahzing transfcr Within tbc class of scmantic cxchangcs, translation is again thc most graPhic, thc lll。 St radically cquitablc A translator is ablc to the diachr。 nic and sⅤ nchr。 nic mobiIitⅤ and c° nscr~

Ⅴation of thc cnergics of rllcaning A translati。 n is, morc than nguratiⅤ cly, an act of doublc~cntry;both formally and m。 rally thc books nlust balancc This vic、 v of translation as a hcrmcncutic of trust(舀丿 d,,ccn2cnr), of PCnctrati。 n, Ⅴill all° 、 v ust° °ⅤcrComc thc stcrilc triadic of en△ 1)odilnent, and 。f rcstitution, 、 modcl、 vhich has dolllinatcd thc hist。 ry and thcOry of thc subjcct Thc PCrcnnial distincdon bct、 ,ccn htcrahsln, paraPhraSC and frcc i1nitation, turns out to bc 、 vh。 Ⅱy contingcnt It has n° PrCcision or Phil° SoPhic basis It。 vcrl。。ks thc kcy hct that a f° urIold rlcrmcncitI,Aristotle’ s tern△ f° r disc° urse、Ⅳhich signi⒔ cs because it intcrPretS, iS concePtually and Practically inhcrcnt in cⅤ translation

cn d)e rudi1nents ()f

198

GEORGE sTEINER

Notes 1

α

,Pad R∞ mr,℃

妊呲cllcc

d llcm品 ctl“ cltl卩 h

(Paris, 1969) 2

Charlcs P。 guy,“ Lcs suPPhantS ParaⅡ

’ lCs’ in(￡ uΓ rcs 爸

Ιc

Co叨 ir

cn Prclsc′

d召 s

mFe甲油

d冖 ons

s98一丿 90s(Paris,

1959), I,P・ 890 This analysis° F thC art of poctic translati。 n nrst aPPcarcd

in Dc∞ mbcr1905Cf,⒌ m。 ne

PP 146^59

F1・ msse,P匆

吵

cr Fe m。

nde口 nriqu召

(Pa"s,1973),

ii|{峥

ii

Chapter 17

Itamar Eˇ en■ zohar

THE POSITION OF TRANSLATED LITERATURE XA/ITHIN THE

LITERARY POLYSYSTEM Ded`cdFed古 o Fl,e`"e/T,ory of Jarl,es S.

〃o∫ F,,es-a9reaF s古

tJde刀 ‘

of芒 ra刀 S/a‘ ′ ol,a刀 c/ac/ear frè/,c/,

1

I、

l且 ∵

llhⅣ

句l号￡c⒒

:掠

且 J;鞯

Y谳

氵 s踹崴

垮

找

菇

culturcs,rclatiⅤ cly littlc rcscarch has bccn carried out so far in tbis arca As a rulc, hist。

vay to avoid thcn1, rics° f litcratures mcntion translati° ns vvhcn thcrc is n° 、

whcn dcaling with thc Middlc Agcs or thc Rena厶 sancc,Rr instancc,Onc rnight of course⒖ nd sP。 radic rcfcrcnces to indiⅤ iduaI litcrarv translati。 ns in various othcr PCriods,but thcy arc seldom inc° rP° rated into thc hist° rical acc° untin anⅤ cohcrcnt 、 vay Asac。 nscqucncc,° nc hardly gets anⅤ idca、 vhats° cⅤ er ofthe hncti° n° f trans~ lated litcraturc for a literaturc as a、 vhole° r ofits P° sition vvithin that litcraturc, Λ 厅orcovcr,thcrc is no aⅥ ssiblc cxistcncc of translatcd litcraturc as àrcncss ofthc p°

a Particular litcrary systcm Tl△ c PrcⅤ ailing conct is rathcr that of“ translatlon” or

’ just“ translatcd、 v° rks’

trcatcd on an individual basis Is thcrc anⅤ

assun1Ption, that is f° rc° nsidcring translatcd litcrature as a sⅤ

same sort of cultural and

Ⅴcrbal nct、 v。 rk° f

basis f° r a diffcrcnt

stcm? Is thcrc thc sccms t° bc an

rclati。 ns、vithin、 vhat

arbitrary grouP。 f translatcd tcxts as thc Onc、 vc、vilhngly hyPothcsizc f° r° riginal

htcratur What kind° f rclations n】 ight thcrc bc a1nong translatcd Ⅴc° rks, 、 vhich are presented as completed facts, iluported △。m °thcr htcraturcs, dctached fr。 n△

thcir homc contcxts and c° nsequcntly neutrahzed fron△

thc P° int° f ⅤiC、 :° f

center-and~PcriphCry strugglcsP

My扩 gumcnt is that⒍ anslatcd w° rks d° c° rrdate h at lcast tw。 Ways:(a)in thc 、 vaⅤ their s° urcc tcxts arc sclccted by the target literaturc, thc PrinciPlcs of 1978/re∨ ised 1990

200 ITAMAR EVEN-ZOHAR sclcction ncⅤ cr bcing uncorrclatablc、 ith the h° mec。 -systC111s of thc targct litcr_

aturc (to Put it in thc most cautious、 vay); and(b)in the、vay thcy adoPt sPcci⒔ c

norms,bchaⅤ

i° rs, and Pohcies~in short, in thcir use of thc litcrary rcrtoirc~ vhich rcsults fr。 l1△ thcir rclati。 ns、vith thc Othcr110】 ne co-sⅤ stems These are not 、 ell c° nsncd t° thc linguistic lcⅤ cl° nly,but arc luanifcst° n any selcction lcⅤ cl as、 Ⅴ vn, 、 vhich to a certain Thus, translatcd litcraturc may PossCss a rCrtoirc of its。、

cxtcnt could cvcn l冫 c cxclusivc to it (see T°

ury 1985and 1985a)

It sccms that thcsc P° ints1nakc it n° t。 nly justi6ablc t。 talk about translated htcraturc, but rathcr imPcratiⅤ c to(lo s。 I cann。 t sce ho、 v any Sch。 larly cfFort

dcscril)c and cxPlain thC bchavior of thc htcrary PolysystcΠ 1 in synchrony and diachrony can advancc in an adcquatc、 vay if that is n。 t rccognizcd In。 thcr 、 vords, I conccivc of transIatcd htcraturc not only as an integral systcm 、 vithin t°

any litcrary polysystcn1,but as a1nost activc systcm vvithin it But、

、 vithin thc p° lysystcn、 and h。、 Ⅴis

vhat is its position

this P° sition connectcd、 vith thc nature of its

Siti° n °f translatcd litcraturc in thc study of literaturc that it als° Pcrmancntly occuPiCS a pcriPhcral Position in thc ⒈tcrary Polysystcn、 but this is by n° mcans thc vhether casc Whcthcr translatcd htcraturc becomcs ccntral or PcriphCral, and 、 ’ ’ ‘ Secondary’

ovcrall rePcrtoir Onc、 vould bc tcmPtcd t° deducc fr° na thc PeriPhcral P°

this Position is conncctCd、 vith innovatory(“ Prhnary’ )° r conscrⅤ atory(‘

)

rcrtoircs, dends °n t11c sPccinc constcllati。 n of thc Polysysten1 undcr studⅤ

2 To say that translated literaturc maintains a ccntral Position in thc litcrary Polyˉ systcrll mcans that it ParticiPatcs activcly in shaping thc ccntcr of thc Polysystcm In such a situati° n it is by and largc an intcg1・ al part of inn° vatory forces, and as

such likely to bc identined 、 vith n1句 °r

cⅤ Cnts

in hterary history

、 vhilc thcsc arc

taking placc This imphes that in this situation no clcar_cut distinction is rnaintaincd

‘

’

‘

Ⅴritings,and that oRen it is thc lcading、 γ riters 、 (。 r mCmbcrs of thc aⅤ ant gardc who arc ab° ut t° bccomc lca(ling writcrs)wh。

bctⅥ 厂 ccn‘ original’ and‘ translatcd”

producc thc rnOst consPicuous or aPprcciatcd translati° ns N1orcOvcr,in such a statc nc ofthc 、 vhen nc、 v litcrary modcls are emcrging,translation is likcly to bccome° mcans of clab。 rating thc new rcrt。 irc,Through thc忆 rcign works,%aturcs(l)oth PrinciPlCS and clements)arc intr。 duced int° thc homc litcraturc、 vhich(lid not cxist thcrc bcf° rc,Thcse include P。 ssibly n° t only ne、厂1n0dCls of reahty to rlacc thc

°ld and estabhshed oncs that arc no longcr c±

ˉ ft。

ctivc, but a vvh° lc rangc of othcr

托敲urcs as wcll,such as a ncw(p。 cjc)languagc,or comP° Siuonal Pat℃ rns and techniqucs, It is clcar that thc Ⅴ cry princiPlcs。 f selccting thc、 vorks to bc trans~ latcd arc dctcrn1incd by thc situation goⅤ crning the(hon△ e)PolysystCn⒈ the texts arc ch° scn according to thcir c° mPatil)ility、 vith the nc、 v apProaches and thc suPP° s_ edly inn。 Ⅴ atory rolc thcy may assumc、 vithin thc targct literaturc

What thcn arc thc c。 nditions vvhich giⅤ e risc to a situation of this kind?It secms

r cases can bc discerncd,which盯 cb灬 ically vari° us mamkstati° ns° fthe samc law:(a)whCn a P° lySystcm has n。 t yCt bcCn crystalhzCd,that ’in thc pr° ccss of bcing cstabhshcd;(b)、 vhCn

to mc tllclt threc mal°

is to say,、 vhcn a litcraturc is“ young,’

TRANsLATED LITERATURE IN THE POLYsYSTEM

201

’ vithin a largc grouP° f corrclatcd litcraturcs)or a htcraturc is cithcr“ pcriPhCraΓ ‘ ‘ ’ 、 VCak,’ ° r both;and(c)、 vhCn thcrc arc turning points,criscs,or litcrary vacuums (、

in a litcraturc,

In the Flrst case translated litcraturc si1nPly fulsls thc nccd of a youngcr litcrattlre to put iI1to“ c its ncwly foun(lcd(or rcn。 vatccl)ton8uc f、 )r as many litcrary tyPcs as possiblc in ordcr t° makc it scrⅤ iccablc as a litcrary languagc and useful f° r

its cmcrging pubhc Sincc a young litcrature cannot in11ncdiately creatc tcxts in all tyPes kn。、 vn t。 its ProducCrs,it bcnchts frorll the exPcriCncc of othcr litcraturcs,

and translatcd litcraturc bccomcs in d1is、 vay one。 f its most imP° rtant syste∏ 1s

Thc same h° lds truc for thc sccond instancc, that of relatively estabhshed litcraturcs 、 vhosc rcsourccs arc hn1itcd and Ⅵ/h。 sc Position vvithin a largcr htcrary hierarchy is gcncrally pcriphcra1.Asa c° nsequence of this situation,such litcratures often d° n° t deⅤ cl° P the samc full rangc of htcrary actiⅤ itics(organized in a variety

of systems)° bSσ Ⅴ at,lc h a曲 tacCllt larger litemttlrcs(wlllch h collsCquence may crcatc a ftscling that thcy arC indisPcnsable)They may also“ is fclt t°

bc badly nccdcd Ⅴ

is~容 ~Ⅴ

lack” a rcrt°

irc which

is,and in of the Presence° f,that adjaccnt

htcrature This lack n△ ay thcn be丘 lled,Ⅳ vh° lly or partly,by translatcd litcraturc For instancc,all sorts of PcriPheral literature may in such cases c°

nsist of translated

htcraturc But far rnorc imPortant is thc c。 nscquCncc that thc ability of such“

Ⅵ厂 cak’

’

htcraturcs to initiatc innoⅤ ations is oRcn lcss than that。 fthc largcr and ccntral htcr-

aturcs,、ith thc result that a rclation of dendcncy1η ay bC cstabhshcd not。 nly in pcriphcral systCms, but in thc Ⅴcry ccntcr of thcsc‘ cak” litcraturcs (To avoid `Ⅴ literaturcs may risc to a n1isunderstanding, I 、 vould hkc to P。 int out that these Ⅴ ccntral position in a 、 vay analogous to thc 、ay this is carricd out by PeriPheral systems within a ccrtain PolySystcm,but this cannot bc discusscd herc) Since PcriphCral litcraturcs in thc VVcstcrn Hcn△ isPhere tend morc° Rcn than not to bc idcntical、 vith thc litcraturcs of smaller nations,as unPalatablc as this idea vc haⅤ c n。 ch。 ice but t。 adn1it that、 Ⅴithin a grouP of rClatable seen△ to us, 、 nadonal htcraturcs,such as thc htcraturcs of EuroPc,hicrarchical rclations haⅤ c bccn n△ ay

cstabhshcd since the Ⅴcry bcginnings of these hteraturcs Within this (rllacro-) P。 lysystcln SOmc litcraturcs havc taken Periphcral P。

siti。 ns,、vhich

is。 nly to say that

they vvcrc。 ften modcllcd to a large cxtent uPon an extcrior litcraturc, For such

hteraturcs, translatcd htcrature is not only a n1aJ。 r channel thr。 ugh 、 vhich fashi° nablc rcrt° ire is br° ught home,but also a sourcc of reshu货 hng and supplyˉ ing altcrnativcs, Thus, 、 vhereas richer or strongcr literaturcs may haⅤ c thc° ption ‘ ‘ t° ad。 pt n。 Ⅴ cltics fr° n1 s° n1e PcriPhCry、 vithin their indigcn。 us bordcrs, 、 vcak” htcraturcs in such situati° ns oftcn dend。 n import alonc ThC dynan1ics 、 Ⅴithin thc polysystcm crcatc turning PointS, that is to say, hist° rical n△ omcnts、・ hcrc cstabhshcd m。 dcls arc no longcr tcnablc for a y。 ungcr gcncrati。 n Atsuch m。 mcnts,cvcn in ccntral htcraturcs,translatcd litcraturc1nay assumc a Ccntral position This is all the lnorc truc、 vhcn at a turning P° int n。 itcm in the indigcnous stock is taken t°

bc accePtablC, as a rcsult。 f、Ⅴhich a literary

“ ’ Ⅴacuun√ occurs In such a Ⅴacuun1,it is Casy for forcign m° translatcd literaturc luay consequently assume a ccntral P。

dcls t°

siti。

inflltratc,and

n Ofc。 ursc,in the

、 fcak” literatures Or litcraturcs、 vhich arc in a constant statc of imPoⅤ cr~ casc of“ 、 ishmcnt(lack of htcrary itcms Cxisting in a ncighbor or acccssiblc f° this situation is cⅤ

cn morc Ovcr、 vhchning

rcign litcraturc),

202

ITAMAR EVEN-zOHAR

3 sition means Contcnding that translatcd htcraturc may maintain a PeriPheral P° vithin the polysystcΠ 1,gcncrally cmPloying sccondary modcls. In such a sttuation it has no in∏ ucncc。 nm旬 or ProcCsSCS and is m° dcllcd acc° rding to n° rms alrcady conⅤ cntionally cstab1ishcd l)y an alrcady

that it c° nstitutcs a PcriPhCral systcn1、

d° n1inant

typc in thc targct litcraturc Translatcd litcraturc in this casc bccomcs a

mal° r factor。 fc° nscrⅤ atism Ⅵ%ilc thc c。 ntemPorary o1・ 1要 nal

htt・ raturc mi:ht go °n deⅤ cl。 Ping nc、vn° rmsand m° dcls,translatcd litcrature adhcrcs to norms vvhich haⅤ c bccn rcjcctcd cithcr rcccntly or l。 ng bef° re by thc(ne、 vly)estabhshed center

longcr1uaintains positiⅤ c corrclati° ns vvith Original、 vriting

It n°

A highly intcrcsting Paradox manifests itself herc: translation, by`vhich ne、

v

idcas, itcms, characteristics can bc introduced int° a literature, becomes a means PrCSCrvc traditi° nal taste. This(hscrancy bet、 vccn thc Original ccntral litcraturc and thc translatcd literaturc1nay haⅤ C Cvolvcd in a Ⅴaricty。 f、 vays,f° r instancc, t°

vvhcn translatcd literaturc,aRcr having assumed a ccntral Positi。 n and inserted neⅥ 厂 itcms,soon lost 、 Ⅴith the original homc litcrature vvhich、 vcnt。 n changing, and thercby bccamc a fact° r° f Prcscrvation of unchangcd rcrt。 irc Thus,a litcr~ aturc that n1ight havc cmcrgcd as a rcⅤ oluti。 nary tyPc may go on cxisting as an 。ssincd9sr爸 me d’ dnF￠ n,oftcn fanatically guardcd by the agcnts of scc。 ndary m。 dcls against cⅤ en llainor changcs

Thc c。 nditi° ns、vhiCh Cnablc this sec。 nd statc are of coursc(hamctrically oPpositc to thosc vvhich givc risc to translated litcraturc as a ccntral systcn⒈

cithcr thcrc

are no m列 or changCs h tllc Polysystcm。 r tllese changcs arc not cffccted through thc intcrvcntion of interhterarⅤ rClations materiahzcd in thc f° rm of translations

4 Thc hypothcsis that translatcd litcraturc rnay bc cithcr a ccntral or PCriphcral systcm d。 cs n° t imPly that it is alⅥ

/ays、vholly onc or thc Othcr As a systcn、

translatcd

htcraturc is itself strati丘 cd,and fron△ thc point。 f vie、 :of Polysysternic analysis it

is oRen from thc vantagc Point of thC ccntral stratum that all rclations、 sⅤ stCnl

vithin the

arc obserⅤ ed This mcans that、 vhilc。 nc scction of translatcd literature maⅤ

assumc a ccntral P° sition, anot1△ cr may rcmain quite PcriPhcra1, In thc f° rc8° ing analysis I Pointed out the cl° sc rclati° nshiP bet、 veen litcrary s and thc status

。f translatc(l litcraturc,This sccms t。

mc thc maj° r duc to this issuc,W hcn thcrc

is intcnsc interIl(:rence,k is thc portion oftranslatcd hteraturc dcri"ng f1・

sourcc litcrature、 vhich is likcly to assumc a ccntral Positi。

om a malor

n, For instancc, in thc

Hcbrcw htcrary polysys∝ 1n bctwccn thc tw° world wars htcraturc订 anslatcd iom thc Russian assumcd an unmistakably ccntral P°

sition,whilc w。 rks translatcd f1ˉ

om

English,Gcrman,Pohsh,and。 thcr languagcs assumcd an。 bviously pcriPheral。 ne MoRoⅤ cr,sincc thc m句 or an(lm° st innoⅤ ato叮 tranSlational n° rms wσ e Pr° duced bⅤ translati° ns fr°

n△

the Russian,othcr translatcd litcraturc adhercd t。

thc modcls

and n。 rms elaboratcd bⅤ th° sc translations,

The historical material analyzcd so far in of Polysysten△ to。 lirnited to Pr°

ic oPcrati° ns is

vide any far-rcaching conclusi。 ns about the chanccs。 f translatcd

TRANsLATED 1ITERATURE IN THE POLYsYsTEM htcraturc to assumc a Particular position But

203

、 v° rk carricd out in this Hcld by ’

various othcr sch。 lars,as、 vcll as rny o、 vn research,indicatcs that thc“ normal’ Posi-

tion assumcd by translatcd litcraturc tcnds to bc thc pcriPhcral onc,This shoukl in PrinciPle be comPatil)lc、 ith thcorctical sPeculation It rnay bc assumcd that in the long run n。 systcn1can rcn1ai11in a constant statc of、、cakncss,“ turni11g Poi11tr’ or

t bc cxcludcd that somc PolysyStcn1s lnay

crisis,although thc Possibility shoul(lI1°

maintain such statcs l。 r quitc a l。 ng ti1nc Λ 没orc。 Ⅴcr,not all Polysystcms arc struc-

turcd in thc samc、vay,and culturcs do(hffer signi⒔ cantly For instancc,it is clcar that thc Frcnch cultural systc∏ 、 Frcnch literature naturally includcd,is rlluch lnorc rigid than rn。 st° thcr systelns This,c° mbi11cd、 vith thc l° ng traditi。 nal central Posi-

vithin the Eur。 pcan context (or xSithin thc EuroPcan tion of Frcnch htcraturc 、 cmdy macro PolysystCm),has causcd Frcnch translatcd htcraturc to assumc an cxt】・、hilc siti° n Tl)c statc of Anglo-Arnerican literature is comParablc, PeriPhCral P° ˉ Russian, German, or scandinavian vvould seem to sho、 v di± fercnt pattcrns 。f bchavior in this resPcct

5 What c° nsequcnccs may thc Positi° n takcn by translatcd litcraturc haⅤ c° n trans_ c,thc distinction bet、 vccn nal n° rms,bchavi° urs,and PohcicsP As I statcd ab。 Ⅴ

lati°

a translatcd、

:。

rk and an original、

v。 rk

in tcrms oflitcrary l)ehaⅤ ior is a function of

/hcn it takes a 、 thc Position assumcd by thc translatcd litcraturc at a giⅤ cn tiluc 、 tllat tllc vcl y CatCgo∵ of`mndatc(l ∝ntral Posit0n,dle bordcdincs arc Jy芦 ê,s。 ’ ⅤcⅡ Fr° n△ thc P。 int 、 v° rks’ rnust bc cxtcndcd tO scn1i-and quasi-translations as、 ,of translati。 n thcory I think this is a morc adcquatC、 vay of dcahng、 vith °f ⅤieⅥ

such PhCnomcna than to rcjcct thc∏

1。 n the basis° f a static and a-hist。 rical concˉ

tion of translation sincc translational activity Participatcs,xs hcn it assumcs a ccntral P°

sitiOn, in thc Pr。 ccss of Crcating nc、 v, Prin1ary modcls, thc translat°

Col)Cσ n

hσ C

is n° t ju蛀

r’

s n1ail)

to look br rcady madc modds in his home relto△ C

into、vhich the s° urcc tcxts、 Vould be transfcrablc,Instcad,hc is Prarcd in such

cascs to violate the homc c。

nⅤ cntions

IJndcr such conditions thc chanccs that

thc translati° n、vill bc closc to thc。 riginal in tcrms of adcquacy(in° thcr、 :ords,

a rroduction。 f the〈 lon1inant tcxtual 1・ clations of the。 rigi11al) arc greater than

°thcr、 visc, Of course, ∴・ on1thc point。 f vic、 'Of thc targct litcraturc thc ad。 Ptcd hHc bc too forcign and rcvoluti。 nary, and if thc translational norn1s lllight for a、 Ⅴ nc、 v

trend is dcfcatcd in thc litcrary strugglc,thc translation madc according t°

concti。 ns and tastcs、 :ill ncvcr rcally gain gr。

its

und Butifthc nc、 Ⅴtrcnd is victo-

rious, thc rcrtoire (c。 dC)。 f translatcd litcraturc may be enrichcd and become

morc llcxiblc Periods of grcat change in thc homc systCn1arc in fact thc only ones xs hcn a translator is l)rarCd t。 go far bcyond thc oPti。 ns offcrcd t。 hirn l,y 11is

cstabhshcd hon1c1ˉ crt。 irc and is、 Ⅴ nhng t。 attclllpt a diffcrcnt trcatn1ent of tcxt n1aki11g,Lct us re1uen11)cr that undcr stablc conditions iten1s lacking in a targct htcr~

aturc may remain untransfcrablc if thc statc

。f thc polysystcm docs not allo、 v

innovations But thc Proccss of oPCning thc systcm gradually brings ccrtain litera_ turcs closer and in thc l。 ngcr run enables a situation 、hcrc the Postulatcs of (tranSlational)adCquacy and thc rcahties of equiⅤ alencc n1a) ovcrlaP tO a rClativcly

204

ITAMAR EVEN-ZOHAR

high dcgree. This is thc casc。 fthc Eur。 Pean literaturcs,though in somc ofthcm the mcchanism of rcjccu。 n has bcen so s廿 0ng that thc changes I am talkng about haⅤ e。 ccurrcd

on a rathcr li1nitcd scalc Naturally,、vhcn translatcd literaturc occuPies a PCriPhCral P° sition,it bchavcs

tOtally diffcrcntly Herc,the translator’ s rnain cff°

rt is t° c。 nCentrate

uPon snding

thc bcst rcady rllade sec° ndary m。 dcls for thc foreign tcxt, and thc rcsult° turns Out to be a non-adcquatc translation°

Rcn

r(as I、 v° u】 d PrCfCr t° Put it)a grCatcr

discrancy bct、vccn thc cquivalcncc achieⅤ ed and thc adcquacy Postulatcd

In othcr 、 vords, n。 t only is dle socio-htcrary status of translation dendcnt upon its position、 vithin the P。 lysystcn、 but thc vcry practicc of translati° n is also strongly subordinatcd t。 that position, And cⅤ cn thc qucstion° f、 vhat is a translated、 v。 rk cannot bc ans、 vcrcd d`ri° ri in tcr∏ 1s ofan a-historical out~。【context

idcahzcd statc;it rnust bc detcrn1ined on thc grounds° f thc。 Pcrati。 ns govcrning thc polysystcm, sccn fr° n△ this P。 int。 f vic、 v,translation is n° longcr a Phcn。 Π1 enon vvhosc naturc and bordcrs arc giⅤ en oncc and for all,but an actiⅤ ity dcndcnt °n the relations、 vithin a ccrtain cultural sⅤ stcm

Chapter 18

GideOn TOury

THE NATURE AND ROLE OF NORMS IN TRANSLATION

oWEVER HIGHLY ONE MAY THINK of Linguistics,Tcxt_ Linguistics, ContrastiⅤ c Tcxtology or Pra:maticS and of their exPlanatory

、:ith rcsPCct to translational PhCn° mena, being a translat° r cannot bc ‘ rcduccd to thc mcrc gcncration of uttcrances、 ⅤhiCh、vould bc c。 nsidcrcd‘ transla~ ’

po、 fc

r

tions’

vvithin any° fthCsc disciPhncs Translation actiⅤ itics should rathcr bc rcgardcd

as haⅤ ing

cultural signihcancc C° nscqucntly,“ translatorshiP” am° unts⒔ rst and f° rc_

most to bcing ablc to P`cz1・

ci s0Ci￠

F roFe, ic, to fulsl a function allottcd by a and/or thcir products~in a、 Ⅴay

con11nunityˉ _ to thc activity, its Practiti。 ncrs

、:hich is dccn1cd aPPr。 Priate in its o、 vn tcrms of rcfcrcncc,Thc acquisiti。 n ofa sct °fnorms f° r dctcrn1ining thc suitability。 fthat kind of bchaviour,and for tnanocuv_ ring betwcen all thc hct。 rs、 Ⅴhich may constr缸 n it,is thcre允 rc a prcrequisite允 r bccon△ ing a translator、 vithin a cultural cnⅤ ironmcnt,

Thc proccss by、vhich a l)ihngual spcakcr may be said to gain rccognition in his/her caPacity as a translator has hardly bCCn studicd s° far [ ]In thc prescnt chaPter thc nature of the acquired norms thcmsclⅤ cs、 vⅡ l bc addrcsscd,along vvith thcir role in dircctin8translation activity in socio-culturally rclevant scttings This

Ⅱl bc f° ll° Ⅵ/cd by a briefdiscussion oftranslati° nal n° rms as a secondprcscntation、 Ⅴ ordcr objcct° f Translatl° n studics,t° bc rcc° nstructed and studicd、 vithin the lond °f分 amcw° rk which wc arc now in thc Pr。 cCss of skCtchin⒏ As sthcdy仔

ansla~

tional norms can° nly bc apphcd at thc rccei/Jn召 Cnd,cstabhshing them is not rncrcly usr歹召 d by a target oHcntt,d aPpr。掀h but sh。 uld bc丈 cn邡丿

1978/reVised 1995

i“

very印 Ⅰ Fome

206

GIDEON TOURY

1 Rules,nor】 ms,idiosyncrasics In its sOcio cultural dimcnsion,translation can bc(lcscol)cd as su匀 ect t° constr“ n“

。f scvcral tyPcs and varying(lcgrcc Thcsc cxtcnd far bcy。 nd the s° urce tcxt; thc syste∏ 1ic di∶ tcrcnccs bct、 vccn thc lan8uagcs and tcxtual traditi。 ns involvcd in the

act,or cⅤ cn the possibilities and lirnitations of thc cognitiⅤ c aPParatus of thc trans~

lator as a ncccssary mcdiat。 r, In fact, c。 gnition itsclf is inΠ ucnced, Probably cⅤ cn n1odi⒔ ed bⅤ s° cio_cultural factors. At any ratC, translat°

rs Perf° rn1ing

undcr

diffcrcnt conditions(C8,translating tcxts of dirCrcnt kinds, and/or for di汉 Qrcnt audicnccs)often adoPt di=〖 trcnt stratcgics,and ultiInatcly comc uP′

Ⅴith n1arkedly

Ⅴcry much doubt

(liffcrcnt Products S。 mcthing has obⅤ iously changed hcre,and I it that it is thc cognitiⅤ c aPparatus as such

In tcrms of thcir P。 tCncy,sOcio-cultural constraints havc bccn dcscribcd al° ng a scalc anchorcd bct、 iccn t、 vo cxtrcmcs: gcncral, rclativcly absolutc ruès, 。n thc

onc hand and purc jdjos「

n cr召 s氵

es on thc othcr Bct、 vccn thcsc t、 v。 polCs lics a Ⅴ ast

middle gr° und occuPied by intc邝 u匀 ectiⅤ e norms thcmsclvcs forn△

fat・ t° rs

c°

mmonly(lc“ gnatcd norms Thc

a8radCd c° ntinuun1along thc scalc∶ sOme arc stronger,and

sⅤ ncratic Thc hence morc rulc-likc, othcrs arc vvcakcr, and hcncc almost idi。 bordcrhncs bctⅥ 广 ccn thc various tyPcs of c。 nstraints are thus diffusc Each° f thc concts,including thc grading itsclf,is relatiⅤ c too, Thus、 vhat is just a faⅤ oured ⅤCll acquirc much lu° rc m° de 。f behaⅤ i。 ur 、 vid1in a hctcr。 gcneous grouP may 、

wlthin a ccrtain(morc homogene° us)sccuon thcrc。f,in tcrms of either human a8ents(eg,translators am。 ng tcxtcrs in general)° r tyPes of actiⅤ ity

hn〈 ling忆 rcc

(cg,intcrPrcting,or lcgal translati。

n,withn transladon tlt large)

Along thc tcmP° ral axis,cach typc of constraint rnay,and° Ren d° cs rnove into its ncighbouring domain(s)thr。 ugh Processes ofrisc and dechnc Thus,rncrc xs hirns maⅤ catch on and l)cc° mc morc and morc normativc,and n° rms can gain so much vahdity that,for all Practical PurpoSCS,thcy bccomc as binding as rulcs;or thC。 thcr

、 vay around,° f coursc shiRs of Ⅴahdity and fOrcc o托 cn havc to d。、 vith chan8es° f cicty In fact,they can alⅥ 广 aⅤ s bc describcd in c° nncction、 vith thc

src,Fus、 vithin a s。

notion of norⅡ 1,cspecially sincc,as the proccss goes on,thcy are likely to cross its

°tyPCs° fc。 nstraints may cⅤ Cn rcalrn, i.c, actually bccomc norms The othcr tⅥ 广 be rcdcHned in tσ ms ofnorms;rulcs as“

m匀 cct卜 c[°

r∶

lc“ intt丫 su匀 ccuⅤ

sociologists and s° cial Psych°

t’

l”

ImORl。

匀

CcdⅤ C” ,i(liosyncr灬 ics

a~s“

Imorcj

norms

l° gists

have l。 ng rcgardcd n。 rms as thc translation

n△ munity~as to、 vhat is right and、 vrong, adequate and inadcquatc— into Pcrf° rmancc instructions aPproPriatc for and apPhc~

of gencral Ⅴ alucs。 r idcas sharcd by a c。

al)lc to particular situations,屮 eci灯 ing what is Prcscribc(l and凡

rbiddcn灬 wcll as

what is tolcrated and Pcrmitted in a ce⒒ 汪n bcha“ 。 ural dimcnsi。 m(thC famous “ squarc 。f n。 rmatiⅤ ity” , vvhich has latcly bCen elaboratcd on 、 vith rcgard to translati°

n in De Gccst199⒉

38-40),Norms are acq“ rc(l by thc in山

x・

ldual

during his/hcr s° ciahzati° n and al、vays imPly s虿 ncrions~aCtual or Potenual,negatiⅤ e as、vcll as PositiⅤ c, VV】 thin the c° l11111unity,norms als° t。

vvhich actual instanccs of bchaⅤ

i° ur

arc cv口

F口

scrve as critcria according

￠F召 d Obviously,thcrc is a P° int in

assun1ing thc cxistcnce of norms only in situations、 vhich all。 vv

f° r

diffcrcnt kinds

of behaⅤ i° ur,on thC additi。 nal condition that selection an1ong thcn1be nonrand。

m.j

NORMs IN TRANsLATION Inas1η uch

207

as a norn1 is reallⅤ active and cffcctiⅤ e, °nc can thcrcforc distinguish i。 ur in rccurrent situations ofthc same tyPe,`vhich、 v° uld rendcr

regularity of bchaⅤ

・ j of11° 】 1ns as wcll 11ain sOurcc忆 r any虹 ″‘ Thc centrahtⅤ °f thc norms is not only n1ctaPhorical, thcn, in tcr〗 ns of thcir

regularitics a】

n along a Postulatcd continuum of constraii1ts;rathcr1 it is csscntia⒈ Norn1s are the key c。 nct and focal I)o“ 1t in any attcmPt to accou11t for thc s。 cial relati、 e Positi。

rclcⅤ ance

of activitics,bccausc thcir cxistcncc,and the、 vide rangc of situati。 ns thcy apPly to(、・ ith the c。 n忆 rmity this imPhcs),河 C tllc m扯 n hctors ensuring thc cstabhshment and retcntion of social ordcr.This h° lds f° r cultures t。 o,or f° r anⅤ ofthc systcms c° nstituting thc1u,which arc,aRcr all,s° cial institutions ipso%cto,Of coursc,bchaⅤ i° ur vvhich d。 es nor conforn1to PrCⅤ ailing norⅡ 1s is alxx・ ays Possible ˉ to° ,N1。 rc。 vcr,“ non-comPhancC、 vith a n° 】 ln in Particular instances does n° t inⅤ ah’ datc thc n° rn1’ (HC】 ˉ rnans 1991: 162) At thc Samc tilnc,therc、 voukl n。 rn1ally be a PricC t。 l)ay for oPti11gf° r any(lcviant kiI1d of behaⅤ iour

()nc thing to bcar in n1ind, `vhcn sctting out t。 study norn1-go、 crncd bchav~

iour,is that thcre is n。

ncccssary identity bCt、、 ccn thc norms thcn1sclvcs and anⅤ

brmulation oF thcm h languagc Vel小 thc cxistcncc of norms as 、icll

as

al f【

,rmtllclti° ns

of coursc1・ cnect d吖 dr∞ Css of

°f thcir rcspcctivc signi⒔ cancc H。

vveⅤ cr,

thcy

imPly° thCr intcrcsts,Particularly a dcsirc t° conrr。 F bchaviour i c ,to dictate norⅡ1s rather than n△ erclⅤ for thcm N° rmative formulati。 ns tcnd to bc als。

Ⅰ slantcd,thcn,and shoukl al、 vaⅤ s bc takcn、飞 ith a grain of salt

2 Translation as a norn1-governed activity Translation is a kind° t、

f actiⅤ itv、 vhich incⅤ itably inⅤ olⅤ cs at lcast t“

:o lan8uagcs and

Vo Cultural traditi° ns,i,c,,at least t、 v。 scts of n° rlll-systCms On each levc1,Thus,

thc“ Ⅴaluc” bchind it maⅤ bc descr山 cd as c° nsisting of two malor Clcmcnts:

1 2

being a tcxt in a ccrtain languagc,and hcncc occuPying a Position, or⒔ lling in a s〕 ot,in thc aPPr° Priatc culturc, °r in a ccrtain scction thcrcof; constituting a rrcscntation in that languagc/culturc of an。 thcr,Prc~cxiSting text in so111c Other languagc, >clc〉 ngi11g to somc othcr culturc and occuPying 丨 a dcHnitc P。 Thcsc t、

v°

Siti。

n、 vid1in it

tyPcs of rcquircmcnt dcrive【 °m tw° sources Ⅵ'hich~cven though ・ g1・ catly— are ncⅤ ertheless alⅥ ays dircrent and

thc distancc bct、 vccn thcn1n△ ay Ⅴary

theref° re oRen inc° mpatiblc W ere it11° t for thc rcgulatiⅤ c caPacity of n° rms,thc

tcnsions bet、 veen the t、 vo sourCes of constraints、 Ⅴoul(l haⅤ c to bc rcs° lvcd on an cntircly indjli(`1Ι Li`basis, and、

vith no clcar yardstick to go l)y Extren1e frec

Ⅴaria~

tion may 、 vcll 11avc bccn thc rcsult, 、 vhich it ccrtainly is not Rathcr, translation bcbaviour、 Ⅴidain a culturc tcnds to manifest ccrtain reJu′ 口ririε s, onc conscqucncc bciI1:that cvCn if thcy arc unablc to for deviati° ns in any cxPhcit、・ ay,thc PCrsons in~thc~culturc can oRcn tcll、、hen a translat° r has failcd to adherc t° sanctioncd Practiccs It has Pr° ven useful and cnlightcning to rcgard thc l)asic choicc

made bct、 vcen requiren△ cnts ofthc t、

c〉

、 vhich can bc

diffcrcnt sOurccs as constitutin8an initial

208

GIDEON TOURY

norm Th“ ,at琬 nslator

may sublCcˉ t him/hclsclf otlacr to the° ri妒 nal tc欢 ,witll thc n。 rn`s it has reahzed,° r to thc norms actiⅤ c in thc targct culturc,° r,in that scction of it、 Ⅴhich、v° uld h° st the cnd Pr° duct If thc⒔ rst stancc is adopted,the translation、 vill tcnd to subscribe t° als°

thc norms ofthc sourcc text,and thr。 ugh thcm

to thc n。 rms ofthc s° urcc Ianguage and culture This tcndcncy; 、 vhich has

。Rcn bccn charactcrizcd as the Pursuit° f adequate translati° n,2 may、 vcll cntail certain incomPatil)ihtics 、 vith targct norⅡ 1s and PractlCes, csPecially those lying bcyond thc△ ncre linguistic oncs,If,。 n thc Othcr hand,thc sccond stance is adoptcd, nonns systclllS of the target culturc arc triggcrcd and sct int。

mouon shiRs iom

thc s° urcc

tcxt vvould bc an ahnOst inevitable Pricc Thus, 、 vhcrcas adhcrcncc to source nor∏ 1s dctcrn1incs a translati° n’ s adequacy as comParcd t。 thc s° urce text, subscriPti° nt° norms originating in thc targct culture dctern1incs its acctabⅡ ity

ObⅤ iously,cⅤ cn thc lnost adcquacy— orientcd translati。 n involⅤ cs shifts△ °n1thc sourcc tcxt In faCt,the。 ccurrcnce of shifts has l° ng bccn ackn。、 vlcdged as a truc uniⅤ ersal of translation Ho、

vevcr,since the nccd itself to dcⅤ iate fr° rll sourcc-tcxt

Ⅴay, thC actual redFizdFion of pattcrns can al、 vays bc reahzcd in m° rc than °nc 、 so-callcd obhgat。 ry shiRs,t。 thc extent that it is n。 n-randon1,and hcncc n° t idiovith syncratic, is alrcady truly norΠ ⒈govcrncd, So is cvcrything that has t。 d。、 non-obligatory ShiRS,、 vhich arc of c° ursc morc than just P。 ssiblc in rcal-hfc translati。 n∶ thcⅤ 。 ccur cⅤ crⅤ 、,hcre and tcnd to constkutc thc1n句 ority of ShiRin8in any

singlc act of human translati° n,rendcring thc lattcr a contributing factor to,as、 vcll as the ePiton△ c。 f rcgularity,

‘

’

cver Its initiahty shoukl not bc oⅤ crinterPrCtcd,hoⅥ 广 rdinancc Over Particular norms、 vhich Pcrtain to lo、 vcr,and theref° re more sPeci⒔ c leⅤ els Thc ⒗nd 。f Pri。 rity Postulatcd herc is basically ‘

Thc term‘

initial norlla’

dcrivcs fr° nn its suPcr°

fρ

ficcIJ, and nccd not coinci(lc、

vith any‘

rcar’ , ic , cJ,rOIa° Fofic口 F°rdcr

of aPp【 ica^

n Then。 ti° n

is thus(lcsigncd to scrvc nrst and f。 rcm° st as an cxP`口 ndFOr「 F@of. EⅤ en if no clcar lnacro lcⅤ cl tcndcncⅤ can be sho、 vn,any n1icr° ~lcvcl dccision can

ti°

still be cd for in tcrms of adcquacy vs acctability (Dn thc othcr hand,in cascs、 vhcre an。 verall choicc has bccn made, it is n。 t ncccssary that cⅤ cry singlc /e arc still talking rcgularil° Ⅵ 厂 cr_level decisi° n bc madc in full acc° rd、 vith it 、、

tics,dlcn,but n° t ncccssarily of any absolute tyPe Itis unrcahstic t° rcgularitics any、 vay,in any bchavi°

cxPect abs。 lute

ural doma1n,

Actual translati。 n(lccisi。 ns(thC rcsults of、 vhich thc rcscarchcr、

v。 uld c。

ni。 nt)

vill ncccssarilv inv° lvc somc ad hoc combination。 f, 。rc° mPron△ iSC bet、 vccn thc 、 t、 vo extrCmcs imPlicd by the initial norm.Stdl,f° r thc° rctical and lned1。 d。 l。 gical rcasOns,it sccms、 viser to rctain thc oPPoSition and trcat thc t、 v。 polcs as distinct

Ifthcy arc not re8ardCd as having djstinct rJ,e。 rε r1ccIF statuscs,ho、 v、 Ⅴ°uld comPron1iscs differin思 in tyPC° r in Cxtent bc(⒈ stinguishcd and acc。 untcd f° r? Fina1ly,thc clai1n that it is basically a nor∏1-govcrncd type of bchaⅤ iour aPphcs

in PrinciPlC∶

to translation of all kinds, n。 t° nly literary, philosophical or bil,hcal translati°

、 vhich is 、 vhcrc mOst norm_oricntcd studics haⅤ c bccn conducted s°

n,

far As has

rcccntlV bccn clairncd and dcmonstratcd in an all too sketchy cxchangc of vicvvs in

%昭 cF(M shlCsingcr1989and Halr“ °f

co乇 ρFencc inFerPre冖 rlf

1990l,蚯 mihr thin驴 can cⅤ cn be sad

Needless tO say,tllis does not mcan tl△

c。 nditions aPPly to all kinds

。f

translati。

at tllc exact same

n. In fact, thcir aPPlication in diffcrcnt

cultural scctors is PrccisCly onc of the asPccts that sh° uld bc subn1ittcd t° study

k In Principlc, thc clai1n is als。

ORMS IN TRANsLATION

vahd f° r cⅤ cry S° ciCty and hiStorical Pcri° d, thus

°fkring a【 amcwork忆 r historically oricnted studics whch w。 c° mParls。

209

uld als。

all°

w br

n

3 Translation norrns:an overview Norms can bc exPectCd to oPcratC n°

t only in translati。 n of all kinds,but als°

at

cvcry stagc in the translating cⅤ cnt,and hence t° bc rcΠ cctcd° n every lcⅤ cl ofits

product, It has Pr° vcn convcnicnt to6rst(listinguish t、

largcr gr° ups

v°

of norms

aPPhcablc t。 translati° n:PrChn1inary vs,° pcrati。 nal, Preliminary norms havc to do、 vith t、 v。 main scts of con“ derau° ns、vhich

arc oRen interconnected:thosc rcgarding the existcncc and actual naturc° fa de丘 nite translation Pohcy,and th° sc rclatcd t。 Trdns`虿 Fion Po/ic「 refcrs t。 eⅤ en

tl△

e dircctncss of translati° n

thosc factors that govern thc choicc。 f tcxt tyPcs;or

of indiⅤ idual tcxts, t° bc irnP° rtcd thr。 ugh translati° n into a Particular

culture/Ianguage at a Particular P° int in ti1nc such a pohcy、 vill be said to cxist inas1nuch as thc ch°

icc is f°

und to bc n° n~random E)iffcrent P° hciCS1nay of course

aPPly to differcnt subgrouPs, in of eithcr tcxt-types (e g literary vs. non_ htcrary)or hu1nan agcnts and gr° uPs there。 f(cg” diffcrcnt pubhshing houscs),and the interface bet、 Ⅴ ccn thc t、

v。

°Ren° fft,rs Ⅴcry fcrtⅡ c grounds f° rP°hcy hunting /cIl,q杨 Ⅱ IaCss o/ˉ 莎 on involⅤ c tllc tl△ rc晶 old of toler~

C° ns记 σati° ns con∝ mh8di召

cε

ance f° r translating fron1 1anguagcs othcr than thc ulti1nate s。 indirect translation pcrn1ittcd at a11P In translating frol11、

tyPes/Peri。 ds(etc)is it PCrn1ittcd/prohibitcd/t。 PerΠ1itted/prohibitcd/t° lcratcd/Preferrcd

urce language∶ is

Vhat sourcc languagcs/tcxt-

lcratcd/PrCfCrrcdP What are the

mcdiating

languages? Is thcrc a tcndcncy/obhgation t。 mark a translated、 v。 rk as having been mcdiatcd or is this fact ign° rcd/camouflagcd/dcnicd?If it is mcntioned, is thc idcntity of thC mcdiating languagc supPhed as、 vcllP And s° 。n,

oPerational norms,in turn,may bc conccivcd of as dirccdng thc dccisi。 ns madc during the act。

f translati°

ll itsclf Thcy affcct the matrix of the text~ie,

thc modcs of(hstributing linguistic lnatcrial in it~as、

vcll as thc tcxtual rnakc uP

and Ⅴcrbal f° rrnulatiOn as such Thcy thus g° vcrn' dircctly or indircctly~thc rcla~ tionshiPs as vvcll that vvould obtain bct、 vccn thc targct and sourcc tcxts,i.c,、

vhat

is more hkely t。 rcmaln inⅤ ariant undcr trans%rmation and what will change so-callcd In口

rrici口

F n。 rms

may govcrn thc vcry

x1s‘ enCe of target-languagc 召

matcrial intcnded as a substitutc f° rd△ e c° rrcsPonding sourcc language material (and hellcc the degrcc° f actual °

f丿

1FFncss° f transladon),its locatic,n in tllc tcxt(or tllC忆

d∫ srriburion),as weIl as the textual s昭 mε nrdFion3Thc

rm

cxtcnt to which omis~

sions,additions,changes oflocati。 n and1manipulatlons of segmentation are referrcd (。 r泸0und thcm)may al⑽ bC dCtσ mhcd by norms,cvcn nc can dl° ugh thc。 Ⅴcry、 vCll° ccur、vithout thc Othcr. ObⅤ iously, thc bordcrhncs bct、 vccn thc Vari。 us matricial Phcn° mCna arc not clear~cut F° r instancc,largc-scalc on1issions oftcn cntaⅡ changcs of scgmcntation as、vcll, csPecially if thc on1ittcd Porti° ns have no clcar b° undarics, or tcxtuallinguistic standing, i.e,if thcy are n° t integral scntenccs,Paragraphs or chaPtcrs

to in thc translatt・ d tex“

By thc samc token,a changc of location lllay oftcn bc acc°

untcd for as an on1issi°

n

210

GIDEON TOURY

(in onC placc)comPCnsatCd by an ad山 ti。 n(ClsCwhcrc) ThC dC0si° n as to what ‘ may havc‘ rcally” takcn Place iS thus(lcscriPtion-bound:What。 nc is aRer is(morc or lcss∞ gellt)cJ′ dndFo9圩 ″Fhcscs,not ncccssallly△ met【1,li托 ”a∝ oullts,Whcsh onc can ncvcr bc sure。 f any、 vay Textual-linguistic nor【 ns, in turn, govcrn thc sclccu° n °f material to formulatc thc targct tcxt in, or rlacc the original tcxtua1and linguistic material vvith Textual~linguistic norms ll△ ay cither be Jcn召 qua translati。 n,or P召

'ricuF口

rcz′ ,and hcnce aPPly to translation r,in vvhich casc they、 vould Pcrtain to a Particular text_

tyPc and/° r rnode of translation。 nly somc oftherll rnaⅤ

bc idcntical t° dlc n° rms

governing non~translati。 nal tcxt_Producti° n,but such an idcntity should ncvcr bc taken f° r grantcd, This is thc method° l° gical rcas。 n、 hy no study of translati° n `Ⅰ

can,or should Proceed fr° n1thc assumPti° n dlat thc latcr is rrCscntativc of thc targct language,or° f any。 vCrall textual tradition thcrc。 f.(And sCC。 ur discussion of“ 廿ansl菠 i° n sPcci⒔ c lcxical items”

.)

It is clcar d△ at prclin1inary norms haVc b。

th logical and chron° logical Prccc~ (lcncc。 Ⅴer thc oPCrati° nal ones.Ths is n° tt° say that bctwcen thc tw。 m苟 or grouPs thcrc arc no rclati° nshiPs、 vhats° cⅤ er,including mutual in∏ucnccs or even t、

Vo-、 Vay

Conditioning Ho、 vcvcr,thesc rclati。 ns are by n。 means丘 xcd and givcn,

and thcir estabhshment f° rms an insarable Part° f any study of translati° n as a

norm-g° Ⅴcrncd actiⅤ ity NeⅤ crthclcss,、 VC Can safclⅤ assumc at lcast that thc rela_ tions、Ⅴ hch d。 cxist havc t。 d° Ⅵ 冖th the initial n° rm, Thcy】 11ight cvcn bc f° und to inrcrsecF it~anothcr important rcason to rctain thc opposition bet、

‘

and‘ acctability” as a basic c。

。rdinatc systCn1f° r

thc f° rmulati°

vcen“ adcquacy”

n° f cxPlanatory

hyP° thCscs4

Opcrational n° rms as such may bc dcscril)cd as scrving as a model,in accordancc、vith、 vhich translations c。 mc into bcing,、 Ⅴhether involving the n° rms rcahzcd

by thc source text(ic, adCquatc translati。 n)Plus ccrtain modiHcations or Purcly targct norms,or a Particular comPr。 n1isc bct、 veen the t、 vo Evcry rnodel suPPlying Perf° rmancc instructions rnay bc said to act as a r召 sFricrinJ factor:it oPenS uP ccrtain °Pti。 ns、 vhilc closing othcrs C。 nscqucntly,、 vhcn the Hrst P。 sition is fully ad。 ptcd,

thc translation can hardlv bc sai(lt°

haⅤ c

bccn madc into thc tar8et languagc as a

、 vholc.Rathcr,it is rnadc int。 a modcl languagc,、 vhicb is at best somc Part of the f° rmcr and at vv° rst an arti⒔ cial,and as such n° ncxistcnt Ⅴ aricty s In this last casc, thc translati° n is not rcallⅤ ir,Frod口 ced into thc targct culturc cither, but is ii,iP° scd

on it, so to spcak surc,it lnay cⅤ Cntually carⅤ c a nichc for itsclf in the lattcr,but

‘

slot” (Dn thc 。 thcr hand,、 vhcn the sec° nd position is adoPtcd,、Ⅴhat a translat° r is introducing into thc

thcre is no initial attcmPt t。

acc° n△ modatc

it to any cxisting‘

targct culturc(、 vhich is indecd、 Ⅴ hat s/he can l)c dcscribcd as cl。 ing no、厂 ersion )iS a Γ °fthe° riginal Ⅳ v° rk,cut t° thc lncasurc of a Prccxisting luodc1,(And SCC。 ur discus~

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ sion °f thc 。pPosition bct、vccn thc ‘ translati° n of litcrarⅤ tcxts’ and litcrarⅤ translation” as 、 vell as the dctaⅡ cd Presentation °f the Hcbrc、厂translation of a Gcrman⒌ hFσ q6F占 nFdnd text) Thc aPParent contradicti° n bctⅥ /ccn any traditi。 nal conct。 f equivalcncc and tl△

e hmltcd modd into whch a订 anslation has” st bCen dalmed tl,be m。

ollly bc resolⅤ ed by posttllating tl△ at

tllded can

it`norms that determine the(tyPe and cxtcnt oθ cquivaIcncc ImanⅡ ℃sted bv actual translations Thc stu(lⅤ f norms thus c。 nsututes a Ⅴ ital steP t。、 vards estabhshing just ho、 :thc functional~ `、

NORMS IN TRANSLATION relati。 nal P。

stulatc of cquivalcncc has bccn rcahzcd一 ’ ‘

211

、 vhcthcr in onc translated

tcXt,in thC、 v。 rk° f a single translat。 r or‘ school’ 。f translat° rs,in a giⅤ cn hist。 r~ ical Peri° d, or in any othCr justi⒖ ablc selccti°

n6 What this approach cntails is a

vhich Ⅴ ari。 us contclllPorary vish to rctain thc n。 tion of equiⅤ alCncc, 、 clcar 、

aPproaches(c.g H。 nig and Kussmau1 1982; Holz-Mantt莶 ri 1984; SncⅡ -Hornby

⒒°m

1988)haⅤ c tricd to d。、 vithout,vvhilc introducing onc csscntial change into it∶

an ahist° rical, largcly PrcscriPtivC c° nct to a hist° rical onc Rathcr tllan bcing a

singlc rclationship, dcnoting a rccurring tyPc of inⅤariant,it comcs to rcfcr t° any rclation 、 vhich is f° und to haⅤ c charactcrizcd translation undcr a sPccincd set。 f

circumstanccs,

At thc cnd。 f a full~Hcdgcd study it vcill Probably bC found that translational norms,hcncc thc rcahzation of the cquivalence P。 stulatc,arc all,t。 a largc extent, dcndent on the P° sition hcld by translati。 n~thc activity as、 vell as its Products ~in thc targct culturc An intcrcsting Held for study is thercf° nature oftranslational norms as comParcd t。

rc comparatiⅤ c:thc

thosc goⅤ crning non-translational kinds

°f tcxt_Producti° n In fact, this lond° f study is absolutcly vital, if translaung and translations are to bc aPPr。 Priatcly contcxtuahzcd.

4Thc1nultiPlicity of translational nor1ms The dif⒖ cultics involvcd in any attcmPt to for translational n°

rms should

vcvcr, lie 丘rst and f° rem° st in tvvo fcaturcs not be undcresti1uated Thcsc, h。、 inhcrent in thc Ⅴcry n。 ti° n。 f norn1, and arc tlacrcf° rc not unique to Translati° n studics at all∶

thc s° cio-cultural sPcci丘 city of norms and their basic instability,

Thus, 、 vhatcⅤ cr its cxact content, thcrc is absolutcly n。 nccd for a n。 rn△ to aPPly_ to thc samc cxtcnt,or at all~t。 all sect° rs、vithin a socicty Even less ncccssary,or indccd likcly,is it f° ran。 rn△ to aPPly across culturcs In fact,“ samc’ ncss’ hcrc is a n△ crc coincidcncc -or clsc thc rcsult of continu。 us s bet、 vccn subsystems vvithin a culturc,° r bct、 vccn cntirc cultural syStcms,and hcncc a mani-

忙station。 f hterkrcnce (For s° mc gcncral rulcs° f systcmic in∝ rfthrcncc scc Evcn-Zohar 1990: 53-72)EⅤ cn thCn,it is。 Ren1n° rc a1natter of apparcnt than of a gcnuinc idcntity Aftcr all,signi6cancc is only attril)utcd to a nor∏

in 、 Ⅴhich it is cn1bcddcd, and thc systcn△

1by thc slsFer,,

s rcmain different cⅤ cn if instanccs of

extcrnal bchavi。 ur aPpCar thc samc, In additi° n to thcir inhcrcnt sPcci⒔ city,n° rms arc also unstablc,chan8ing cnti~

tics;not bccausc of any intrinsic Ha、 f but by thcir vcry naturc as norms At tin1cs, norn△ s

change rathcr quickly; at othcr tilues, thcy arc morc enduring, and thc proccss may take longcr, Eithcr、 vay, substantial changcs, in translational norms to。

,quite oRcn occur、 vithin° nc’ s life-ti1nc, Ofc° ursc it is not as if all translat° rs arc Pdss11'cin facc ofthcsc changcs Rathcr,

many ofthcn、 through thcir vcry activity,hclP in shaPing thc pr。 ccss,as do trans~ lation criticisn1, translation i(lcoIogy (including thc onc cmanatin思 from contcmPorary acadcn1c,° ftcn in thc guisc ofthc。 ry),and,of c° ursc,Ⅴ arious nor∏ 1scttin8activitics ol institutcs vchcrc, in lnany socicdes, translators are noⅥ ,bein: trained.、 Vittingly or un、刂 ttingly,they aⅡ try to intcrfcrc、 vith thc“ natural’

’

c° ursc

Ⅴn PrcfCrcnccs, Yct thc succcss of 。f cⅤ ents and to divcrt it according to thcir° 、

212

GIDEON TOURY

their cndcaⅤ °urs is ncⅤ cr fully forcsccablc In lhct, the 1ˉ

elatiⅤ c r° lc

°f diffcrcnt

agcnts in thc 。vcrall dynan1ics of translati° nal norn△ s is stⅡ l largcly a mattcr of c° 。jcctttm cvcn忆 r timcs Past,and much m° rc rcscaκ h is necdcd tl,clari灯 it ith s° cial pκ ssulcs t【 ,Constallt圩 a曲 ¨ t onc9s bcha、 iour to norms Compl)ing、・ that kc changh18is of c。

sin1Plc,and m° st Pc。 Plc~including translators, initiators of translation activitics and thc consumcrs of thcir Products~do s。

ursc fa1・ fi。 nn

only tll)to a point Thcrcf° re,it is not al】 that rarc to hnd sidc by sidc in a society

thrcc tyPes of cola● l)cting norms,cach having its o、 vn foⅡ 。、 vcrs and a position ofits oⅥ thc oncs that dolminatc thc centrc of the systcn、 and `n in thc culturc at large∶ hence dircct translati。 nal behaⅤ iour 。f thc so~callcd mdinsFrc口 I,,, al0ngsidc thc

rcmnants of PreⅠ ìous scts of n。 rms and t11c rudirnents of nc盯 0nes,hoⅤ cring in thc

、 vhy it is P° Ssiblc to sPcak~and not dcr° gatorily—

PCriPhCry. This is ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ trcndy” , old~fashi° ncd” 。 r‘ Progrcssivc’ in translation d△ erc。 D灬 itis h any c,thcr bchr△ x1° uml dommn

of l冫 cing (or in any singlc section

Onc’ s status as a translat。 r may ofc。 ursc bc tcmP° rary,cspccially if onc fails

to an CXtcnt、 ˉ hich is dcclncd ‘ ‘ insuf⒔ cicnt Tl)us, as changes of n° rn1s OCCur, formcrly c” translat° rs grcssi、 Pr° ˉ n"ght》 d“ J” m刂 ⒃°n⒔ nd tllcmsckes ju虻气rcndy” ,or° n° ∝灬on as eⅤ cn do、、 t°

adjust t° thc changing rcquircn1cnts, or(locs s°

At thc samc tilnc,regarding this Pr。 ccss aS inVolⅤ ing a lncre altcrnation of gencr~ vith a8c ations can bc Π1islcading, csPccially if gcnerations arc directly cquatcd 、 ccn onc’ s Position along thc“ groups,Whilc thcrc° ftcn arc corrclations betⅥ 广 ~‘ ‘ rnainstrealu”

“

datcd”

s agc,thcsc cannot,and sh。 uld n° t bc ・、 takcn as incvitablc, 111uch lcss as a starth1g PoiL1t and frame、 ork lor thc study of ˇ norms in aCti° n 小近ost11ot从 )ly, )f° ung PcoPlc、 b。 arc in the earl) l)hascs。 f their initiation as trans】 at。 rs° Ren bcha、 c in an cxt1ˉ cmcly igonic 、 tbcy tend to ày∶ rΠ 1according to datcd,but still cxisting norms, thc m。 re so if thcy rcceivc PCrf° _ˉ

aⅤ ant-gardc”

axis and c)nc’

rcinforccmcnt fr° m agcnts holding to dated norms, bc they languagc teachcrs, cdit° rs, ~】

。r cvcn tcachers° f translation,

ultiPhcity and variation shoukl n° t bc taken t° imPly that thCrc is n° such

thing as n° rms actiVc in translation,Thcy only mean that rcal hfe situations tcnd to bc c° mplex;and t。

this c° mPlexity had bCttcr be n° tcd rathcr than ignorcd,if° nc is

dra、 v any justisablc c。 nclusi。 ns As alrcady argucd,the only、

1able、

vay outscCms

cry text,cvcry aCt,on the iatc Positi。 n and 、 vay to all° tting thc dircrcnt n。 rn1s t11cmsclⅤ cs thcir appr° P】 ˉ Ⅴalcncc, This is Ⅵhy it is si1nPly unthi11kablc, fron△ thc P。 int° f、 ˉ ic、。f thc study ` °f translati° n as a11orm-goⅤ erncd activity, for all itcms to bc trcatcd on a Par, as to l)cto c° ntcxtuahze evcry l)hcnon1cn° n,cvcry iten△ ,CⅤ

if thcy、 vere of thc samc systcn1ic position,thc samc signiHcancc,the samc lcⅤ

cl。 f

rrCsCntatiⅤ cncss of thc targct culturc and its constraints Unfortunatcly,such an indiscrirninatc approach has bcen all t。

°co1umon,and has。 ⒒cn lcd to a complcte

blurring of d1c nortuatiⅤ c picturc,somctirnes c、 cn to thc absurd clain1that no n。

rms

bc dctcctcd at all Thc。 nly xxay to keeP that Picture in f° cus is t。 go l)cy。 nd ‘ ’ dlc cstabhs11n1cnt。 f rncrc‘ chcck list:’ of factors xxˇ hich rna〉。ccur in a corPuS and c。 uld

havc thc lists° r(′ ercd,for instancc、 Ⅴith rcsl)cct t° thc status of th° sc fact。 rs as char~

‘

actcrizin8‘ n1ainstrcan△

’ ’‘ ,‘

‘

datcd” and‘ avant-gardc” activitics,rcsPcctivCly,

vhosc ncccssity This in11ncdiatcly suggcsts a furthcr axis° fc° ntextuahzation, 、 has so far° nly been imPhCd;namely,thc l,isr° r1cdF one ARer aⅡ

bc marked as“ dated”

if it、vas active in a PrcΓ ious Peri°

,a norn1can only

d,and if,at that thη c,it had

' a di(Fcrcnt,“ non-datcd”

‘

NORMs IN TRANSLATION

position By thc same tokCn,n。

213

rlll goⅤ crncd

bchaⅤ

i。

ur can

ards it∶ an ant-gardC” only in vic、 v ofsubs召 qucnr attitudcs t。、厂 °nly be idi° syncrasy 、:hich ncⅤ cr cvolvcd int。 somed△ ing m。 re gcncral can

proⅤ c to havc bccn‘

aⅤ

dcscribcd as a norrn by extension,so tO sPCak(see scction 1 aboⅤc),Finally,thcrc ‘ ‘ lη ainstrca1u” about mainstrcam bchaⅤ iour, cxcePt ′ Ⅴhen it haPPens t。 function as such, 、 vhich mcans that it t。 o is ti1nc l,ound VVhat I am is nothin思 inhercntly

clain1ing herc, in fact, is that hist。 rical contcxtuah'ation is a must not()nly for a tFidchron1c study,、

vhich nobody、 vould c° ntest,but als。 for9∞ cJ,r° nic studies,、 vhich 。bⅤ i。 us unlcss °ne has acctcd the PrinciPlCS °fs° _callcd

still sccms a lot lcss

‘ ‘

Dynalnic Functionahsn△

shc”

’ ’

(for“ 'hich,scc thC Introducti。 n to Evcn-Z。

har19907and

1992∶ Pas“ m),

Finally, in translation t° o, non-normczFivc bcf,driour is always a Possibility ThC

pricc忆 r sclcding this oPti° n may bC aslow as a(culturaⅡ y dctermincd)nccd t° subn)it thc cnd Pr。 duct to rcvision Ho、 vcver, it lnay also bc far m。 rc scⅤ crc to thC Point° f taking aⅥ ・ ay onc’ S Carncd rcc° 8nition as a translator;、 vhch is Preciscly

、 vhy n。 n-normative bchavi° ur tends t。 l,e thc cxcti。 n,in actual Practicc On the othcr hand, in rctr° sPcct, deⅤ iant instanccs of behaviour may bc found t。 cffcctc(l ch口 n召召 s

haⅤ e

in the very systcm This is、 Ⅴhy they constitutc an important Held

of study,as l° ng as thcy arc regarded as、 vhat they haⅤ c rcally bccn and arc not Put

°ne baskct、 vith all thc rcst I1nPhed are intriguinε qucstions such as、 Ⅴ ho is“ all。、 vcd” by a culture t° introduce changes and undcr、 vhat circu∏ 1 stances such changcs rnay bc cxpcctcd to occur and/or bc accted,

indiscrirninatcly int。

5 Studying translational norIms S°

hr we havc discusscd n° rms mainly in tcrms of their actiⅤ ity duhng a transla

tion evcnt and their effectivcncss in thc act。 f translation itself,To be surc,this is :here and、 vhen translational norms arc actiⅤ c ⒈ 冫 Ⅴhat is actu、・ cⅤ cr, 、 PreciSCly、 allv aⅤ aⅡ ablc f° r ° bservati。 n is not so much the n° r1us thcmsclⅤ cs, but rathcr I〈

nor∏ ⒈g° Ⅴcrncd instanccs of behaviour To be cⅤ cn m° rc Prccise,l,lorc oRen than not,it is the Pr° ducts。 f such behaⅤ i° ur

Thus,cⅤ cn、vhcn translating is clairncd to ’

bc studicd(hrcctly,as is the case、 ith thc usc of“ Thinkingˉ Aloud Protocols’ ,it is only Pr° ducFs、 :hich arc available,although Products of a diffcrent kind and ordcr, N° rms are not chrcctly obscrⅤ ablc,thcn, 、 vhich is all the m° re rcason、 vhy translational behaⅤ

i。 ur,

Thcrc alc two m句 °rs。 urccs忆 r and cxtratcxtua⒈

1

somc~

f an attcmpt to 口ccou,at for

thing should also bc said about therll in thc cOntcxt。 a rcc° ns订 uction

of仔 anslati。 nal norms,tcXtual

:

textual∶ the translatcd tcxts thcⅡ 1sclⅤ es,ft)r analytlcal inⅤ ent° rics oftranslations(i,c ,‘

aⅡ

kinds° f norrlls, as、 vell as

‘ ’ Ⅴ irtual’ texts),for Ⅴ arious

PrChn1in-

arV n° rlns;

2

extratextua1: scllli-thcOrctical or critical formulations, such as PrcscriPtivC ‘ ‘ ’ thc° rics’ of translati° n, statcmcnts rnadc by translators, editors,Pubhshcrs,

and° thcr PersOns involvcd in。 r conncctcd、 Ⅴith

thc actiⅤ ity,critical aPPraisals

of indivi(lual translations,or the activity of a translat° lators, and s°

f°

rth

‘ ’ r。 r‘ scho° 。f trans~ l’

214

GIDEON TOURY Thcre is a fundamcntal diffcrcncc bct、 fccn thcsc tⅥ fo typcs ofsourcc:Texts are

mdrv Products° fn。 rm_rcgulatcd bchaⅤ i° ur,and can therefore bc takcn asin△ mcdiatc rrcsentatlons thereof Normative Pronouncements, by c。 ntrast, arc n△ crcly 厂Prc,dutˉ ts° fthc c疝虻cnce and昶 tkity。f ncll ms hkc ally菠 ttˉ mPt to hrmtllate 句 a norn、 thcy arc partial and biased, and sh° uld theref° re be trcatcd 、ith cⅤ cry PoSSiblC circumspcction;all the m。 re so sincc- cmanating as they d。 fronl intcrestcd Partics _ˉ thCy arc likcly to lcan t。、 Ⅴard Pr° Paganda and Persuasion, Thcrc may therefc〉 re be gaPs, cvcn contradictions, bct、 vccn cxPhcit arguments and dcmands, 。n thc°nc hand,and actual bchaviour and its rcsults,on the othcr,(luc

PrⅠ

0thσ to m丬 ccdv”

itt忐 ,or cven lack of suⅢ 0el△tk1△ o酬 c(l姿 σ1tl△ t Pa⒒ of those、 vh。 ProducCd thc f° rmulati° ns On occasion,a dehbcratc dcsirc t° rnislcad and deceiⅤ c lnay also bc inⅤ 。 lⅤ cd EⅤ en、vith rcsPect to the translators thcmsclⅤ cs, cll llc・

intcntions do not nccessarily c。 ncur、 Ⅴ ith any dcclaration of intcnt(Ⅵ fhich is。 ften put down post hctum anyway,when the act has allcady bccn c° mPlcted);and thC ay thosc intcntions arc rcahzcd may vvcll constitutc a furthcr,third categ° `Ⅴ

n° t

Yct all thcsc rescrⅤ ations_ProPCr and scri°

ry stil1.

us though thcy may bC— should

lcad onc to abandon sclmi~thcOrctical and critical formulations as lcgitirnatc

sourccs for thc study of norms In spitc of all its faults,this type of sourcc still has its mcrits,both in itsclf and as a Possiblc kcy to thc analysis of actual bchaⅤ

the salrlac tiInc, if thc PitfallS inhcrent in thcm are t。 Pr° nounccmcnts should aS Pr召 ^svsr召 m￠ Fic and giⅤ

and Prccisc iame、

Whlc do℃

s。

i。

ur,At

bc aⅤ 。idcd, n。 rmativc

ncver bc acctcd at facc value They should rathcr bc takcn en an exphcati。 n in such a、 Ⅴay as to place thcm in a narro、 v

v° rk,lending

thc rcsulting cxPhcata thc coⅤ cted systcmatic status

dd bC made to chⅡ 、tllc哎敲tls。 f eaCla brmula ,an菠 tcml,t曲。

tion,ho、vevcr slantcd and biascd it rnay be,and unc°

Ⅴcr thc scnse in、 vhich it、 vas

just accidcntal;in。 ther words how,in thc Hnal analySiS,it d° es rcflcd thc cultural c° nstcllation、vithin、 :hich,and for whosc purPoscs it vcas pr。 duccd APart n。 t

fr。 m

shccr spcculation,such an exphcati。 n should inⅤ 。lvc thc c。 mparison。 f

vari°

us

Ⅵicll as their rePcatCd c° nfrontation with thc Patterns rcvcalccl by[thc κStll“ oq acatual bchaⅤ i° ur and tl△ cn。 rms recon stluCted iom thcm~all this with hll c° nsiclcmu。 nf【 lr thelr contcxtualizati。 n.(scc normative Pron。 uncemcnts to caCh othcr, as

a rrcscntativc casc in Wcissbrod 1989 ) It is natural, and Ⅴcry c。 nvcnicnt, to commcnCC onc’ s rcscarch int。 translavcll-dcsncd tional bchaviour by focussing on jso`￠ Fecf n° rms pcrtaining to 、 bchaⅤ i。 ural(limcnsions,bc

thcy~and the c° uplcd Pairs of rlacing and rlaccd segmcnts rePresenthg them二 established i° m the s。 urcc tcxt’ s PersPective(Cg, translauol)al rePlacelucnts of sourcc Ⅱ)ctaphors)or仔。m the targct tcxt’ s Ⅴ antagc, Point(C・ g,bin。 mials° f ncar syn。 nyms as仔 anslati。 nal rlaccmcnts),HoweⅤ cr, translation is intrinsically mufFi-dilucnsiona⒈ thc lnanif° ld phcnomcna it PrcsCnts arc tightly intcrⅥ 厂 oⅤ cn and do not allovv for casy isolation, not cⅤ

en for mcthodical

PurposCS Thcrcf° rc,rcsearch should ncⅤ cr gct stuck in thc bhnd alley of dlc“ Paradigmatic” Phase、 vhich、 vould at bcst yield lists of“ n° rmemcs’ Rathcr,it should al、vays Pr° cccd t°

‘

syntagmatic” PhasC,inⅤ òr(liscrcte olⅤ ing thc i刀 FgJr口 rjcln norms s task blen1arcas, Accordingly,thc studcnt’ 。fn。 rmcmcs Pertaining to various Pr。 a‘

can bc characterized as an attcmPt to estabhsh

vhat 、

rcFciriclns thCre arc bct、

vccn

norms Pcrtaining to various d° mains by corrclating his/hcr indiⅤ idual⒔ ndings and vveighing then1against cach° ther ObⅤ i。 usly,thc thickcr thc net、 v。 rk of relati。 ns

Ι

NORMS IN TRANsLATION

215

thus cstablished,thc morc justisc(l。 nc woul(l bc in qPeaking in tcrms of a no1・ ma tivc strucFu″ (cf,JackS。

n1960∶ 149-60)° rm。 d召

This haⅤ ing bccn said, it should again be n。

`,

tcd that a translat°

r’

s bchavi° ur

cannot bc cxPcctcd to be fully systcmatic Not only can his/hcr dccisi° n_n1akln思 be differently m° tivatcd in diffcrent Pr。 blCm arcas, l)ut it can also bc uncⅤ cnly (hstributed thr。 ughout an assignment、 vithin a singlc Problen1area Consistency in translational behaⅤ iour is thus a孑 rddcd notion、

Ⅴ hich

is ncithcr nil(i.C,,total crratic-

ncsS)n。 r1(ie,absolutc rcgularity);its extent should emcrge at the cnd。 f a study as Onc ofits c° nclusi。 ns, rathcr than bcing PresuPPosed

Thc Amcrican sooologist Jay JackS° n suggcstcd a“ Rcturn Potcntial Curvc” ving sh° 、

,

thc distribution。 f appr。 val/disaPPr°Ⅴal am。 ng thc mcmbers °fas° cial

grouP oⅤ cr a range of bchaⅤ °fn。 rms

i。

ur of a ccrtain tyPe as a modcl for thc rePrcscntation

Tl△ ls mOdel(rr。 duced as Figure18,1)makcS it P° Ss北 lC

t°

makc a

gradual distinction bet、 vecn norms in tcrms of inFcnsir「 (indicatcd by thc hcight of

thc cu"c,i“ dlstancc【。m

tl△

eh° riz。 latd a虹 s),tllC

ror口

n召

c犭

FoFcIrlf召

ur

d beh口 "°

`阳 (that Part of thC1)chavioural di1nension apProvcd by thc group),and thc r口

rio° f one

。f thcsc proPcrtiCS of thc norn△ Onc convcnicnt diⅤ

isi。

to thC othcrs n that can bc rc intcrPrctcd、 vith thc aid。 f this model

is tripartitc:9

a

Basic(Phmary)norms,morc or less mmclato叮

忆r虿 ″in哎

t△

nces of a

cσ tain bchavi° ur(and hCncc thc⒒ minimd c° mm° n denominat° r) OccuPy thc apcx of thc curⅤ e lN/【 axi1num intcnsity,n△ ini1num latitudc。 f behaviour,

・ ourablc bchaⅤ i。 ur May bc PrCdon1inant in ccrtain P口 rrs° fthc grouP Thcrcforc c° ∏11non cnou8h,but not Inandat。 ry,frona thc Point。 f vie、 v ofthc grouP as a、 Ⅴholc OccuPy that

b

secondary norms,or tendencies,dctcrn)ining h、

part of the curⅤ e ncarcst its apcx and thcrcf° rc less intcnsivc than thc basic

norms but covering a greater rangc of bchavi°

c

ur

Tolerated(per1mitted)behaviour OccuPies thc rcst ofthe“

P° sitiⅤ

C”

P泸 t

of the curⅤ e(i,c,,that Part、 vhich lics abovc thc horiz。 ntal axis), and thCrc~ f°

rc。 fn1inirnal intensitⅤ

“ A sPCcial

grouP,” detachablc f⒈ om(c),sCCms to bc of con蚯 dcrable intcrcst and

irnP。 rtancc,at

c′

,

,

least in somc bchaⅤ ioural domains∶

synnPtomatic deviccs Thou8h thcSc dCⅤ iccs may bc in分 cqucntly uscd, thcir° ccurrcncc is tyPical for narro、 ving scgmcnts ofthc grouP under study

0n thc 。thcr

hand, their abs° lutc 刀0n-oCCurrcnce can be tyPical of。 thcr

scgmcnts Wc may, thcn, safcly assumc a dis芒

riburi@n。 ,′ basis f°

r thc study of norms; thc

m。 rc⒒ cqucnt a targct tcxt phcnomcnon, a shiR【 on1a(hyPothetlcal)adCquatc rcconstruction of a source text, or a translational rclation,thc m° rc∏ ect(in

rc likcly it is to

this。 rder)am。 rc pcrmittcd(t。 lCratc(l)acti`・ ity,a艾 r。 nger tcndcncy,a

morc basic(。 bligatory)n° rm,A sCc° nd asPect of n° rms,thcir discrin,indro⒐ cdPdci⒐ ’ is thus rcciProcal t。 thc⒔ rst,s° that thc lcss frequent a bchavi。 ur,thc smallcr thc

group止 may Scrvc to dc⒔ nc Atthe samc dmc,the group it docs dc⒔

nc is n° t just

216

GIDEON TOURY

High|y

approve

lndifferent

-3 High|y

-4

disapprove f・

fu″ 丿s′ sd1cnlatlc diagram showing thc RctuH1Potcntlal lX/I。

(lcl R)r rrCSCnting n〈 ,rms∶ (a)

a bchaⅤ ic)ur dilncnsi〈 )n; (b)an cvaluation(limcnsion; (c)a rcturn P° tcntial

C∶ 1IrⅤ c,

sho、 ving thc(lstril)ution。 l aPPr° 、 a⒈ disaPPr0、 al am()ng thc n△ cn11Dcrs° fa grouP o、 cr

the、 vholc range of behaⅤ i()ur;(d)the range of tolerablc or aPProⅤ Cd bchaviour sourcc∶

Jackson 1960

any grouP;it is al、 vays a sub~gr。 up ofthc Onc c。 nstitutcd by higher~rank norn1s T° bc surc,cⅤ en idiosyncrasics(、

vhich,in thcir cxtrcmc,constitutC groups-o【 one)

oRcn mani炙虻 thcmscl、 ics as pσ ⑽nJ Ⅵays° f κali” n思

Im° Ⅱl gCncrd attittl(lcs rathcr than dcⅤ iations in a comPlctCly uncxPectCd direction,10Bc that as it rnay,thC

rctrOsPcctivC estabhshn△ ent° fn° rn1s is al、vays rclative t。 thc section undcr study, and n° aut。 matic uPward pr叻 cdion is Possible Any t△

ttc・

mptto m。 ve

lll that dircc

tion and draⅥ /generahzati。 ns、 vould rcquire further study,、 vhich sh° uld be targctcd to、vards

that Particular cnd,

Finally,the curⅤ e rnodcl als。 enablcs us t° redennc Onc additi。 nal conct∶ thC

涎 tud d昭 rcc of∞ ’ ’ form1吵 mt△ n涣哎cd by山限 rcnt membt。 rs。 f a grotlP tc’ an。 rm that has alreadⅤ bccn cxtractcd froln a c° rPus,and hcnce found relevant to it This aspcct can bc dc⒔ ncd in ° f thc(listancc frolll the Point° f rnaxhnun△ rcturn (in° thCr w。 rcls,仃 om thc curvc’ s aPCx)

Notwith虻 anding tllc Points madc in the last kw ParagraPhs,the argument凡

r

the distributi。 nal asPcct of the n° rms sh。 uld n° t bc PushCd too far

vn,、ve arc in no Positi° n to point to strict statistical n△ cth。 ds As is so、 ⅤcⅡ kn° 、

r deahng、vith translational norms, °r cvcn to supply samPhng rulcs f° r actual rcscarch(which,l)ccausc。 f human hmitati° ns,will always bc aPPlicd t。 saml冫 lcs f°

.

NORMs IN TRANsLATION

217

。nly).At this stagc、vc must bc c。 ntcnt、 vith our intuitions,、 Ⅴhich,being bascd on ‘ kn。、 vlcdgC and Previous cxPerience,arc‘ learncd” 。ncs, and usc thcn1as kcys f° r c should saⅤ that、 Ⅴ sclecting corPusCS and f° r hitting uPon ideas This is not t° cnts On the c° ntrary∶ rnuch cncrgy aband。 na1lh° Pe f° r1ncthodological i1nPrOvcl△ △ sh°

uld still be directcd to、 vard thc crⅤ stallization of systclnatic rcscarch mctla。 ds,

including statistical °ncs, csPcCially if vvc

Ⅵ1sh to transccnd thc study of n° rn1s, at a timc,and movc° nt。 tllc忆 rmu~ lati° n of gcncral la、vs ° f translati。 nal bchaⅤ i。 ur, 、 vhich 、 vould incvitably bC

which盯 c alwayS hmkcd t° 。ne Pr。

bczbi′

s° cietd gr。 uP

isric in naturc To bc surc, achicⅤ cn1ents of actual studics can thcmsclⅤ cs

suPply us 、 Ⅴith clucs as to nccCssary and possiblc mcth。 d。 logical imProvcmcnts, Bcsidcs,if xxˇ c hold up rcscarch until thc n△ °st s、 stematic n1ethods have becn f° und, C lllight ncvcr gct any rcsearch(l。

nc

`Ⅴ

Notes “

The cxistcncc of n° rms is a sine qua n。 n in instanccs of labclling and regu_

、 vithout a n。 rn1, all dcviations arc mcaninglcss and bcc° me cases of fIcc Ⅴ a0ation” (、Vcxlcr1974∶ 4,n 1) lating;

“ An adcquatc translati。 n

hich rcahzes in thc target languagc is a translation、 Ⅴ

the textual rclati。 nshiPs。 f a SOurce tCxt with n。

brcach° f its Own lbasicl

’ ’(EⅤ Cn~zohar 1975∶ 43;luy translation), The d“ m th菠 pon0Ples° f父 gmcntation忆 llow uniΓ crs口丿Patterns hnguistic systcn△

is ju虻 a

丘gmcnt of thc imagination of son△ e disc° ursc and text the。 rcticians intent on uncovCling as lllany uniⅤ crsal PrinciPlcS as PoSSil)le In actual fact,there haⅤ

bccn Ⅴari。 us traditions (or

‘ ‘

rn。 dcls’

’

c

) of segn.entation, and the diffcrcnccs

hcther thcy arc takcn bct、 ,ccn thcna always havC imPhcati° ns for translati。 n,、 Ⅴ

n° f the targct tcxt or ignorcd EⅤ cn thc scgmcnta~ tlon of saCrcd tcxts such as thc Old1ˉ cstamcnt itsclf has oRen bccn tamPered F cultural 、彳th by its translat° rs,normally in ordcr t° bring it closcr to rczr孑召

t° bea1・

。n thc forn△

ulati。

habits,and l)y so(l。 ing cnhance thc translati° n’ s acctability hcrc the pursuit of adcquate translation is Thus, for instancc, in scctors Ⅵ・ vould also bccon】 c marginal, it is highly Probablc that indircct translati。 n 、

common, on occasion cvcn prcfcrrcd。 ver direct translation By contrast, a norn1、 vhich Pr。 hil)its lnediatcd translation is likcly to bc connectcd、 vith a groⅥ 'ing Proxi1nity to thc initial n。 if indi1ˉ cct

rn△

ofadequacy Under such circumstances,

translati。 n is still PcrR)rmcd,the fact、 vill at least be concealed,if

not outright(lenied i,

And scc,in this conncction,Izrc’

el’

s“ Rati° nalc

for Translating Ancicnt Tcxts

into a Mo(Icrn Languagc” (1994) In an attcmpt to comc uP with a mcthod f° r translating an Akkadian1nyth`Ⅴ hich would be Prcsented to modcrn Isracli ‘ ‘ audicnccs in an oral Perf° rn1ancc, hc PurPorts t。 c。 n△ binc a fcchngˉ o∴ ‘ o∴ n△ °dcrnity” in a tCxt、 vhich、 Ⅴ°uld bc alt° gcthcr antiquity” xx1th a‘ fcchn思 ˉ siluPlC and casily comPrehcnsiblc by using a h。

st of lcxical itcms° f

Hcbrcw in厶 rdc,/I Hcbrcw grammatical and syntactic structurcs

liiliìc口

ⅣVhcrcas“ thc` Ⅴ。ukl scr、 c to givc an ancicnt flaⅤ or to thc tcxt, thc grammar lcxic° n 、 v。 uld scrⅤ c to cnablc mOdern Pcrcti。 n” It n1ight bc added that this is a 、

218

GIDEON TOURY PCrkct m△ r° r imagc ofthe way Hcbrcw translators staⅡ cd simulating sPokcn HebrcⅥ 1s vvcrc inscrtcd in gramlnatical and ìn thcir tcxts:sPokcn lCxical iteΠ sⅤ ntactic structurcs which wcrc marked hr bcl° nging to t11c writtcn Ⅴarieties

(BCn Shahar1983),which also mcant“ ncw” hto“ olcl”

,

Scc also luy discussion of“ Equivalcncc and Non~EquiⅤ alcncc as a Funcu。 n。 f

N。 rm￠ (Toury198⒍ 63-7Ol “ Thcrc is a clcar dif%κ ncc betwecn an attcmPt t°

acc。 unt忆 rs。 me

mⅡ 。r

princiPlcs vvhich govcrn a systcm° utsidc the reahn。 f ti1ne, and° nc、vhich intcnds t。 acc。 unt for h°

a systcn△ oPeratcs both‘ in PrinciPlC’ and‘ in ti1nc,’ Oncc thc hist。 rical aspcct is adn△ ittcd into thc ft1nctional aPProach, scveral ilnPhcati° ns must bc(h・ a、 vn First, it must bc adn1itted that b。 th sⅤ nchr° nⅤ xxˇ

and(⒈ achr° ny arc historical,but thc cxclusiⅤ c idcntiHcation° f thc lattcr、 vith hist° ry

is untcnablc,As a rcsult,synchrony cann° t and should not bc cquatcd

vvith statics,sincc at any givcn IllomCnt,rnorc than onc diachr° nic setis oPcr_ ating on thc synchronic axis,Thcrcf° rc,on thc Onc hand a sⅤ stcln consists of

both synchrony and diachr° ny;on thc。 thcr,cach of thcsc saratcly is obviously alsO a systCm.second,if thc idca。

f structuredness and sⅤ

sten△ icitⅤ

nccd

no longer bc idcntiHcd、 vith homogcncity,a scn1iotic systen△ can bc conccived

。f

as a hctcr°

gcncous,° Pen structurc Itis,thcrcf°

but is,ncccssarily,a Polysystcm”

Cf,eg,Vodi。 ka(1964∶

(Even-Zohar1990: 11)

74),° n thC PoSsiblc s° urccs for the studv。 f hterarv

norm s,and Wexlcr(1974:7-9),° ’ ’ intcrⅤ cntion(“ Purisn△

rc,、 ,cry rarcly a uni~systcm

n the sourccs for thc study of PrcscriPtiⅤ

e

)in languagc

Cf,eg.,Hrus1△ °ⅤskΓ s

similar diⅤ

isi°

n(in Ben_Porat and Hrusho、 isk 1974∶

9-10)and its aPPhcati° n to thc dcscription。 fthc n。 rn△ s° f Hcbrc、v rhymc (in Hrush。 vski 1971) 1O

And see thc cxamPlC。 f

thc seen△ ingly idiosⅤ ncratic usc of Hcbrcvv大

~xcn Ⅰ

as a

translational rlacemCnt。 f Enghsh“ 、 vcll” in a Pcri° d、 vhcn thc n。 rm dictates thc use。 fù_Γexcn,

s0861

T;坛

s屋厣 ∷ 屏e尸 f磊 :∶ ;c悦 1t飞 d皙。

F∶ ∶浅

|蕊 t:y∶ 丁 i。 :F∶ ∶;觅 :

of trans|ation research and` especiaHy in Eng"sh-speaking countr丨

es` nHs the need

`麓

for an introductory text in the trans|ation c|assroo|m It is a tilnle|y interVention that

hera|ds the emergence of trans|ation studies as a separate discip"ne` oVer|apping Ⅵoth "nguistiCs` "terary criticism` and ph"osophy` but exp|oring unique prob|ems

of cross-cu|tura{ Communication, Bassnett takes a historica| approach to theoretica|concepts and understands practica|strategies in re|ation to specinC Cu|tura|and

sOcia| situations Even though she emphasizes "terary trans|ation` her book rests on Ⅵ/hat becOmes the mOst cOmmon theOret丨 ca| assu mptiOn during this periOd∶ the re|atiVe autonomy of the trans|ated text.

Approaches informed by semiotics` disCourse ana|ysis` and pOststructura"st textua|theory disp|ay important COnCeptua|and methodo|ogica|differences`but they nOnethe|ess agree that trans|ation is an independent form of、

、 /riting` distinct from

the fOreign text and from texts Ori9|naHy Ⅵ/ritten in the trans|ating |anguage, Trans|ating is seen as enacting its oⅥ /n processes of cation xvhich anskA/er to d丨

fferent |inguistic and cu|tura| cOntexts. This VieⅥ

/recurs in trans|ation traditions

from antiquity onⅥ /ard` but noxpvf it iS deve|oped systematicaHy` conceptua"zed accOrding to the

∨arious discourses that characterize current academic disciplines,

In sOme theorists` the autonomy of trans|ation |eads to a deeper functiona丨

isnη

` as

theories and strate9ies are "nked to speci币 c cu|tura| effects` commercia| uses` and po"tica| agendas. ∨ Denning equiva{ence inevitab|y cOmes to seem a |ess urgent prob|em。 ˇ

"|iam and FraⅥ dey questions the notion of equiva|ence as an identity betⅥ /een foreign text trans|ation`Ⅵ /hether the ident|ty is construed as empir丨 ca| (abso|ute synonymy based

222

198os

on reference)`bio|ogica| (the same organs Of perception and cognition)òr|inguistic

(universa|s Of |anguage), Instead he reminds us that if trans|ating is a fOrm of conη

\there is information On|y in d`ffε municatiOn` ′

actua"y a、、 code in its oⅥ /n right` setting its oⅥ

rel,ce/′

′so that a trans|ation is

standards and structura| presuppOsitions and entai|ments` though they are necessar"y derivative of the matrix information and target ρarameters〃 (FraⅥ The concept of a \\third cOde〃 t丨

ons accord"η g to their de9ree of se|η

/|η

168` 169),

1984∶ /ey to distinguish among trans|aenab|es"ey FraⅥ iotic\、

innovation″

(ibid,∶

173-174〉 H e treats

\new know edge〃 is this distinction quantitative y` as a matter of how much 、 produced` sO he stops short of eva|uatin9the trans|ator′ s production of that knONtl|edge or its illlpaCt on the cu|tura| tradition

Ⅵ/ith丨 n Ⅵ/hich the trans|ation signifes,

A|though Fravil ey′ s exanη p|es are high丨 y|iterary`taken from a poetic trans|ation of

a poem`his thinking assumes the c a丨 m of objectivity in theOreticaHinguistics`which exc|udes questiOns of |丨 terary ∨a|ue,

shOshana B丨 um-l〈 u丨 ka′ s study of trans|ation shifts further exp|ores the third code by de币 n"η g it as a type of discourse speci吊 c to trans|atin9∶

\、

eXp"citation.〃 In

the essay inc|uded be|oⅥ / (1986)` she specu|ates that trans|ating a llJays increases the semantic re|ations among the parts of the trans|ated textèstab"shing a greater cOhesiOn throu9h eXρ

sive strategies

"citness`repetition`redundancyèXp|anationànd discurIn cOntrast` shifts of cOherence` deviations fron1 other an under|ying

semantic pattern in the foreign text`depend on reception` on reader and trans|ator

interpretations, TO study them B|um一

l
reading patterns` psych0"nguistic studies of text prOcessing, of cOurse the very detection Of a shift hinges on a crucia| interpretive act`币

xing

a meaning or structure in the foreign text and then describing a deviation from it in the trans|ation. NO cOmparisOn betⅥ /een a foreign teXt and its trans|ation can be unmediated` free of an "η terpretant` sOme third term that serves as the basis of the co|η

parisonùsua"y a standard of accuracy`but a|so a cu|tura|and ideo|Ogica|code,

To describe shifts` |
method based on the notion of an \\architranseme`〃

essentia"ya |exico-

graphica|equiva|ence betⅥ /een sOurce and target|anguages`\、 identi而 ed、Λth the he|p /丨

of a good descriptiVe dictionary in each of the tⅥ /o |anguages invo|ved〃 ZⅥ/art1989∶

(Leuven-

158)。

ArChitransemes he|p to estab"sh a re|ation betv√ een\、 nlicrostructura|′ ′shifts of ′shifts in narrat丨

a sernantic` sty"stic Or pragrnatic variety and \、 rnacrOstructura′

ve

fornl and discourse. XA/hen aρ p"ed tO Dutch trans|at丨 ons of spanish and Spanish-

ArneriCan ρrose ncti。 n betⅥ /een 196o and 1985` the |method re∨ ea|s a tendency toⅥ /ard specincati。 n and exp|anat丨 on - preCise丨 y the 吊nding that B|um-KuH

Condit1992`Tymoczko2000`∨ enuti 1996and2oo3

C hapter 25

Annie Brisset

THE SEARCH FOR A NATI∨ E LANGUAGE∶ TRANSLATION AN CULTURAL IDENTITY TraF,s/J古

eC/by ROsa″ /,cy

D

ge'Ga刀 lTOf,

G〃

à/,cy R。

als°

、 ve nccd n】 orc d1an a n1° thcr tonguc to con】 need a natlvc languagc

c int°

°ur o、、】 a, 、 vc

Gaston N1ir° n,t’ FfomJ,,cr虿 P'j″ J

舳撤j躜槲蚺弹l擀i i⒒

1990/1996

338

ANNIE BRISsET

n)ust be translatcd into a languagc that has n。

、 vriting systcm,Throughout history,

translators have had t° contcnd、 ith the fact that thc target languagc is de⒔ cient Ⅵ,hcn it comes t° translating thc sourcc text into that languagc such(lcHciencics can bc clearly idCntiRcd as, for cxamPlc, lCxical or n△ 0rPh。 ^syntactic dc⒔ cicncies

。r as Pr。 blcms。 fP。 lysCn1y N1orc。 ftcn,hoⅥ :eⅤ cr,thc dcicicncy in thc rccciⅤ in8 Ⅴith thc rclation bct、、ccn signs and thci1・ uscrs, a relati° n tbat c° dc has t。 d° 、 rcflccts such things as individuahty, social l)。 sition, and gcographical origin of the

SPCakCrs:

‘ ‘

lati° fr。 m

°nc translatc °r not 3HCrC,thc difHculty of trans~

thus thc rclatiⅤ cly si1nPle qucstion ariscs, should

translatc argot by argot,a patois by a PatoiS,ctc

nd。 cs

n。 t

,”

arise ion1thc lack。 f a sPeciHc translation language It ariscs,rather,

the abscncc in thc tarε ct languagc of a subc° dc equi、 alent t° thc onc used l)y

thc sourcc text in its rroducti° n ofthc s° urcc languagc Hoxxˇ should thc cockncy dlaloguc in P⒈fza’ 虿 Fit,n be translatcdP、 Vhat French languagc didcct eq证 valcnt shou)d

°f Bucnos Aires in translati。 ns 。fR° bert° Arlt’ s n。 Ⅴ clsP What varicty of Frcnch、 v° uld corresPond t。 the R。man dialect of thc i口 Via Nlcrulana in a translation of Cado Eluilio Gadda’ sQ1Ι cr P日 sriccidCc1o brⅡ rFo(Jc Γ bc 11scd to rendcr the lunfa1・

(l。

/lfcru`dnd? XVhat is thc Frcnch cquivalcnt of thc EngIish of thc Arnerican South in )o、 cls? such arc thc qucstions 1・ itually P° sed by thc translator, torn Faulkncr’ s 〗

bct、 vccn c。 n)Plcx

thc s。 uI・ cc tcXt and thc targct languagc, Thcsc I)r。 blClns bccon1c rnt)rc 、′ hcn hist。 rical ti1nc is factorcd in, Sh° uld thc translator rc~crcatc thc

托chng ofthc t"η c PCri。 d。 fthc tcxt f°

r thc c。 ntcΠ 1I)orary

shoukl the archaic forn1ofthc languagc bc1n°

rcadcrP Or,conⅤ crscly,

dcrnizcd to rnakc thc tcxt rn。 rc aCCcs-

siblc to thc c° ntemPorary rcadcrP Should Dantc, shakcsPcarc, cCr、 antcs, ()r Chauccr l)c translatcd int。 archaic languagc冫 should Ciccro’ s stylc bc Iˉ cndcrCd b) 4 The choicc 。f a targct vell~kno、 vn P° htician of】 ,a° dcrn tirucs冫 t11e style °fa 、 languagc l)ccomcs cⅤ cn morc dif丘 cult xxhcn thc tcxt tO bc translatcd is a Parody of

‘

a Ⅴaricty of thc sourcc languagc GcI‘ rcdcI, a‘ n1uscun1 1anguage” of Grcat Poland、

rroduced and Par。 dicd by Gornl)roⅥ icz in his Trtins-△ r`dn,・大,5iS a casc in l)oint on1dc⒔ cicncics in the rccciving s。 (lict) Translation Pr。 blcms can arisc not only ⒒・ but als。

sˉ

oln a surfcit of linguistic oPtions For cxan1Plc, in certain sOcictics, thc

crned laI)guage of mcn is di竹 trcnt iom that of womcn,and tllcsc di∏ 、renccs arc go、・ by Particularly Strict constraints Charles Taber and Eugenc Nida have discusscd thc Problcm °f、Ⅴhethcr the scriPtures sh° uld bc translated int。 thc languagc c)l Ⅴomcn6 XXrritings on thc translativc opcration abound 、hth such men or of 、 Ⅴ。rk, oudinh`g thc questi。 ns Translat。 rs address thesc issucs in Prefaces to thci1・、 on】 sOCiological,gcograPbdchciencies of the target languagc,dc6cicncics arising f1ˉ ical,or historical variation in thc sOurcc languagc. Although the targct languagc cannot alvvays Providc cquiⅤ

alcnts of thc sourc←

languagc,thc abscncc° f a targct languagC,thc langua思 c int。 ′ vhich onc translatc` is n【 ,tu皿 aⅡ y0ted as a忆 rmd translau。 n Pr。 lCm Onc c° tlld objcc・ t that thcr∶ ha、 c bcen instanccs in、 hich translation has"1dced creatcd lan思 uagcs Butthen thc1 ‘ ‘ 、・。rd‘ crcate,” l)ccausc ∶ 。uld11a、 c to bc somc agrcc111cnt on thc l)1cani11gc)f thc、 ˇ vr。 ng to assumc that thcsc languaε es had 11o Prior existcncc and th∴ ∶ xx° uld l)c 、 t’

k casc in Point is thc translation c)ft∷ translation crcatcd thcn1fr° nn、vhole Cl。 tb 户

Biblc by Luthcr, a translation that gaⅤ e risC t。 the Gcrn1an languagc In this ca` the dificulty of translation arosc【 ron1thc f`ct that thc targct languagc xx・ as I10t sin81C uni丘

cd lan:ua:cl)ut a numbcr of(halccts:

TRANsuATION AND CULTURAL IDENT1TY

339

G° od

Gcrman is thc Gcrman of the Pe° PlC・ But thc I’ c。 Plc spcak an numbcr of Germans. Onc must then translate into a Gcrman tlaat sOmchow riscs aboⅤ e thc mtll“ plici” of〃 unddrrcn witl△ otlt"jccdng in丘 nitc

them °r suPPressing thcm, Thus Luthcr attcmPtcd t°

0things∶ d° tⅥ广

tlanslate into a Gc1・ man that a Priori can only bc local,his° HocJ,d召

LIrsc乃

lati。 n, this l。

Jq口

ncd s。

wn German,

,but at thc samc ti1nc eleⅤ atc,by thc Ⅴcry proccss of trans~

cal Gcrman to thc status of a common Gcrman, a丿

tla菠

tlae Gcrmal△

hc uqt・

d山 d

in召 tJ召

not bcc。 me it陡 lf a language cklt

°ff frolll thC PeoPlc,hC had t。 Preserve in it somcthing ofthc l∫ unddrF召 n, of thc gcncral n△ odcs of cxPrcSSi。 n and of thc PoPuIar dialccts Thus, 、 vc Hnd at thc samc tilnc a consistcnt and dchbcratc usc oF a vcrⅤ °ral languagc, full of imagcs, cxPrCSSions, turns of PhraSc, t。 gcthCr、 vith a subtlc puri6cati° n, dc-dialcctahzation of this languagc t1・

Luthcr’

anslation constitutcs a srst dccisivc sel【 afHrmati° n of htcrarⅤ

s

Gcrman

Luthcr,thc grcat“ rc忆 rmcr,” was hcncc允 rth c° n蚯 dcrcd as a w1・ Itcr and

as a crcator of a langua:c

/

An° thcr cxamplc is thc rePlacemcnt of Latin by Frcnch aftcr thc cdict°

‘

f、厂 iⅡ

crs-

Cottcr♂ ts in thc sixtccnth ccntury By rcquiring that all ciⅤ il acts bc‘ Pron° unced, rcgistcrcd and dchvered to the Parties in thc French m° thcr tonguc/’ : Frang° is I

‘

sct into lmotion a translation movelncnt that hclPed‘ clcvatc Our、 ,ulgar丨

t°

nguel to

’ thc cqual of and as a m° del f° r thc。 thcr m。 re famous languages’ 9As a rcsult of this and cnsuing (lccrecs, ⅤcrnaCular Frcnch 、 vas t。 bccon1c the language of la、

v,

scicncc, and litcraturc, It acquirCd thC status of nati° nal languagc, thc founding languagc of thc Frcnch statc, strictly sPCaking, translati。 nd° cs n° t⒔ ll a linguistic Ⅴoid,n° m° re so in thc Francc of Du BcllaⅤ than in thc Gcrmanv of Luther Translation can, ho、 vcⅤ cr,

changc thc rclation。 f linguistic forccs, at thc institutional and symbohc lcvcls, by FdnfudJc tt’ 忱k tk Pl犯 c【 ’ f thc refcren冖 d Hcnri Gobard’ s tetraglossic analysis According t° his analysis, a cultural丘 eld, ° r a linguistic coⅡ 、 1nunity,has at its disP° Sal four tyPcs oflanguagc or subc° dc∶ rn￠召 ::it PoS“ blC rt)r thc Γ

l,aakr、

tˉ

LIF″

JdnJu口 Je, to usc distinctions Iron△

I

A v召 rn虿 cuFdr FcInJudJc, ′ Ⅴhich is l。 cal, sPokCn spontancously, lcss appr° priatc for c° mmunicating

considcrcd t° II

A /c/,icu`cIr F虿

than for c。 n2il,tzn1iaJ, and thC 。nly lan8uagC that can bc

bc thc mothcr t。 ngue(° r nativc languagc) n召 ud召 c,

'hich is national° r regional, lcarned。 ut° f ncccssity, ′ Λ

to bc uscd for c° mmunication jn thc citⅤ

Ⅲ

A rcre昭 nF,df‘ IaJuq',whcllis dcd to cdt刂 d,ord,and w"ttm⒍ a山 dons cnsurcs continuity in

1v

al△ d

Ⅴalucs by systcmatic1・ cfcrcnce t。 classic、 Ⅴ。rks of thc

Past

A△ ,Fhic口 F Fdn男 ud召 c,

′ Ⅳhich functi° ns as the ultirnatc rccoursc, Ⅴcrbal rnagic, 、 vh。 se inconnPrche11sibility is considered t° bc irrcfutablc Pr。 °f °f thc sacred ~

~ O

rcbrmisF Gcrmany,the re炙 rendal languagc was a加招忉n langu嗯 e h thc corPus uⅨ lCr rcx・ lcw,tllc goal of tl anslati° n is to In“ rcnasccnC’ as wcll as in“

340 ANNIE BRISSET suPPlant such forei8nf° rms。 f exPrcssion,、vhich arc Ⅴie、 ved as ahenating,litcrally disPossessing. Thc task of translati°

n is thus t。

rlacc thc languagc of thc Othcr

by a natiⅤ c languagc Not surPrisingly, thc natiⅤc languagc chosen is usually the

Ⅴcrnacular,“ thc linguistic birthri思 ht,the indchblc rnark of belonging’ "1Translati° n bcc° mcs an act of rcclai1ning, of rcccntcring of the idcntity, a rc-tcrritoriahzing

・languagc,but it clcvatcs a dialcct t。 oPCrati° n It docs n。 t create a nc、、

the status

ofa nad° nal and cultural languagc

‘ Translated

into QuoboCois’ ‘

The inclusi。 n ofthc ann° tation‘ traduit cn qu。

b造 cois’

’

(translated int。

Qu忐 b芑 cois)

on the c° Ⅴcr of Michel Garncau’ s translati° n 。f lfdcbcrh can bc cxPlained by the translation’ sr° le as a rc~tcrritoriahzing oPcration This rcfcrencc to thc languagc

。f

translati° n is a rcⅤ

language from Ⅵ lati。 n

ersal of usual proccdurc,、 vhich is t° inforlla thc rcader。 fd1c

`hich the、

vork has bccn translatcd Normally,thc languagc oftrans~

。f

is a giⅤ en; for rcadcrs, it is illlPhcit, undcrsto。 d, that t11c language

translation、 vill bc thc langua:e of their° 、 vn litcraturc, A French PubhShCr、 vould ncvcr P1・ cfacC a bo° k

‘

by Claude siIuon,ˇ 1argucritc Duras,or~Iichel T° urnier Ⅵ・ ith

thc ann° tation‘ 、 vrittcn in Frcnch” Thc rcadcr of a translation docs n。 t nccd tO bc

Ⅴhat language has l)ccn uscd to translatc thc f° rcign tcxt, Ho、 VCⅤ er, in cases 、 Ⅴherc the readeris unhkcly t。 bc a、 Ⅴarc。 fthc languagc c〉 fthc original tcxt,information about the languagc of origin is norn△ ally Pr。 vidcd 、 vith thc cxprcssion “ Translatcd from” But、 Ⅴhcn,against all n° rmal usagc,thcrc is a PcrccivCd need t。 ’ indicatc that thc translation is“ into(Qu。 t° kl、

b。 cois,’

it is Precisely bccausc it cannot bc

taken br grantcd that a w° rk will bc tlanslated into Qu芑 l)芑 c。 is,⒌ milarly,would ‘ one not、 Ⅴritc the ann° tation‘ translated into(Dccitan” on a litcrarⅤ 、 vork in Franc Thc ann° tation undcrsc。 rcs the marginahty of thc languagc But thcrc is a con-

ˉ

sidcrablc di± fc・ rence

bctwccn the hng0stic status of0ccitan and that of Qu造

Occitan is a (hffcrcnt sign systcn1 9om French, as Catalan is Qttcˉ bc・ csol s厶

not a山朊 rel△ t“ p sy虻 cm仔 om

F1cl△

ch∶

“

P为

b誉 cois,

△。m spanish

menoF‘

ind

1Ξ 「 J rhc J亻 "。 ‘ ‘ 12 Thus, thc cxprcssion 、 v。 uld ncⅤ cr bc t1ˉ anslated into Qu造 b芑 cois” traduit cn ・ Qu。 b。 c0F忆 rms Part of thc iclc° lo垫 cal construcuon of tllc P】 CSumc(l diⅡ eren∝ between“ Qu芑 b造 cois” and Frcnch Clcady,this annotttuon heralds thc birtla。 fa

languagc that translati° n、 viⅡ havc t。 bring to thc forc, or at lcast, cxPose, in the

PhotograPhic sense of thc vv。 rd This function。 f translati。 n, to giⅤ e morc cxposure to thc languagc,is rcinf° rccd by t11c pr。 hfcration。 f lcxic° graPhical studics。 f

Qu。 b。 coiS Ncw dicd° na"cs of Qud丈

c。 is

aPpCar almost yet△ rly.of thcsc,L芑 an(lrc

Bcrgcr° n’ s 、 vas the bcst~kn° 、 Ⅴn during the Pcri° d undcr study1; Thc dictiona1ˉ 缸ms

k“ to∞ 山灯

bctwcen Quob。 tl△

c PI・

dc历 Cd′

)

“ a爹 tlaall tl,demc,nstr敲 e,f not tl,cllllstr哎 t,tl△ e山限 rerlcc

and thc Frcnch。 f Francc T11c bll° wing cxamPleS,takcn△ ° lu 刀ondbo° k gr Cdnd山 dn∫ lcnch-J亻口nuc`Prσ 冖qu召 du FIdnf沁 c口力d山 C,,b) c。 is

sinclair R。 binson and Donald sn1id1arc a good i1lustrati° ical endcaⅤ °ur

n of such a lcxic。 graPh~

The handb° 。k,、vh° se vcry titlC is a scrious lnisnomcr,scts Out t(

“ angloPhone students that Canadian Frcnch is a sarate language It ha( the samc caPacity t。 Cxprcss thc 、 vholc rangc of human c。 ncerns as any other ProⅤ e t。

TRANs,LATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY tongue” 14 using a morc idcologically m° auth。 rs clivi(lc Frcnch and Qu芑

b誉 c° is

tiⅤ

341

atcd than naTⅤ c cate8orization, the

lexical itcms int。 three PSeud°

_c° ntrastiⅤ

c

groups∶ Cdnddcz

Trdns`d∠ Ⅰ on

Fr日 ncc

bcurrc(l’ arachidcs l“ t。 c泌 c。 lhnc

P含

mo

t。

de cacahou志 tcs

Pcanut buttcr

skm milk

cmPlacCmcnt cn

ParlCmcntairc

Parhamcnt Hill

PCntC du gouvcrn~

ment canadien olect。 rat

rclcv芑

dc notcs

corPs。 lectoral

elcctorate

Pie des n。 tcs au niveau uniⅤ ersitairc

transcriPt1s

c。

:een thc t、・ °types

of Frcnch,the rcadcr Ⅰ of thc handbo。 k、、 ill bc lcR、vith thc imPression that thc French。 f Francc is a N1ysti丘 Cd l)y thc allcgcd(hffcrcncc betⅥ

limitcd languagc,and that it is hndamenhl|inCaPal)le° f cxPrcssing“ Qu。 b。 cois rcality’

’(Dn

the。 thcr hand, L誉 andrc Bcrgcron desncs“ Quob。 cois/’ as opp。 Scd to syStcˉ m,m“ nly sPokcn but somctin1cs ⅥIrittcn by thc Qu誉 b芑 c。 is 16The existcncc of a Qu。 b。 is languagc is als°

Frcnch,as“ as唿 n peoPle”

tangiblc pro° f of thc cxist~

c°

‘

‘

cncc of a‘ Qu誉 b。 cois pcoPlc/’ in thc rcstrictive sensc of thc exPression‘ a PcoPlC” s∞ mPared with“ aP。 Pulation” Bergeron’ s Qu。 b。 cois is a languagc%ch with all t△

the tension of a smaⅡ PcoPle、 vh。 are still、 :ct tv￠

fr。

n1thcir birth。 n thc cⅤ c ofthc

、 valk among

cntyˉ srst ccntury,still shy in the Prescncc ofgroⅥ

`n~uPs,rCluctant t° t7This exPlains、 Ⅴhy so much importancc is Placcd° all th。 sc big pcoplc,” lati° cⅤ cn

n trans_

“

Wc haⅤ c

n,bccausc it provcs irrcftltably that thc Quob芑 coiS languagc exists

startcd to bc translatcd into。 thcr languagcs for those、 vho、vant to hcar° ur

‘ rnatantes’ hcard in ’ 1:ConⅤ crscly,trans~ T。 kyo,and Iuakc thc citizcns of Berhn drcam of our f° rcsts.’ (hstinctncss,to talk about N1clⅤ

ille t。

thc Amcricans,1nakc the

lating canonical works。 r litcrary masterPicCCs Such as lfczcbeFh into Qu誉 clttt’

n1Pt t° lcgitim讫

e Quob。 cols by deⅤ

tlting k f1・

om迁 ss忱 tus灬

b。 cois is an

a dhlecˉ t

R ProⅤ es

that it is thc lanε uagc of a Pc。 plc and that it can rlacc Frcnch as thc languagc(〉 f

hteraturc fc)r its PcoPlc HCrc,

山cr° lcs arc rcⅤ

crscd∶ the g。 al of a translation is

not to Provi(lC an intr。 ducti° nt° thc Othcr or to mcdiatc thc forcign、 vork, It is to、冫 0uCh f° r thc cxistcncc of the languagc n and,by so doing, v。 uch for thc cxistcncc of a Qu。 b。 cois‘ ‘ PcoPlC” Thus, 、 vhcn Shakcspcarc, Chckh° Ⅴ, and Brecht are giⅤ cn thc task 。f cstabhshing Qu。 b。 c° is as a litcrary languagc in its own right,and ultimatdy as a national the f° rcign、 vork that is givcn a rnission-—

°f

translati。

la11gua思 c, thCy arc also giⅤ

cn the task° f

re∏ ecting thc rcality of thc s。 ciety that

sPcakS that languagc,of htcrally sPcaking for it,or of being its lnirror 'Γ af° rcign text is adaptcd° r“ culturally translatcd/’

hus,、 vhen

it stands to rcason that it、 vill bc

汀anslatcd

into“ Qu。 b忐 c° is” 19 ’ ‘ 1Ⅱ he annotation‘ traduit cn quobocois’ and, at a diⅡ erent lcⅤ el,thc Pr。 hfcra~

tion of lexic。 graPhical、

v° rks

arc both signs° f institutional c° nΠ ictin QuCbCc Thc

battlc has begun against thc languagc that hithcrto scrⅤ cd as a referential vchiclc

This language is, of coursc, Frcnch, Frcnch is not a forcign languagc in Qucbcc,

342

ANNIE BRIsSET

as Latin or Italian、

Ⅴerc

’

in Du BellaⅤ s thuc; yet it has suddcnly bccn rcjcctcd as

hre唿 n,thtlt厶 ,incomPrehCnsn)lc,c。 nsder,hr cxamplc,tl△ is er1FFusFrdF氵

on dc`d`口 n男 uc

quJln苕

cxtltact【

om D白 %nsc

c° jsc by N1ich志 lc Lalondc;

Thus,cⅤ cn f° r thc1n° st cducatcd Pc° Ple in thC country,thcrc is still a 、 vidc gap bet、 vccn sp。 ken and 、 vrittcn languagc and a kind 。fc。 nΠ ict that could cause:rcat an8uish and tcrrible fcehngs of dichot。

my vvhcn

a、 Ⅴ h。 le chagrin tries to cxPrCsS itsclf, And it is truc that,in that light,

thc French language of Francc is like a sccond languagc to us,an ahnost

forcign languagc becausc it(loes not havc a strong cmotional cOntcnt and in)1η cdiate allusi° ns t°

our affccts and cxPcricncCS20

Rcjecting Frcnch is tantt△ mount to dimlllating in∞ rnal bilingualism,a bilingudism that Puts the vcrnacular languagc in conflict、

vith thc rcftrcntial;a languagc without

‘ ‘

PohshCd” lan8uagc from 。Ⅴcrscas, a

constrai11ts is sct against a highly rcgulated,

‘ language thus not suitable for translating local cxPcricncc, The ‘ chagrin” that is inCxPrcssiblc in thc Frcnch of Francc is thc“

cconon1iC

Conqucst/’ thc“ col。 nization/’ thc s。 ci。 ~ of thc nati。 nahst intcrprctation of

“ oPPrcssi。 n/’ thc vcry foundati。 n

history, both rcal and idcol。 gically c。 nStructcd21 Thc langua思 c conflict vvas Onc cxprcssion of nati° nahst asPirations at thc ti⒈ nc,Anothcr,in thc Pohtical arcna,、 Ⅴas

tlac nadonah蛀 moⅤ cmcllt tllat lcd to tl,c bi⒒ h。 fthc Ptalu Qu芑 b芑 cois ancl tllc cmσ _ gence oftl△ c Front(lc Lib。 ration du Qu芑 l)Cc Thc dcman(l忆 r tcrritorial an(lp。 litical

autonomy 、 vas

logically cxtendcd t。

a dcmand for a distinct natiⅤ c language

SuddcnlⅤ , the French of bccame unsuitablc f° r c° mn△ unication am° ng

Qu。 b誉 cois Thc nationahst d° x虿 uscd a s° hPsistic conct of langua8c to CxPlain

’ 、 vhy Frcnch、 vas suddcnly incaPablC of Cxprcssing the‘ ‘ affccts and exPcricnccs’ of the Qu。 b忐 c° is PcoPlC,wbo,it w° uld aPpcar,d。 n° t sharc thc aⅡ cc“ and exPcri~ ences of othcr Pe° PlCs and other nations A托 cr being in 、vith a nc、 :rcahty, French had undcrgonc a transf° rn△ ation,、vith the f° ll。、 ving rcsult:“ cⅤ cn、vhcn thc vv° rds

are thc samc, thcy cxPress anothcr rcahty, anothcr cxPeriCncc’

aPPcar t° l)c thc same langua8e,but this is(lcctivc Qut・

’ 22 It luay

l)cc French is n°

l°

n8cr

thc samc language as thc Frcnch of Francc This argumcnt is gcncrally cd by allegedly irrcfutablc proof - a Ⅴ。cabularⅤ hst, Thc n△ anuals and dicti° naries

“ mentioned abovc arc a develoPmcnt of this trcnd, ThcⅤ scicnti⒔ c” als° lcnd 21to thc argumcnt允 r thc diⅢ crcncc bctwccn d1c tw。 languagcs A casc in point being thc hst° f Qu忐 t)。 c° is words Pro(luccd by Mich志 lc Lal。 nde,which ’“ ‘ ’ includcs such un~Frcnch、 Ⅴ°rds as‘ ‘ savanc,’ raquCttC/’ and‘ fcu-follct’ !2+ ThC ycar 1968markcd the bcginning of chan8cs in Qucbcc’ s rclauon t。 thc Frcnch° f Francc T。 satisfx・ thc necds。 f the nati。 nahst causc,Frcnch、 vas hcld uP as an ideological nction __ a socially and geograPhically hom。 gcncous languagc, hom℃ encOus to tllc pollt of behg totalitaⅡ an W灬 k not co而 nuc,tldy洳匀ectecl to normahzati° n by a small grouP of acaden1icians,and to ccns°

rship by a handful

°f intcllcctuals in ParisP This P。 rtrayal of thc Frcnch language as a frigi(l and、 vith~ crcd lan8uagC,as oPposed to a Ⅴigorous,natural Qu誉 b芑 c° is,has bccn、vidcly dcbatcd

and denounced by rllany2s Wc、 vill,thus,not Pursuc the1nattcr hcrc sufscc it t。 say that the languagc conHict that dcⅤ el° Pcd ar。 und1968is clearly symptomatic of a changc in rclati° ns vvith thc Forcigncr,

TRANsLAT10N AND GULTURAL IDENTITY

Qu。 b。 cois h thc market ofsymboIic cOmmod⒒ =`liI1guistic cot】 )n1unity is a n】 arkct Its、

343

沁s

crnacular and rcfcrential languagcs are its

・ syn1b° hc c。 n1Iu° ditics, cach、 Ⅴ ith its o、 vn usc Ⅴ aluc and its o、 Ⅴn cXChangc 、 alue Thc circulati° n ofthese c° n1n△ odities is思 ovcrned by Po、 Ⅴcr relations A linguistic colη munity aPPcars to t)c a sort。 cxP'Cssi° ns tand messdJcs circur口

tε

虿s ct,`″

fl,tvc″ ’ dr1er in"hich” ° rds,

modiFics,、、厂c may aSk。 ursclvcs、 Ⅴhat

vords,cxPrcssions and mcssagcs,bcgin~ Ⅵ’ ith thC Ⅴalucs accordin{:: t0 、・ hich they are consumc(iⅠ and cⅠ c/,dnqc‘ 氵 ,2° rulcs goⅤ crn thc circulation of、

nin{::

As nati° nalist QucbCc bcga11asscrting ltsclf at thc cnd°

f thc1960s,its vcrnacular

and rcfcrcntial lan思 uagCs Suddcnly startcd co1nPcting、 vith cach。 thcr,Thus,in

thc

market ec。 nomy of symb° lic comm° (lities,thcrc was comPcbtiol)bctwcc11thc cxchanEc Ⅴalucs。 f thc txs。 languagcs,0n the cttltural lc、 el,t11c Qu造 l)芑 cois l)1ˉ 。duct had to takc Prcccdcncc 0、 cr the impo1・ ted Pr。 duct This gave risc to a form 。f Pr。 tCctionis1n, thc ajn1° f、 ^=hich vvas t。

Qu。 b。

liInit importation and circulation° fn° n-

cOis S)'mb° lic c° mm。 ditics in culturahnstitubons such as thcatrical Publis11ing

11c languagc c。 nflict vards and :rants η Γ Π1irrorcd the11c、 vly cngagcd battlc to conqucr thC symb° hc-con、 moditics n1arkct,

and Production, criticisn1, and htcral^)' a、

that is,the battlc to bccolllC:institutionally(l。 n1inant

In the thcatrc, f° rcign symbohc c° mmoditics 、 vere don1inant, but thcy rcmained so by(lchult statistics I …l re、 eal,howevc1ˉ ,t11at as t11cn辶 IIt11)er of Qu忐 b。 cois Pr。 ductions incrcascd, thc cxchangc value of artistic crcations such as 允rcign translatlons was morc and morc scllously er° dcd Ifthey wcrc t° rlaCc ˉ Frcnch Productions,、 vhich、、cre clCarly d° n1inant,and if thcy飞 Λ crc to aPPr。 Priate thc syIt1bohc capital 11cld b) thcsc Producti。 ns, Qu。 b。 c° is Producti° ns had to bc (li∏ 。 rent This was tl△c丘 rst c° n山 ti。 n hrthc cmc1ˉ gcncc of a dlsunctly Qu。 l9营 cois theatlical institution.Hcrc is how Jacqucs Dubois cxplains thc“

law of distinctncsC’

as it aPPhcs t° thc litcrary institution∶ at thc tirnc、 vhen an instituti()n is bcing foundcd,ˇ

vc scc thC dCvcl

opmcnt of legiti1nacy 、厂 ithin thc htcrary sPhcrc, and this lc{::itllalacy dc丘 nes thc actiⅤ ity of this sPhCre as autonomous and distinctive , , ,

Thus, xx:riters Hnd tbcn1selves engagcd in the l°

gic of distjI1ctncss, If

(listinctness bec。 mcs thc issuc for thcΠ 1,and thatisindeed h。

、 0nc gains

the rcc。 gnition° f onc’ s PcerS and comPctit° rs,thc Only、 vay to achicvc

rccognition is t。

n△

akc° nc’ s、 vritin:culturally markcd in a、 vay that is

Pcrtincnt in a giⅤ cn literary6ckl‘

27

In thc dramat1c arts,languagc、 vould fulHl thc disti11ctiⅤ e hncti。 n that、 vas nccdcd for Qu。 b。 cois Proclucti° ns to bccomc institutionaⅡ y rec。 glllzcd and autonomous

Ⅴ is-;~Ⅴ is Frcnch and French~Canadian Pr。 ductions

344

ANNIE BRIssET

The distinctive ft】 nction of Qu适 bocois This breahng avvay int° a saratc acsthctic Particularity cl。 scly ParaⅡ clcd c° nte∏ 1_

porary Political deman(ls,with dlth0r ram⒗

tˉ

a‘ ons.Ⅵ 厂 c haⅤ e sccn tll菠

the qucst for a natiⅤ c lanε uagc is ticd to the need t°

,in QuebCc,

l)e diffcrcnt,notto bc nìxed

in with thc° thers in thc North Amcrican mclting pot: nous(listincts difforents

亩nc point c° nf° ndrc IwC[arc] distinct

diffcrcnt nC〉

‘

t to bc conftlscd with anyone12S

Qy犭 b舀 c1F犭

’

(Qucbecness)dcnnes itsclf as thc scarch for abs°

lutc distinctncss,a

Ⅵill countcract thc dangcr。 f assilmdation, The threat° f assirnilation looms on a numbcr of fr。 nts First, a battle n△ ust l,e 、厂 agcd a思 ainst thc distinctncss that

assin1ilation inhcrcnt in the P°

siti。

n()f a franc°

phonc con1munity hcmmed in by

angloPhoncS :ut, of c。 ursc,thc dangcr of an思 hcization comcs not only fr。 n△ thc gcoPol“ cal s廿 ucturcs ofQucbCc within d1c Canadlan、 dcradon;止 also comes iom

・ thc proxirnity of the1Jnited Statcs,、 Λ hiCh Cxerts a strong sociocultural fascination ides QucbCc with y all Powcrfttl,thc umted sttltes Pro′ ・ its neⅥ /cultural modcls and cam bc vie、 ved,thercforc,as a sccond assin△ ilating front Economically and P。

liucaⅡ

A thir(l thⅡ atcning iontis immigration Thc brcigncr,who is callcd“

‘ ‘

cthnic,” and“ aⅡ oPhonc”

immigrant,”

。r“ nco Qu。 b芯 c° is,” is seen as thc cncmy Ⅵ,ithin∶

Mais au contrairc,亩 pcine PeuvCnt ils Ilcs Qu芑 b忐 c。 iS]s’ aⅤ enturcr hors dc lcur dcmcure sans 合trc ccrnos dc t。 utcs Parts Par dcS puissances cstrangi志 rcs tant♂ t Anglaise, tant♂ t Am芯 ricainc, Ⅴo△ e, rocc1umcnt, Itahcnnc,qui lcs r° uSsCnt亩 lcur bon Plaisir et lcs s° umcttcnt容 leurs lois, priⅤ

il心

gcs ou droits acquis dc Plus ou moins longuc date sur ce

tcrritoirc , , ,

[But° n the c° ntrary,they(the Qu誉

b。 cois)can

hardly st outsidc thcir

d° 。 rs、 vith° ut bcing surr° unded on all si(lcs by f° rcign P。、:ers, som c-

ti1nes Enghsh,sometirncs Alucrican,and1norc rcccntly,Itahan,、 vho fcel △ee∞ P“ h them asi(lc and su匀 cd thCm t° thcir laws,Pri“ lCgcs,or rights tbat、 vere acquircd a rnorc Or lcss long tin1c ago on this land

This way of thinking attributcs t。

,129

the Italian,thc symbol of all iml【 ligrants,thc

assirnilating charactcristics of thc angl° Phone Thc assilaldati° n of franc。 Ph° nCs is

°f

numbers. Morcover, i∏ 11nigrants、 vere quick Cn° ugh t。 decidc、vhich gr° uP to m° del thcmselⅤ es aRcr, the n1inority group or thc don△ inant PrCstigious grouP, Imbucd 、1th thc Amcrican drcan、 i∏ 1rnigrants had n。 t lcft cⅤ crything bchind only to end uP in thc camp of a loni7cd, thc l。 scr, and thc Ⅴ icti1n grouP that insists On (licting itsclf as thc c。 an undcniablc thrcat, if only by virtue

thc la、 v° f

TRANS⊥ ATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

345

It is easy to undcrstand、 vhy thcir allcgianccs go sPontaneously to thc angloPhoncS,

ho,in hct,havc traditi。 nally cxtendc(la warm wclcomc to immigrants,excludC(l, Ⅵ・ ccre, fro∏ 1 franc。 Ph。 ne institutions on linguistic or rchgious as thcy themsclⅤ cs Ⅴ cs an agent of assinailatiOn But this negativc

groundS The in11uigrant thus bec°

n△

P° rtrayal° f thC in11nigrant goes cⅤ

en futˉ thcr

It charactcrizcs thc nc、 vly arrivcd as

the conqucr° r, thc usurPer, 、 vh° rcccivcs sPccial trcatment. XlVc kno、 Ⅴ h° 、 / thc Enghsh got⒖ ・ hcrc they arc;thcy havc hist。 ry on their sidc But Ⅵ广 hCrC docs an Itahan

(a Portugucsc,a Greek,a Pole,a Haiuan,a Vietnamesc,a Chilcan,a Turk),d1at ‘

barc~f° 。 t pcasant、 vho just arriⅤ ed ycsterday on‘ our” soil, gct such rightsP Thcrc

is an intcrcsting transfer of blamc i11this diction of thc ilx,n1igrant, f°

r it is clcar

that,in rcahty,thc in1llligrant does not cxaCtly occuPy thC uPPCr social,cc。

non1ic,

cultural,and Pobtical cchclons° f Qucbcc society Is thiS(liction not,in fact,an n tl△ c mar要 n。 f in山 dment spcclh∞ l圩 dcs唿 ned to jusu、 kcelDlng immigran“ ° sOcicty,outsidc all sphcrcs of auth。

rity in Quebcc?In a ProⅤ incc“ undcr sicgc/’ thC

y1犭

f#艺忿l苜嘿哏思飞 exPresSing thc idca of thc“

f°

rcign PcrⅡ

f‰

’ ,’

跳r1fJ冱严甜找:1tl

a Peril that had。 nly bccomc morc thrcat-

ening、 vith thc arriⅤ al° f thc Victnamcsc,the `犭 Chilcans,and thc Tan1ils∶ 卜 … llC Qu。 bcc Cst d白 ,diⅤ is芑 contlˉ e lui m念 mc,D’ unc Part,Montr芑 al, quise Ⅴcut n2u丿 FicuFrureI,d。 nc° l,JccrjΓ cm召 nr dnrI~qu舀 bJcois,"sc莎 o′ CmenF,dσ ns s召 s

nJ° c。 mPosdnFes;d’

autrc Part le grand QuobCc,quijoue la Pohuquc(lc

autruche ct s° mbrc(lans Γ° PtimiSmc tacuque I …lN。 Sg° uvcrne~ n1ents sonts pr♂ ts亩 sacri⒔ cr t° ut cc qui nous cst chcr,langue,hist° irc, l’

Pour m卩 […

d。 ccⅤ

or“ s、伽 △sP汕 Ⅱqu6”

Qucbccis创 Ⅱa(ly&“ d∝l

“ l△ ich

against it丈

,

r Ontl.e。 nc hal1d,M。 lltKd,

hkcs t° scc itself as i,,u`ricuFrurd丿 , Fh1Is° 灯 cc西 Γ召夕 αn芒 i∞ 适b舀 cois,

Visccrdf,,in jrs n∞

coi,,Pos1r1on;on tlle。

thcr,QuCbCc as a wh° lc,which

Plays the PohticS。 f thc。 strich,dr° vvning in tactical oPti1nism . Our govcrn1nents are ready tO sacri丘 cc cⅤ crything、 vc hold dcar, languagc, hist° ry,s°

‘

as not to(lisaPP° int thcsc‘ Pohtical refugees” 13。

Clearly,hcre,grouP mclllbership is not fortuitous or a natural statc of affairs It is guidcd by nationahst intcrcsts, and l)y dehniti° n d。 cs n。 t allo、 vf° r inclusi。 n °f 11C0-Qu忐 b芑 c° iS Thcy havc the misfoltume of bcing what thcy arc∶ forcigncrs.This argument, vvhich is(lcsigncd to PrcⅤ ent thc diss。 lution。 fthc Qu。

b。 c° is idcntity,

tacitly reProduces the d。 n△ inant/subordinatc schcma that is so vigorously dcnounccd、 vhcn thc grouP is sPcaking ofitsclf.Any rclationshiP、 vith thc Otl△ cr sccms inconcciⅤ ablc outsidc this framcⅤ cork of d° n△ ination This is because the Other is

at huk and wcars a mask,as insinuatcd by￡

thcr Blais’ s usc of qu。 tati。 n

marks,

status of“ Pohtical refugec” suspcct— — no doubt,illcgiti1natc les h thcir。 wn coun⒍ b。 cois al c tragic⒔ y,Forcigncrs usc 8urcs,e虹

、 vhich makc thc。 fscial Only thc Qu造

r as Ⅴ ictilns and abusc thc gcncrosity of an ovcrly a falsc idcntity to thCmsclⅤ cs° 【

hosPitablc country Thc poctry of NΙ ichel Garncau oPP。 SCs thc fascist undcrtoncs °f such rhet° ric ⒈hs aPol° gia for cr° ss-brccding uscs Poctic languagc to rcⅤ cal and “ acclaim thc mixed background d thc Qu芑 b芑 cois idcntity∶ rai tt,ut lc跎 ng m♂ lo/

346 ANNIE BRIsSET lcs anc:trcs s° nt

I…

j”

l“

I】 1cs芯 tran:crs

/ un I)cu(rhurabt・ naquois / un pcu d’ irlanc。 ssais

My blo。 d isaⅡ mke(l uP/n1)ancCSto1ˉ

/a litdc Irishsc。 tch.

’ ’ j In anodler poem,“

L’

st△

re hRigneⅡ /Hural● naquos ” jng to thc Future) c・

aⅤ enll c含 ll。

(caⅡ

hc eⅤ cn、 vritcs:

qu’ on r誉 ahsc

qu芒 b誉 cois con11)icn n° us son1rncs

ec(rurcmn△ cnt racistcs b"e jamcs r芑 sc1、 cs r/hmc de n志 κs ε n1audits angl缸 s⒒ ang缸 s itaIicns juiI丨 , icd lice~sauⅤ agcs Pol° kS-chickcn Π PiS qu’

°n arr念 tc ga t° ut

Ithat wC Qu。、飞'c

b誉 c。 is

d’ suitc.

realizc how sickcningly racist

arc

JamCs-Bay rescHations lllggσ rh” hmC11rscd-En型 ish FrC11ch_Italians刂 cws P° laks~chickcn flied licc~saⅤ n。、 v lct’

agcs

s stop that right n。 ks、

131

The forcigncr P° ses a Pr。 blcm PrcciScly becausc hc introduccs hctcr。

gcncity,

impurity血 to thc Qu芑 b。 cois∞ mmunity Nous au廿 es dit couran11ncnt ce PcuPlC 容Pr° P。 s dc lui1uδ me n1arquant ainsi d’ un m° t I’

intilnc ambiguit(÷ ∶

dc s° n idcntit忐

[“

N。 uS autrcs”

sayS frcqucntly this Pc° plc ab。 ut itsclf

undcrhning thus、 vith a singlc、 vord thc inti1nate ambi思 uity

。f its

identity132

Ideally,n° brcign PrcsCnce should eⅤ er st“ n the Qu芑

b。 cois

idcntity Doing away

⒒ ∶mt￡嗖喵叮盅捎Ji黥$爿袋显贤亻∶ ∶ tr Ⅱ° 辶 :已

i置

l】

l跣

i扌 }【 tl∶

matlcally qcctcd

m thc grouP,con⒔ ncd t° thcir own(li仔 rcnccs Thc⒔ rst~PerS° n plural,“ n。 us,” is uscd tojustio・、 a1ˉ I° us ki11ds° fdiffercncc~ethnicity,laL1guagc,iden~ tity,and saration Closc association bctⅥ harmhl,and thcrcfc,rc t。 esta腕

sh℃

bc dePl° rCd

th厶 ℃ para∞ n

'ccn‘

‘ nous”

and‘ 1cs autrcs” is dangerous,

ThC“ Qu。 b。 c。 is

languagc” is entrustcd with

and∞ ns“utcs,hc跤 d,tk df占

r召

n冖口 Ψ cc歹 ∞

d the

Qu芑 b芑 c⒍ S r thc Frcnch languagc is n° l()n:Cr suⅢ ocnt,it is becausc thc stakcs are no longer si1uPly linguistic; thcy havc bcc° n△ c toPol° gical Langua思 c must bc c° ~ cxtcnsive Ⅵith

a tcrIˉ

itorv Thcrc can bc11。

sharing of language or tcrritory

TRANS、 LATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

347

The enigmatic Qu((:∶ b((:∶ cois Ianguage3l Gaston Miron l11akcs a(listincti。

‘

‘

n bct、 vcen‘ 1nothcr tongue” and‘ native languagc/’

a distinction,he says,the Qu。

b。 c。 is

vance of this distinction bct、

∷ ccn

nccd to makc34H。 wd。 cs hc cxPlain thC rclc conCts that, in actual usagc, arc Onc and

t、 vo

’ thc sam Hc does not(lc6nc、 vhat hc n)cans by‘ ‘ native languagc,’ but hc h。 lds up as the symbol of p。 htical libcration

小爪iron’ s

natiⅤ

it

c languagc is still Frcnch,l)ut

it is not sPokCn in thc same cultural and socioP° htical circun1stanccs as Frcnch, In fact,R//liron uscs thc n°

on Ⅵ・ hich

ti° n

of a natiⅤ c languagc as an antithesis t° a serics of axi° ms

his、 vh° le argumcnt is built∶ if a natlⅤ c

languagc is to cmerge, Qucbec QuCbCc is frccd °f its col° nial s。 ci° _ economic constraints,沁 s ncw|emcrgCcl nat打 e languagc can bc used ttD justi灯 thc

n1ust rkl itsclf。 f its c。 l° nial status; °nCc

rcjection of Frcnch culturc Thc cxistcncc of a natiⅤ c languagc PrcsuPPosCS that its ‘ sPcakCrs arc‘ in thc、vorld acc° rding to a culture,that is acc。 rding to an ontology”

、'hich is unicluc t° that languagc, and to that language only In other、 vords, thc

cmcrgcncc° f natiⅤ

a natiⅤ

e languagc imphcs thc chI△ lination of alterity 3s To acquirc a

c languagc is to be reborn in a frcc country, to havc a country entirely to

oncsclf Reclairning onc’ s nativC languagc naturally leads to thc idca° that exists in

f a Pure nation

‘ ‘ the consciousncss of thc 、 vorkl” 36 Thcir 0、 vn natiⅤ c languagc or

national language is a sign of thc unity and Purity Of the Qu忐

the distinctive kature of what Gaston Mir° n calls the“

b忐 cois“

PeoPle”

QLIJbJcdn∠ hroPc,”

It is

thc homo

qucbeccnsis,Who sccs himsclf,to usc、 Vonmann’ s rc(lcr,“ as a ncw man” who comes from a s虿 rdrc branch of the devclopmcnt of humanity s^ NΙ iron’ s nativc lan思ua思 c doeS n。 t exist It is a Pohtical P。 stulatc

on thc rejecti° n ofthc Othcr∶

“ °nly

Poliucal acti°

founded° n an idcntitⅤ fctish and

n can rcstorc him[thC Qu。 b忐 coisl

’ 3:ThC call f° r a rcturn een culturcs,’ to his hom°gencity,the basis for exchangc bct、 ∷ nc Thcrc secmsto bc n。 a、 varcncss of thC t° h° m° gcncity is not cxaCtly a subtlc° fact that therc is no such d1ing as a hom° gcncous Culturc, n°

homogene。 us

httˉ rattlκ

In(lccd,thc ldc。

l。

more than thcre is

gy of homogcn00rqccts all clialo空

sm

and is,thus,a forn△ 。ft。 talitarianis1u39 Creatin8a diStinction bct、 vccn a nativc language and a m° thcr tongue entails more than the reaPProPriati° n of thc natiⅤ c languagc, a languagc clcformcd and

ahcnatcd by intcrkrcnce△ om En掣 ish Thc disuncti。 n also imPhCS r句

ccti。

n ofthc

mothcr tonguc,、 vhich,in this case,is thc languagc of a“ f。 rcign” culturc,thc Frcnch culturc,Picrrc Gobin Points out、 Ⅴhat this distinction sPcci丘 cally rncans to the Playˉ Ⅵtight“ hⅤ ing in a socicty that bears the luarks。 fc。 l。 nial exPcriencc” The author “ CxPCricnccs cvcn lη 0re Prof° undly thc diStancc bctⅤ ￠ ccn‘ indigcnous’ languagc and ‘ .ritin思 f° reign’ Ⅵ c thc samc linguistic hcritagc,that is t° say, ,cspccially if both haⅤ ’ 40Furtherm。 rc,sharing a languagc、 vith if thcrc is d氵卩 cl rather than bi`Ⅰ n卩 dFisn,’ òss氵 sit French dOcs not 、 Ⅴcll 、 vith a sohPsistic and °ntol° gical conct °f culture A∝ °rcling to this linc。 f tlainbng,thc mcDthcl tongue ofthc Qu忐 b芑 c0s厶 someonc 1′

clsc’

s languagc,in thc samc、 Ⅴ ay that thcir nativc country,、 vhich has bccn dcsPoilCd

by the Enghsh, has bcc。 n1c someonc else’ s c° untry Theref° re, clairning onc’ natiⅤ e language mcans rcjccung onc’ sm° ther,seⅤering a tie that,in any case,was neⅤ cr nourlshin思

:

s

348 ANNIE BRISsET Ya til doncqucs unc Langue Qu誉 becquoysc, ou Quob芯 c。 uayse, ou kob誉 k° uazc distincte dc la Francaisc commc cellc-ci l’

。tait

nagut・

latin(lans laquelle jc PuissC m’ cxpomcrP D’ aucuns aussi Pr。 tranchcr ccttc quCstion quc lcnts⒊

rc du

mPtS Δ

tranchcr lc c。 rdon on△ 1)ihcal qui lcs

rchc⒊ la lM♂ rc-Patric, souticnncnt PorcmPt。 ircmcnt quc non ct quah⒔cnt dc barbarc&i1nPurC la Parlurc dc nOstrc‘ ulgairc” qu’ il faudrait `・ parlcr inePtcn1Cnt chaticr sans Piti。 c。 mmc unc fagon tout au Plus dC ⒏an ct△ ls IIS there indced a Qu。 becqu。 yse, 。r Quobcc° uaysC or k誉 b芑 k。 uazc languagc distinct from French, in the 、 vaΥ Frcnch uscd t° be distinct

分om

L'c△

tin,in which I can cxprcss myselρ

somc are as q山 ck to answcr

this qucstion as thcy arc sloⅥ 厂t° cut thc umbilical cord that c° nnccts thcm t。 thc Mothcr Country;they lnaintain that thc ans、

cr is siluPly

no,and say that the lan思 uagc of our“ Ⅴ ulgar” is a barbarous and impure

vay。 f sPCaking that sh° uld bc Punishcd mercilessly for l)cin8an int 、

way ofsPeakng French141 R/Iothcr tonguc is n。 t thc san1cn。 tion for A/1ich志 lc Lal° ndc as it is f° r Gaston Miron Lal° nde’ sc° nct of m。 thcr t。 nguc corrcsPonds rn。 rc to、 vhat Mir° n tcrms a“ natiⅤ c” languagc, For Lalondc, thc mothcr t° nguc is n。 t thc language of thc ‘ m°thcr country,a borr0、vcd languagc,、vith‘ a French suPcrior lincage, dcvoid of

42Thc n△ othcr t。 ngue is truly the all our turPitudc,thus of a lcss、・ ulgar Culturc”

language° ∴my mllther Ila hngue⒊ ma m&cj It“ thc languagc of one’ s rotDts,hll of“ bvelⅤ w° r(ls.… inⅤ cllt∝ l tcJ dcsc“ bc,忆 r cxam1,lC,Fes bord叨 cs0n sh° rc lte),

氵召 sb。 rdiF`@ns(Piles。

fin sl△

。rc

icc),Jcs/;rd° chcs(ullclC℃ rowtla),arld助 sc犭 dri爸 rcs(cedar

’ +;Thc m0thcr t° ngue 8r° vCs),and。 thcr c。 mlnon things in our、 vild surroundings’ is an Edcnic, natiⅤ c, natural languagc, dating fron△ the idyllic cra。 fc。 l。 nization

’ (when“ we’ wcrc thc col。 nizers) In th° Se days,it was a iee languagc,a language

in Perfect harmony with the ttxrritory of thc Qu。 resist,“ ncithcr

l)造

cois,a lan8uagc n()thng could

thc bluc spruce,nor the、 vhite cedar,nor thc Plains,n。 r tbc he∏ 11ock

sprucc,that sO a、 vcd our ancestors but did not leave therll sPeechlCss and unable t。・ +4Lal° fn°

namc thcm’ nde’ s dcsnition ofmothcr t° nguc is full。 stalgia for a ParadiSe ihcn tllc Qu。 l)忐 cois could inⅤ cnt their。 wn namcs ft,r things,whcn l。 st,a timc Ⅵ the Qu芑 b芑 c。 is language was“ Cratylean” and in C° ml)lctC harmony with naturc Thc dctcrioration of thc languagc foll。 af。 reign Po、

Ⅵfcd thc l。 ss° fthc c。 untrⅤ to thc、・ cnal hands of

icr∶

A la cl缸 re f。

nt"nc(lu Tor。 nto Stock Exchangc il cn

coulc des doⅡ ars s。 us n° s(loigts c。 d’

am。 ur P° ur la bclle damc dcs lη

brr。 u

εoutfourou

n】 1ne

billcts

a⒒ rcs

xouFⅠ nlinii,,ini crr￠ l,,'rrdJ,茨 J,m忿 sFrix

attcndais un vrai languagc l⒊

o讧 il n’ y avait que(lcs ac bouffcr tout cru tout、 △vant Picuvrcs pour l△

j’

crissc dc cahcc dc tabarnaque le j。

ur。 tl j’ ai pcnso hors dcs fhnt♂ mcs adn1is Penso dc

ce qu’ est viⅤ re io je n’ al su que sacrer Projl∶ 丨 :llner

TRANsLATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

349

In thc clCar f° untain° fthc T。 ronto StoCk Exchange 丨 ugh our⒔ ngers likc loⅤ c

v thr° d° llars fl° 、

notcs for thc bcautiful ladⅤ

ΛouF1i,,inim∫ 刀 j

brrou JoLIdourou I、 vas

of thc masters CrrCzJ, rrrdJ,攵 hn2δ

s芒

riX

cxpccting a rcal languagc in thc Placc、 vhcrc thcrc Ⅴ vas

only octoPuS to Cat1nc con1plctcly ra、 v and totally ahⅤ c crisse dc c含 hcc

dc tabarnaquc

thc day I thou8ht outsidc of thc acctablc ghosts thought about what it is t° hvc hcrc I could° nly swear Pr。 f。 l△ ltics14s

In a lyrical,hulη °rous , Paul Chamberland’ als°

sP° cm“ L’ afε chcur hurle”

takes uP thc tbcmc。 fn° stalgia for a Pure languagc unsPoⅡ ed by tllc Other ‘

HC CxPresscs his anguish that a‘ truc language” is impossil)le and sings thc Praises of a Paradisc l°

st∶

ram。 ur n1,an1is cntrc lcs dents les clos dc la vcngcancc [… ] pourtant j’ aurais Pu♂ tre

tendre commc(lc la dcnkllc mais Ⅱaurak hllu duis t° urs volcr roulcr sur lc musclc cl’ unc tcrrc f° rte cascadcr sur lcs hanchcs

"°

d’

aux razzias du Plaisir M志 re

unc ln}∶ )rc OuⅤ crtc

Libcrto A/l志 rc

Il。

Am° ur

`:e put thc kcys。

N/I志 rc(lcb。 ut dans le cr。 atl。 n(lu

lnondc

f vengeancc in my mouth

but I coul(l haⅤ c bccn tcndcr likc lace but it、 v° uld haⅤ c l)ccn ncccssary to∏ yr° ll

over thC musclc。

f a str°

ng land cascadc° nto the hiPs

Λ 压other thcr° pcn to the Plundcrs of Plcasurc Libcrty N1othcr L° ve R/Iothcr standing in thc creation of thc vvorld,146

of a ln。

It、 vould

be P° ssible t° rcturn to thc m。 thcr° n tⅥ fo conditi° ns: shc n△ ust bc

al° ver and she must incarnatc lil)crty The mctaphor()f inccst sits、 vcⅡ VVith thc

mCtaPhor。 f

thc hmily that is o托 cn uscd to describc Quob。 cols soocty(“ this httlc

socicty that colllcs togCthCr likc a fan1ily” l°

)47ImPhcit in thc lnctaPh° r ofincest is a

n:ing for an unrcal Past,a past that can bc rc-creatcd by staying an△

0ng onc’ so、 vn

:c sCC thC f° rmation。 f a vici。 us circle° fn° stalgia、 vhich,cxclusiⅤ c

PC。 PlC Thus,、 and in、 vard~turnin:,rCjCcts thc C)thcr and its culturc In this n° stalgia for a rcturn

to nature, thcre is also a call for a rcturn to a languagc、 vhich, if not l。 st, has yct to rc-en1crge H。、 v docs。 nc choosc bct、 vccn thc languagc of a Paradise l。 st and thc futilc search for a natiⅤ c languagc; futⅡ c bccausc the language is contan1inated by thc

“

contcmPorary landscaPc in Ⅵ′ hich

rksf,oP, fc `召 "∷ °

⒈ ’ tlrehc・ LIsc

and Fe ~S^f,oPP1nJ~c召 n

Fr召

alrcady havc a namc before thcy cvcn SPr° ut and there are rnany rnorc ofthclll than

’

Jndc[corn。 n thc cobl and the drbrc a sucre[maplC t1・ cc]’ P4:This is thc vcry山 lcmma tllat lcd Mich爸 lc Ldondc,lll hCr dCkncc。 f tllc Qu芑 l)。 ctlls language,

thc b`Jd’

t°

ad° Pt

the SixtCenth-ccntury FrCnch of J。 achiIn Du BcⅡ ay just as Du Bcllay had

350 ANNIE BRIsSET Ⅴindicatcd French by using an Itahan text as a rnodcl And⒖ c kn。、 v11。 Ⅵ 广highly hc thought of Italy!RCturning to this archaic f° rm。 f French rresents an attemPt to l)ay“ homagc

b芑 coyse,to

to tllc vcry rich an(l original Langue Qu芑

、 vas sPokcn frccly and、 vithout

d1c timc whcn it

luany unhapPy comp⒈ cati。 ns° n the frec Canadian 49In othcr words,thc Qu。 b芑 cois languagc is a nostd窿 c languagc,an忄・ soil,” th,a

丘ction,

s°

a fantasy of a l。 st objcct Justi⒔

alist rhct。 ric,、 Ⅴ hich

cati° n

for its cxistcncc is found in nation~

cquates a languagc、 vith a PcoPlC and、 Ⅴith a sPcci⒔ c tcrritory

Nonc thc lcss, 、 Ⅴhcn Mich亡 lc Lal° ndc is not、 vliting manifcst° s, shC s、 1tchcs t° standard c。 ntcmPorary Cducatcd Frcnch to cxPlain 、 vhat the rclationshiP bct、 :ccn the Qu芑

b芑 cois

writcr and thc languagc of Qu芑

Thc rolc° fⅥ 厂 riters

is siluPly t。

b芑 cois

society shoukl l)c:

takc as111uch intcrcst as Possil)lC in thc

Qu。 b。 c。 is collcctivity and to ADDRESs THIs COLLECTIVITY IN ITs LANGUAGE By thisI mcan∶ wc must regeneratc thc languagc,rcdisve must giⅤ c it ncxs' signi⒔ can cc, ⒔ll in thc gaPs cover it, reinvent it, 、 nc it,lη akc loⅤ c 、 vith d△ c helP。 f intcrnational Frcnch, shakc it uP, rC⒔ vhat、Ⅴc xX・ il1 but ad° Pt it aS thc vith al,and° n, and do xx=ith it 、 to it 、 languagc of the蚯 x milli。 n who sPeak Quob忐 c0s so Hcrc,oncc again,、 ve cncountcr thc、

ie、 v

that languagc must bc homogcncous and

unincd,as sh。 uld the Pc° Plc、vh。 SPCak it in thcir daily livcs.But thcsc pcoPlc haⅤ ncⅤ cr used this languagc in thcir literaturc (Dh, Guilty Litcraturc! You n1ust l)c relnoⅤ ed

iom y° ur Placc at thC ccntrc of thc institutlon!Thc Qu。

‘ 、 vh。 is (lcscrving of the titlc sh。 uld‘ cnouncc literary cgoccntris111”

b芑 c° is

1・

and‘

c

writcr

‘ f° r thc

ti1ne being Pull° ut° fthc Prix G。 ncourt/’ and adoPt thc languagc ofthc(Qu誉 b芯 coiS,

thc truc sPcCch of“ rcal PcoPlC” The duty of`Ⅴ ritcrs is in fact to‘

Ⅴhich thcy colnc of spccch back t° t11c collcctivity fron△ 、

‘

gi、

c thc Po、 ′ Cr

, to thc point、 :hcrc

thcy should try to havc n10rc vvith students,、 vorkcrs,in othcr、 Ⅴords,、 Ⅴith orclinary Qu誉

l)芒

c。 is,c`,cn

ifit mcans going to w1・ ltC among thcm”

Qu芑 b芑 cois、 vorkcrs,likc thcir Frcnch counterParts,arc aⅤ aⅤ

ant-ε ardC j° urnal in、 vhich this cxhortati° n

51And,ofc° ursC,

id rcadcrs° f CJ,dnJc,the

aPPcared!But thc c° ntradicti° n

is eⅤ en

morc pr。允und∶ Quob誉 cois wr讯 crs,who thcmsclⅤ cs(lo n。 t sPcak thC lan8uage of 厂、 hat iS truly Parathc collcctivity, are asked t° rcturn to thcir linguistic roots 、 doxical here is that、 vritcrs arc cxPccted t° usc thc language °f thc PcoPlc、 vhⅡ c l~ Playing the role° f dcn1iurgc Arc thcy not cxpcctcd to rcstorc thc languagc,cons° f hbcrtyP idate it,giⅤ c it back thc Ⅴ igour it had at thc tilnc of its origins,thc tin1c。

T° redisc° ver frccd° m。 f languagc is to rcgain libcrty itsclf,To givc the P°

Ⅴcr° f 、

SPeCch l)ack t° a Pc° Plc is,in both scnscs of thc、 v。 rd,to allo、Ⅴthcn1tO sPcak and

vith a languagc ~1orc to thc point, it is, in fact, t° giⅤ c thcm Pr° vidC thcn) 、 wht△ t thc Othcr t° 。 k away with thc injunction“ spcak、 Vhitc!” s2But d。 cs this nOt

t(’

constitutc a changc in idcological(lircction?Thc nati。

’

nahst goal, anch。 rcd in the

notion of“ diffcrcncc,’ docs, in fact, nccd to bc rcinf° rccd by(hstinctiⅤ c charac_ tcrisdcs,and languagc is tllc m° stimPo△ ant° fthcsc (listinctness rcallV cxists OnlⅤ in thc lo、 vcr classcs In

givc a languagc back to thc‘

‘

’

Yet,ths brm° f

Qu。 b。 c0s

v。 rds, the dcsirc to °d1cr 、

PcoPlc氵 ac° nⅤ cnicntly ambiguous tcr∏ 1, masks thc

e 爸 htc, as thcy attcn△ 1,tt。 Pr° Ⅴ ideol° gical rcaPPr。 Priation of the languagc by the tlac al)solutencss of tlle Qu忐 b。 c° is“ (liⅢ crcnce,” and thcrcl)y jusu、 thc dCmand br

TRANSkLATION AND CULTURAL 1DENTITY

351

trcncc guarantees Pohtical auton。 1η y, PcrhaPs n△ °rc than anything clsc, such a di汉 rCc。 8nition to a nc、 v grouP of、 vriters and scts thcn△ aPart institutionally fron10ther writcrs This, 。f coursc, ensurcs that thcy have no c。 mPctltl° n⒏ °n1th° sc、 :ho ‘ continue to comPcte f° r thc‘ Prix Goncou1ˉ t” Mich志 le Lalondc’ s suggcstion that 、 vritcrs should hⅤ c and 、 vritc among thc 、 vorkin思 class~~、vhich Ⅴ L Beauheu d° cs f° r scⅤ cral1nonths。 f thc ycar— brings to l△ △ lnd Luthcr’ s dilemma as hc Pon(lcrcd thc statc of thc Gcrman languagc at a vhcn it、 Ⅴas not Ⅴet uniscd What varicty of Gcrman timc 、、 Ⅴ°uld l,e aPProPriatc for translation?Luthcr ProPosCd thc f° ll° 、广 1ng:

Wc must scck 。ut thc n1° thcr in hcr h° mc, thc childrcn i11 thc strCets,thc c。 n)mon man in thc1uarkct-Place and exarninc、 vhat they are sayi11g to(hsc。 Ⅴ cr ho、 v thcy sPcak;sO that、 ve luay translatc according to that Tl△ cn thcⅤ 、ill undcrstand and n。 ticc that、 Ⅴc sPcak GCrn△ an ju哎

lRc d1cm,3

In Pre re托 rcndum ntlti° nahst Qucbcc as wcll as in rcbrmist Gcrmany,thc succcss or failure° f an ideol° gy

dcndcd on a Ⅵillingncss to Communicate、 vith the Pc° Plc

To achic、 c hc思 en△ °ny, a gr° uP nccds g1・ assr。。 ts . This、 vas the casc in the crcation of a nc、 v rchgious institution in GcrmanⅤ

and remains s° for thc crcation

l)。 c° is hterary of a htcrary institution in Qucbcc Thc cmcrgcncc of a tluly Qu造 institution is dcndent uP。 n thC Cxistencc of a Public T11c Qu誉 b忐 cois language,

‘ vhat thc “'hich has becn cntrustcd、 vith this n1ission, is to‘ intcrnational French” 、 :crc to Lati11 But thcrc is a diffcrencc 、 Vhcrcas Latin、 vas dialects。 f Gcr1nanⅤ 、 ‘ ‘ uly a foreigl△ languagc to thc‘ rn。 thcr in hcr hon△ e” and to‘ thc c° mluOn man in

t1ˉ

thc markct placc,” htcrn荻 ional Frcnch in Qucbcc iS忆 und on thc ra山°,in thc nCwSPaPcrs,。 n tclcvisi。 n,and in the thcatrc Nationahstidcol。 gy rejects thC notion

of(QuCbCc French bcing‘

‘ international,” In this contcxt, thc vv°

has a negatiⅤ c connotation and rcveals a(lcsirc to cxCludC;thc‘ thc‘

‘ t1ˉ

anscultural’

‘

’

arc ncgatiⅤ e

tcrizcd as‘ international,”

‘ rd‘ intcrnatjonar’ ’ ‘ rnulticultural’ and

Ⅴalucs, to be fought at all costs suddenly charac~

Frcnch has l)ccn de丘 ncd as, and dchbcratcly madc into,

af° rci8n languagc,such an ideology cn△ Phasizes thc illcgitilnacy of Frcncb,clairning that it is ncithcr hcard n° r undcrstood in Qucbec And Pr° of。 f this assertion is to l)c fllund in tl△ c

sPccc11of。 rdinary Quol)忐 c。 is

Morc than any 。thcr

litCrary gcnrc, thc thcatrc lcnds itsclf t。

thc diffcrcnti-

ating rolc entrustcd to languagc pv】 orc than any othcr, thc thcatrc, 、 Ⅴhich giⅤ cs Primacy t。 thC Oral, lnakcs it PossiblC t° hcar thc diffcrcncc bctx1・ ccn 1・ Cfcrcntial Frcnch and Ⅴernacular Frcnch,a diffcrcncc that is n△ ainly a PhonCtic onc

The1nyths of“ Quob。 Cois” as a language oftranslation ‘

’

Thc Phrasc‘ traduit en qu忐 bocois’ contains a paradox, It indicatcs,in Frcnch,that :ork、 Ⅴ ill bc rcad is not Frcnch This contradiction clcarlⅤ thc languagc in、 vhich tbc、、

uageP

illus“ atcs

d1c conhsi° n surrou11ding thc mcaning of“ Quol)芒 c。 is”

lM° ther t。

vhich ngu Lost language or the truc sPCCCh 。fthc Qu芯 b。 c。 isP But 、

Nt△ tivc lan思

Qu誉 l)芑 c° iS,and un(lcr w11ich orcumstances?Charactcrizations of Qu。

b。 c。 is

rangc

352

ANNIE 8RISSET

thc myth。 f its Edcnic° rigins via thc standard Frcnch of Gast° nN1iron or ‘ Mich志 le Lal。 nde, all thc 、・ ay to thc s° ci° lecta1 1・ cahty of a‘ dccilnatcd” lan8uagc fr。 lla

callcd勹 oud” what cIcJcs气 racluit m q谜 illustratcs thc clusiⅤ c

b忐 ∞ is”

thcn meanP Theatκ tIanshuol△

naturc ofthc Quob。 c。 is languagc,Inc。 nsistcncics in thc targct

languagc from onc translator to an。 thcr rcflect thc Parad° xcs and thc inc° hercncc °f dchniti° ns of(2u爸 b。 c° is,as、 vcll as thc diglossia of t110sc xX’ ho Spcak it,As dc⒔ ni dol1s of Quob芑

c° is

Ⅴarious brms

itsclf fluctuate,so trtnl)dations assumc

NIichcl Garneau,tl)c translat°

r of IVf口

cbcrh, aPPcars t。 havc giⅤ en hin1sclf thc

task。 f rcbuilding thc c)riginal languagc of Qucbcc, the languagc of a distant Past

whCn Quel)cc was still icc Wlth this goal,transhtion bccomcs a Philological cndcavou1ˉ

To rcturn to tllc b△ th。 fthc sPokCn tonguc in Qt1cbec,Garncau un(lc1ˉ

“

took a、 ∴ critablc archac° l。 gical exPloration ofthc language∶

I(lug dc(aS if digging

a、 cll)into the(Qu。 b忐 cois langua8c until I rcachcd its ancestral sourcc,I run1n1agcd 54 Garneau alsO statcs that hc rePr。 duccd thc thr。 ugh thc glossarics like crazy'’

、hⅤ not thc dialcct of the Beaucc 。r thc PhonCticS °f thc Gasposic dialcct, But 、 vas aPParcntly bascd on a c。 nccrn R)r grcatcr authcnticit)i: sagucnay? His choicc 、

“ Bcgilu1i1】

g、 vith lcxical and syntactic archaisn1s,fronn the rural P。 etry° f oId lan1cnts

and (]asP誉 sicn Pr° nunciation (that Garncau, hke Jacques FCrr° n, hnds Inorc

’ aud1cntic),hC crcates a sOrt ofidcal Qucbcc languagc’ 5D ThC Primacy Garncau accords t° thc spccch of the GasPo Pcninsula clcarly smacks ofidc。 l。 8y・ It So haPPcns that thc GasPosic was the original site° f QuCbCc, “ncc it、 vas hcrc that Jacqucs Cartlcr landcd in 1534and Plantcd a cr。 ss to Claim thc nc、 Ⅴland. The m。 tivatio1△ for ch° 。sing thc GasPt・ Sie dit11cct is PCrhaPs uncons(lious Thc ch° icc,n° ne tbc lcss,is a f11nctional onc,si11cc its Purposc is to rcstorc

thC QucbCc languagc to its original truth and Purity Thc】 ˉ Csulting langua:c is an ’ ‘ ‘ idcal’ languagc ~ in othcr 、 vords, a Pcrf辶 ct, n° stalgic, n1ythical language. It is, indccd, thc samc languagc as thc natiⅤ c tongue callcd f° r by Λ 压iron;it rePrcscnts, ‘ htcrally, thc language of thc c° untry at its birth It is thc languagc of the‘

that I

、 vasr’

acc。 rding

sa、

agc

’ to Garneau, “ in thc infancy of thc tall grass,’ 56 M0rcOvcr,

nOstalgia for this l° stinnoccncc su∏ uscs thc、 .h。 le° fd△ c“ na∵ 、 e” of Pcr丿 “ chcvdFs d,,,。

LJi

α

^(LitdC Am°

r。

us Hor⒃ s)or

poctry。 fthc auth。 r ’ Ⅰ εF句 jc d″ il,dSsdCrε des ndsoPod召 s

(ElCgy br tl,e Massacrc of the Nas° Po(lCs) Thc languagc in G汀 neau’ s″ 口cbcFh allo、vs us tO hcar thc xs・ ords of thc mothcr t。 ngue that Mich志 lc Lal° ndc calls thc ‘ ‘ language— o孓 rnyˉ rnothcr,” in a、 vorld inhabitcd by c乃虿Fs soΓ dJCs,口 nJ° u`’ Γ c刀 rs,JPdrlⅠ crs, “hcκ l)coPle σ仞 nr,s’ L1” t9Jrincnr,石 ddj``cnr,an(ls’ 口cdJndrJ灬 mr Ll哎 cn to Lady i′

`￠ AIacbeth c。 nvince hcr l)usband。 f thc11eccssit、

utC CSt° rganiso Pis tu sa^Pus d’

T°

Ecoutc,j’ ID’

mmσ

qucl c♂

t誉

i111e∶

r PcurP

aⅤ °。

ai d。 j;nourri⒊ luon lait,j’ sais c’ que c’ est

l’ tit q“ ttte aPr心 s to。

L)cr你 Ⅱ c。 mmct’ 灬 gazouill合 su’

of thc c1ˉ

a hllc,j’ ya、

I)is j’ y’ a’ ra’

,bcn蚯

j’

ava’

s ju谜

,m念 mc Pe11dant qu’ ym’ ara’ t "r忐

ra、

s arracho l’

s craqu(∶

‘ at(∶ tc

tctol1dcs gcncivcs

cn dcux!)′

1rdcberh harks back to thc earlⅤ Thc language in Michcl Garncau’ s ∶

‘

Quebec It iS a language both innoccnt and ancestral, a‘ naturar’

lan‘

da、

s ol

::ua{::C imbued

TRANsLATION AND CULTURAL lDENTITY

353

Ⅱ Ⅵ ith a PrilnitivC forcc It is thc languagc of thc PioncCrs、 vho had to hold thcir oⅥ n f origins,a myth against a hostilc naturc It tics the scarch for idcntity to thc1nyth° that thc languagc itsclf he1Ps t。 creatc Thc ShakcsPcarian、 vorld,and,in Particular, that of i亻 dcb召 rh, a sacri丘 cial tragedy of Prh11itiⅤ c、 iolcnce,Providcs

a Pcrfcct back~

dr。 p

for a Prchistorical cxploration of t11c QtlCbCc language It is a Pcrkct vchiclc ˉ for rcconstruCting a l)ast and for l,ringir1g to hght a tirnc 、hcn thc languagc and

thosc、 ho sPokc it owcd n。 d)ing t。

anyl)。

‘

dy ThC ard1acol° gy of thc Qucbcc

languagc1ˉ cduccs‘ ahcnation” to dcgrcc`Cr。 and rcturns thc languagc to its Point

Ⅴhere all forms of dendcncc on thc Othcr arc ab° hshcd 。f° rigin, 、 LitcrarⅤ classics sud1灬 /lrdcbcFh ci1c ch0SCn灬 vchicles hr the Quebec languagc in an attcmPt t。 rcmoⅤ c thc lam8uagc sˉ

its dialcct status and to Pr° ve that it is

oll△

ic、v of critics∶ caPable of ful⒔ lling a refcrcntial f辶 nction At lcast, this is thc 、 “ rk,gavc PoCtic status to a languagc`vhich hithcrto had Ⅴ 。 shakesPearc’ thr。 u8h his′

ants to dcm。 nstratc d1e richncss° f thc Qucl9Cc languagc and to ’ :Based on an inaccuratc idea(〉 f Placc it° n an cqual footing、 it11ot11cr languagcs” thc statc ofthe Enghsh languagc in Prc-Ehzabcthan thncs,this、 iexxˉ l))akCs Garncau

nonc;Garneau、

thc cqual of shakcsPearC and clcⅤ atcs(Qu誉 b。 c° is to thc status of a language at thc he唿 ht° fi“ P。 ctic maturity Thc Quob誉 cois in Garncatl’ sl∫ dcbcrh is an anachr。 n~ istic langua思 c,juSt as ShakcsPearc’ s languagC is t° day,In this scnsc,、 ve can say that

Michd Garncau’ s translauon“ mst。

Pro′

:iclc contcn1Porary Qucbec sPeakcrs,n。 t

、 vith a language they can actually sPeak, but rather、 vith a fcchng for their history and thcir anccst1・ al tics In any case,thc crcation of this anccstral languagc,“ nativc

〈

languagc” accordi11gto N】 iron, or‘ lIl0t11Cr tonguc” according to N“ brings to a suCCcssful c。 nclusi° n thc search for a languagc of onc’

conditlon lor cstabhshing thc Qu苔

cb志

lc Lalondc,

so、 vn,a

necessary

b芯 cois idcntitⅤ

hat Michel Garncau’ sl)hilol° gical endca、 ors arc uniquC GencraⅡ y sPcaking,、 Ⅴ is termcd“ Qu芑 b芑 c()is” tmnslati° n attcmPts to C哎 aL,li山 a diⅢcrtl)cc bctwecn tllc contcmPorar)French of Qucbcc an(l tl△ c“ Frcnch of Francc,” In this way,it hlls in linc with thc Plogrammc of thc nc、 v QuCbcc tllcatrc,whiCh,× cor山 ng to JCan Claude GcrΠ laill, n1ust“ restorc our national languagc to thc full vigour° f its truc ;9But this lan思 uagc,、、 hich is the。 rctically the languagc。 fd`c Qu誉 b芑 cois exPrcSSi。 n” “ crsit) xthCn uscd as a language of translati° n Lct nation,” disPla)s ast。 nishing diⅤ

us l。。 k,忆 r

ln thc stagc dircctions of Qu芯 cxamPlC,at scvcral cxtracts⒒ 。

b。 c° is

translations∶

Chekhov,Les Tro1ss贺 urs(rflc Thr召 Robert La1onde

e sist召

rs),translated by

CO「E t丿fⅤ s‘ 1LO、 :lrOD￡ sΓ ￡;B￡ H tJCO【丿PD￡ i1r￡ 1t/BΙ ￡s ()Ts 4「 lfOsP〃￡R￡ 7R￡ s“ E11rr∠ Ⅰ4Ⅰ ￡”￡丁 t,RD`\11`RE Ⅰ1 ET D￡ B`B￡ Ⅰ 1lJ s△ LON C’ ￡sT t/\D`=lrlNc′ H￡ s'1LⅠ E'4J∮ 1NlJ￡ R￡ sT C(9Nr'(Π `￡￡NsOLE`∠ Ⅰ￡ D￡ PRJ`Ⅰ T￡ jl∫ Ps

[1∶ lf`1rso\DEs

GⅠ s亡 Ι￡￡s丁

CORRFG￡

￡Nt/NFFOR〃￡ D∵ Ns了氵TtJTRJC￡

s￡ s D￡ ΓorRs

G￡ NOL`Ⅳ ET rJT Js、 1B￡ LΙ ￡￡sT D∫ N￡ R

Pr,】 JR丿￡lJN￡ sIˉ fΙ L￡ s￡

HN(9EⅠ ￡￡ T^Ssrs￡ ∫st,N cAXL￡ sˉ

Sˉ

丁

IJR ΙEs

OCCtJP￡￡△ J∫ ￡TrRE Ι△ ⒎丬B[￡ ON I△

354

ANNIE BRISsET N CORRrc,EJNΓ s￡ sD￡ Γt9JR匆 :~Ca%it un an atllourcΓ hui que PaPa c虻 mort Lcjour dc ta跄 te Isd)cllc.On gcl缸 tJ’ Pens“ S Ⅴircr follt・ Toi Isabellc, t’ 芯tais 。tcnduc sur lc (h、 an, blanchc c。 n1n1c unc mortc … Ca hit rien qu’ un an Pis On Peut d合 jΔ en ParlCr c° mmc dc n、 in1 Cis氵 F召 (￡

Tu Ⅴois,t’ cs-t-cn robe blanchc Isabcllc,Pis t’ as PortC qu° id’ autrc air tcllcment cn santo! T’ cs si bellc(lans c’ tc robc lΔ C’ cst aⅤ cc la l’

r° bc

dc maman quc tu l’ as i"t60

Thcorctically,thc translator has reProduccd authcntic North A1γ 1crican rural Frcnch

‘

Thc dialoguc uses oral Contractions such as‘

”

l盏

ExPrcssi° nsl火 e“ vikr hllc”

j’

’“

lDensais,’

‘ ‘

PiS,”

t’

aSr’

and‘

and℃ 订c cn呛 ntc” immcdiatdy i(lcnti、

‘ c’

te robc

tllc sPCakcr

as Frcnch Canadian shc is a tcachcr and a(loct° r’ s claughtcr, but her sPccch,full ‘ ’ of CxPrcssions likc‘ t’ es~t-cn robc,’ is n° t the sPccch。 f a cultiⅤ ated PcrSOn and is ’ in markcd contrast to the“ Quob誉 c° is’ uscd by the translator in his stagc dircctions, Thcsc languagc choiccs can be cxPlaincd by the fact that translat°

rs° f PlayS int。

Qu。 b。 cOls

alWays bcgin by tlansPosin8thc ori垫 nal setting int。 al。 wcr rc要 stC1∷ Bli思 adicr~General Pros。 rov’ s house bccOn)cs thc housc °f a villagc n。 tablc 'fbc ’ “ hkh tllcrc is a largc r° 。m’ b1is t1ˉ a】 )ssal。 n” (c。 mlDltˉ te、 ith cc〉 lumns)“ bch11d、、 ’ ・ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ˉ rncd into a n1odcst hving— r° on△ 、 vith a vcry dolη cStic and ordinary” I。】 atInosPhcrc vve havc alrcady notcd that Garncau has a tcndcncy to rcmoⅤ

c from

thc Original text any indicators that Place thc charactcrs in a don1inant sOcial Positi° n Itc° ukl bc sai(l that,in thc intcrcsts of rePrcsCnting甲 uVbJcⅠ r犭 on thc stagc,thc characters of thc 。righ1al 、、0rk undcrgo a social lo、 ˉ cring in thc translation VVc

ma)wdl ask,d1cn,t。

wbat cxtcnt tlDc chlDl∝

is a function of the sOcial P。

of hκ 唿nl,l灬 S translcatcd in Qucbec 冂 Γ 11is s。 cial lo、 :crin思 has a

sition of thcir characters

direct cffcct° n thc languagc uscd by the charactcrs in thc translati°

n,allo、 ving thcn△

to sPCak a tyPc of languagc n1arkcd by Ph。 nctic, lexical, and syntactic featurcs charactcrisdc of sPccch in Qucbcc, and Particularly charactcrisdc of the lo、 cr classes And it is thc lo、 Ⅴcr classcs、・ ho n1ust bc Portrayed, sit1ce Portrayal of thc l。、 Ⅴcr classcs rcinforccs the sovcrcigntist crcdo, based, as it is, on thc c° nct °f the ahcnation of thc Pc。 Ple This ide° l° 8y of(lifference docs not allo、 : for tbc ncutrahty of thc Frcnch sPokcn by the educatcd classcs in QuebCc,The diffcrcncc bctwccn QucbCc Fre11ch and tllc「 rcnch of Francc is,in Point of hct,as。 ciolcctal

°ne This is cⅤ idcnt in、vrittcn n飞

stagc dircctions,

、 Ⅴhich carry no spcci⒔ c

linguistic

arkers of(Qu。 b。 c。 is sPeCch

Brccht,Ι 口 Bonne/￡ mc dc s召 ~Tchou臼 n(rhc Good PeⅡ on钅丿r sechu口 n),translated by GⅡ bcrt TurP r￡

sOJR~

吖dnJ

Ⅰ￡ I'END￡ tJR D’ B亻 tJ s△ DR￡ ss￡ △t/PtJBΙ FC

^Chu

Ⅴendcur cl’ cau dans caPitale(lu sctchouan; ici

n1on traVai17c’ cst p誉 niblc l)Cndant lcs s。 chcrcsscs~hut

pour

trouⅤ cr dc l’

que jC cours亩

l’

autlˉ

c bo11t du mondc

cau j’ en vends Pas

Pis PCndant lcs Pluics bcn cc tltIi reg,at,s1zrro1Jr ddns n。

rr召

l・

c``c,Pr。 r丿刀CC C’ Csr Ftl n2Ⅰ s0rc

cn Hn de c。 mPtC~ya亩 peu Pr志 s rien quc suos Dicux

TRANsLATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

355

qu’ on pcut comptcr pour sc fairc aidcr grandc joic bcn⒊ rna Plus grandc 缸 appHs P扩 un marchand de b。 tail c。 mmc ycn C souⅤ ent dans lc coin quc dcs Dieux _Pis dcs hauts Plac。 S~SOnt Cn routc Pour icitC Pis j’

qu’ on

serait cn(lr。

it dc s’

je suPPoSc que lc cicl s’

attendre容 lcs reccⅤ oir

cst tann(:∶

dc nous cntendrc nous plaindrc vcrs

lui dins airs62 Thc ccntral idc° logica11natrix of the discoursc on Qu造

b造 c。 is

ahcnad° n lnirr。 rs the

thcmc of Bmcht’ s Good Person σscchtr。 n,a hblc sct lll tl△ e Pr° vhcc° f Sechuan, “ which rrCsCntcd all thosc PlaceS where men exPloit。 thcr mcn” 63And Quebec ,By shccr chancc,thc srst linc。 f thc Play sets is onc of thosc Places、 :herc Iucn Vang is thc Ⅴ thc tc,ne fc,r the theme° f Qu。 b。 c0si
crlookcd.Thc‘ vcndcur d’

cau”

caPturCs rnuch bcttcr thc sensc°

f

thc“ p。 rttˉ ur d’ cau,” a tcrm trcac|iti。 nally cmPloyed by Qu誉 b芑 c。 is to dcscrlbc the infcriority of thcir s° cial c。 nditi。 n and thcir cxPloitation sincc thc Enghsh Conqucst Elsc、 vhcrc

in thc Play, thC Cxprcssion

‘ bcc。 n1ing‘ n°

‘ ‘ notrc province” acquircs a modiHcr,

trc bcllc proⅤ incc/’ thcreby changin8the refCrcnt° f thc(lisc° urse∶ Scchuan bcc。 mes an allcgory hr QucbCc,just as Scotland d。 csin the Qu芑 b。 cois

transIation of∫

l∫

dcb召 rJl∶

Hags are an insult t°

(‘

‘ lCS

°ur

draPcaux clcs芑 tranges insultcnt not’

’

beautful sky’ ) This ncⅥ 厂rekrent

themes。 f the dlscoursc of Qu芑 b芑 c° is themc that clcarlⅤ

/

inf° rms

‘ j’ aPPartiens 亩eunc

Ⅴ endeur

d’ cau” (Γ n・

Qu爸 b忐 c。 is

Garncau’ s

alienati。 n:“ Quebcc

idi。 sⅤ ncratic

’ ‘ bcau cicl’ ~‘ f° rcign

echoes one° fthc main

is a desp。 iled n哎 ion,” a

translation:“ C)nation Π1iscrablc”

“

and c。 rrcsponds cxactly t。 Chu ・ a Ⅵ ater_seller) Wc n。 w bCgin to scc why translation int° nation ben lllisorabc”

almost al、 :ays inⅤ 0h:cs Pr° lctarization of thc languagc,6+Thc PauPcri'a~

ti()n ofd】 c signiHcr rcΠ ects tlac alicnation°

f tl△

c Quoboc。 is Public忆 r whom thc ⒈

text is intcndcd Thc ProcCdurc uscd to achicvc this is graphen1ization By graPhc∏

ization、 Ⅰ c lncan thc:raPhic rCahzation of thc diffcrcncc bct、 vccn thc Ph。 neticS of

‘

“

thC Qu。 b。 c。 is languagc and th° sc° f an unmarkcd Frcnch:“ chu” /‘ jc suis/’ su。 ‘ ‘ “ ’ ‘ / sur lcsr’ dins airs’ /‘ dans les airs” But this transcriPtion is not al、 vays func~

’

s’

tional C。 nsdcr,for cxamplc,Jcan Claudc Gσ m泣 n’ s rctIa灬 lad° n° f H R召 sPccr￠ bFe

Ⅰcl

1⒎ △ddⅠ

mclriε 召 :Ah

oui

lcs Plans,y a acht。

g芑

lui qu’

yacul’ id志 ° ur toutc han?,

le b° is,yl’ a sci忐 ,yl’ a sabl。 a coll忐 Pis y l’

toutc est emboudttt∶ pis coll(:han

dou,…

g誉

Breclat’

s

nJ:

Ya tir造

ParSque

a ParrC lCS panturcs,y a Pas un

hittc rustiqtlC!65

Hcrc,thc、 vⅡ tten亿 rm is tamPcrcd w止 ht° g卜 e the Ⅱlusion that therc is an irrc concilablc(liffcrcnce bctxs・ ccn“ Qu忐 b。 c。 is” and Frcnch But h° wd。 cs thc French

‘ ‘

’‘ ‘

’‘ ‘

‘ ‘

cn11)ouⅤ et造 Pronunciation of lxˉ ords suCh as achctcr,’ ParcC quC/’ or ⒊Part” diffcr【 om thc Quob芑 cois Pr° nun0ation, a Pronun0ation that is suPposcdly ,’

rcΠ ected

in Gcrmaln’ s sPellingP On thc samc Pagc and in the mouth of thc same

356 ANNIE BRIssET ’ character 、 vc nnd thc f。 llo、 ving: ‘ ′otre 。ncquC FΙ ubcrt’ and “ Ⅴ。ttc OnCque ’ 66Thcre are si1nilar il、 Hubcrrc’ c。 nsistencics thr。 ughout thc tcxt,As、 Ⅴ c1nentionCd carhcr, thcsc inconsistcncics Iorn1 Part of an ide°

l。 gical

PattCrn∶

the def° rlucd

“ 、、hat he calls °ur national Co(lc that hnttions PllmaHly as a brm of(liⅡ σcnda

spcllh1g, invented by Gcrn1ain and PrcscntCd as languagc,” is in fact an“ in”

tion and,c° nsequently,af° rm of exclusi° n In luany cascs,thc lanε uage uscd for translation rcscn11)les that used in dran1atic

、 vriting,in、 Ⅴhich an ahenated sPccch Ⅴaricty is rcahstically transP。 Sed and takcs° n a cathartic funcu。 n This is、 vhat Michcl Trcmblay set out t° achicvc His Pla)Ⅰ s PaⅤ Cd

tlac way hrimPlcmcntation of Mkh心 lc

langua|!∶

∶ ∶

Laloncle’ s pr。 gnm

hrtllc Qu。 b忐 cols

c∶

… thc su叻

父cci、 c(l

cd ofJou￠ f as a languagc br thc tllcatlc h灬

dcal° f attcntion

a great

RrIany acctcd it inunediatcly,、 vhilc()thers catc-

goHcally lcjcctcd it;howeⅤ cr,bc,th g・ oups sPc11t too muCh timc and cffort on thc subjcct, in my oPinion, to the dctrin1ent of its intendcd use in thc theatrc.

As I haⅤ c。 Rcn said

SPcak° f rny audacity in、 titing in‘

‘

,it is all、 vcll and go。 d to

c truc” Joucz氵 ,l9ut、 Ⅴ

must not forget

、 Ⅴhat hcs bchh1d this outcast of a langua￡ :c, this u.:ly, Poor, anacrnic “ vh。 havc 芑hte 、 disgraccfur’ ctc, ctc, ctC It is not only thc ‘ “ I aln unhaPPy” blems” and it is P° ssiblC to say‘ undly human Pr。 Prof° 、:ith° ut a glass。 f Martini in。 nc’ s hand, Rosc Ouimet’ s“ NIaudit cul!”

is the strongest cxprcssion° f dcsPair that a Qu芒

b誉 coise

can uttcr

Did thc audience undcrstand this in￡召 s Be″ es-socurs or、 vas it cnough for thcn△ to be sh。 ckcd

because it、 v

as、

ulgarP67

Thc soci° lect ch。 scn l)y Tremblay is functi° nal It Plays a rolc in thc renc、、 al Oft11e tl△

c荻 0c【△ l acsthcxt沁

by mo山 △ing

tllose norms that Prc,(lucc tlle eBl℃ t° f

Ⅱalit)'The

naturahstic rr。 ducti° n of thc lan8ua思 Cj。 lts Pe° PlC into a ne、 va、 :arcncss But Trcmblay docs not clai1nt。 bc suPPlanting what Prcviously functi。 ned as a rc托 r_ cntial la1】 gu⒐gc,丿 oud′

iS忆 r hlm simPly onc ofthose rc要哎crs扒 ailal,le h thc“ ritten

languagc∶

thc workn思 ˉ class xl'odd,whilc Ⅱom tin】 e to tiYnc all° vving mysclf′ the luxury(冫 fa“ Lysist1・ ata” and a“ Cit。 dans 【,euf” But those、・ hosc rolc is t。 continuc to ProducC such PlayS as “ Lysistrata” and“ Cit芑 (lans l’ Ocuf,” thcy,t。 o,ought to allo、 ˉ themsclⅤ cs ‘ ’ tbc luxury()fa‘ Bcllcs~s° curs’ occasionally I cann。 t acct pc。 PlC My rolC is t。 continue t°

dcsc1・ lbc

l’

lo° king

do、 vn thcir n。 scs at

Ⅰ cs Bc丿

Ⅴ ulgar

`cs~socurs just bccausc it is vard Albcc,Tcnncssce、 Vilhan1s,and John Ardcn in Enghsh! Wcrc thc Americans and thc Enghsh ashamed °f ,thcy s11。 uld rcad IE(l、

coming ttD griPs with rl,cir勹

o1氵 d′

” ?6:

N1ichel Trcn1blay’ sJ。 LIt2∫ Plays crcatcd an oPenin: in thc htCrary systcn1 in

QuCbcc N° such oPcning cxistcd in the htcrary systcn△

of This nc、

,

山catrical form had an imPortant consequCnce; it broadencd thc translatability of ’ ‘ f Anglo-American Plays, 、、hich n0、 :had a‘ natural cquivalcnt’ in

the s° ciolccts°

TRANSLAT【

【DENTITY

0N AND CULTURAL

“ Itis dme忆 r usto bc妒

QuCbCc culturc,tlaough n° tin Frcnch culturc∶

nt1・

357 anslating

Amcrican Plays oursclⅤ cs!Thc Frcnch,、 :hom I much irc i11cidcI1tally,havC d△ C

’ 9Thc inadcquacy Trcmblay addrcsscs hcrc °

gift of‘ disnguring’ An1crican thcatrc.’

an(l wtas a kature° f Frcnch d1catrc oftllc dmc,as opPoscd to Qu。 b芑 c° is

is systt・ mic

thcatrc,whcrc the translatl° n° fw。 rks by Tcnncsscc、 Villiams,Edward Albcc,° r Eugcnc C)’ NeⅡ l 、 vas no l。 ngcr faced 、 vith a linguistic 、oid, I~et us look at t、 ˉ o

Qu造 b忐 c。 is

c lollowing cxtmct Rom Dcs″

tl anslati。 ns of tl△

c un(fcr rh召

EJms∶

t、 ,。 rk t° daⅤ I coukln’ t take no intcrcst T’ hcl1、 Ⅴith thc farn1!I’ na lcaⅤ in’ it!I’ Ⅴ c turned thc coⅥ 0thcr stock l。 °se!I’ ve `S an’ ’ ’ en1, I’ m druv crn into the 、 v° ods 、,har they kin bc Flcc! By;eein’ C日 bor:

frccin’

I couldn’

1nysclf! I’ rn quittin’

’ 、・ atch cn1burn,an’

I’

hcrc today! I’ ll sct⒔ rc

ll leaⅤ c Ycr lXlla、 vt’

thc6clds back t’ G° d, s。 that n。 be a-goin、

d1in’

an’ barn an’

t’ h° use

haunt thc as11cs, an’

human kin nc、 cr touCh

I’

’

ll、 vⅡ l

cn1! I’

ll

to Calif【 ,rni a和

Translation by Robcrt RiPPs and Yves sauvageau C口 b。艺 ;J、 Pourrais Pas tIˉ availlcr at1jour(l’ hui,,,m’ y scns Pas rc。 cur Au (liabc la tcrrc! J’ la l含 chc l⒊ ! J’ Ⅴ iCns (l’ l含 chcr lcs Ⅴ achcs Pis l’ rcstc du

b誉 tail! J’ lcs ai P° uss芑 s

rcnclant la libcrtc,j’ cl’

i0 Jàs sacrer l’

b含 timcnts r、

dcl)ar lc bois o亡

c’

cst qu’

n ku⒊ ma“ °

n1’ a laisser ta lu忐

rc s’

t’

lu’

,Pis m’ a

Pron1encr dins ccndrcs

mcttc mcs chamPs au b° n ycu c。 mmc ζa y

d’ a hun1ain qui) t。 uchCr° nt 小

y vont爸 tc libcs! Lcu

a哟 ° urd’ hui quc j’ Pars Pis;:range,m’ ar’ gar(Icr brα ler les

mc la d° nnc aussi C’

au1ˉ

a jamais hen d’ un

cmbarqucr P° ur la CahR)rnia71

Translation by Michel Dumont and Marc Gr。 goire CdboF:J’ ai Pas芑 t忐 caPablc dc m’ m’ tcnt⒊

mcttc⒊

l’

。uⅤ ragc aui()ur(l’ hui

Pas Au y含 bela hrmd J’ cn`Cux Pus Lcs vachcs,j’

l° usses,Pis

toutc・ lc rcssc(lu b忐 tad ito1I!J’ lCS ai amcn芯 cs dans l’ bois pour

lCs缸

qu’ ys。 yc11t libCs!J’

m合 me!J’

Ca

lcs al l含 ch。 cs

n)’

cn va d’

Δm“ sOn1,ls

kittt・

lil)造 r。

cs Pis Cn hisant qa,J’ mc Sus lib。 r誉 m° 。~

ˉ ur(l’ ho!J′ 、 a mcrerl’ Pas Plus tard qu’ a叻 °

%u

aux b缸 imcn“ ;jà lcs r’ g打 (lcr brdσ ,l,ls toutc c’ quc j’ Ⅴ a laisscr au fant♂ mc de ta rn忐 re,c、 cst(lCS ccndrcs;c’ cSt l’ b° n Ycu quin1’ a dcnn志

la t誉 rrc,j’

Ⅴ a y r’ denncr杏

n10n tour,Pis y arra Pusjan1’ ricn d’ hu-

lnain qui、 aP。 uⅤ ou志 re y touchcr!J’ Ⅴ a partir Pour la Cahfournic72

Ⅴi(lcs ’ 丬 h1guisrll’ c。 cxists

The(liⅤ crsity of social and rcgional lccts of vcrnacular Frcnch in Qucbec Pr° the translat。 r、 vith t〈

a l)1・

oad rangc of languagc Possibditics This“

J the samc cxtcnt in Francc Thcre is l)o1・

eaS0n 、 hⅤ a French translat° r sh° uld Ⅴ

not translatc C)’ Ncill int。 thc sociolcct offarmcrs of any rcgion in the country Such

a translation, l)oⅥ ˉ cⅤ Cr, 、 Vould bc c° nsi(lCrcd as arti丘 cial as a translati。 n int。

“

ncutral”

Frcnd1,as NⅡ chcl Trcmblay is all too、 vcll awarc,The targct tcxt would

not lncet the critcria of accePtability sct by thc litcrary institution,

To translatc sociolects into Frcnch, thc translator has t°

c。

ntcnd,not、 vith an

intrinsic(lc付 cicncy in thc linguistic systen1。 f Francc,but rathcr、 vith d FinJuisrjc void in Fhc normdε

iΓ

c讠 ˉ sFcn】

tDf′

irs FiFeJ dru″

Ideolo:y can bc dctected bchind thc

Ⅴ。id,as

358

ANNIE BRIssET

Rcn忐 e Bahbar has sho、、 n in hcr study° f languagc usc and its social cll辶 ct in thc niI1ctccnth ccntur〉 to cstal)lish a ne、

Fl^Cnch110Ⅴ

:aΙ 1d

e17;A Qu忐 t)。 c。 is writcr managcd to usc languagc

distinctlⅤ e dra】 11atic忆 rm

N°

Frc11ch、 ritcr has evcr managcd

dC灯 thC nσ mali犭 ng hngtllstiC dcology of thc Rubhc to this end Two social currcnts in Qucbcc n.adc this Possiblc~the glori丘 cati° n of differencc and

t°

thc rcc。

n。 fthc Qu誉 b芑 c0S

gnkion of an Amcrican comPonCnt in thc amrmati。

idcntity Sincc Michcl Trcmblay bcgan、 vritin8inò1Ι

,abundant usc has bccn n△ adc of all thc s° cial rcgisters° f sPokcn Frc11ch in Qucbcc,b° th on thc sta思 e an(l d氵

on tclcvision Yct, it 、 vOuld n。 t bc unrcasonablc t。 suggcst that 丿 o1`ti′ iz0r】。 n °f thc Frcnch-Canadian thcatrc has l)ccn influcnccd l)Ⅴ the sociolcctal charactcr° f the An掣。 Amcrican tllcatrc,thc m。 st poPult△ l忆 re唿 n languagc thcatre in QuCbCc Onc thing is clcar, thc usc。 F thC Ⅴcrnacular, an innovation in Q11cbec, has lcd t°

the

n of a national thcatrc that does n° t usc Frcnch

cmergencc and institutionahzati。

lnodcls usc。 fthc、 ˉ crnacular has als。 rcinforccd s。 vercigntist asPirati° ns by turning thc thcatrc into an idcological sPringboard Thc vernacular is thus an effectiⅤ c vchiclc f° r thc ccntral thclnc °f thc s。 vcrCigntist (hscourse d1c alicnati° n of (QuCbec s。 cicty

Why transIate into Quob。 cois? nc eXPlanation for thc Phcn。 n1~ Thc scarch f° r a languagc of onc’ s 。、n o汉Crs 。 cnon of rctranslauon Thc rcjccti° n of thc Frcnch of Francc, dcclncd inadequatc 亢r translating lt,Kign plays into Qu忐 b忐 cols rcality,Prr,xidCs anotllcr Thc sca1・ ch f。

r a natiⅤ

ation”

‘

c languagc also cxPlains thc Phcn° mcnon of rctranslati° n T11c‘ rePatri-

to QuCl)cc。 f thc translation of圮 rcign worksl△ lthcrt。

t△

x ailal)lc。

nly in Frcnch

・ Provide its0、 n transladons。 f

translatlon is sccn as csscndal QucbCc is ablc t°

foreign Plays,but thcy、Ⅴill l)c rctranslations, Rctranslation is a Particularly intercsting Phcnomcn° nf⒈ olu the Point of、 icxl'of c。 nuncnts tllat arc lnadc in rclation to It

Asitis dccmcd in)l)。 rtant t° lators haⅤ

a、

oid usingimpo1ted tl anslations,Quob芯

c】 1。 t c bccn kno∽ n to translatc⒖ ˉ on1 1anguagcs thcy a〗・

such cascs,thc translat。 r has t0、 :ork fr。

n。

colS traI,s-

fan△ ihar、 vith

hl

intcrmcdiatc translations F° r cxamPle,

Gillcs A/1arsolais translatcd strindbcr:and ChCkh。

’

Ⅴ、 vithout kn。、in8 s、 vcdiSh° r

nlcz Both uscd Russian.Thc samc is truc of NΙ ichcl TrcmblaⅤ s transladon° ft/ncèΓ 口

、

òrd~R)r~、

厂 °rd translations Pr° vidcd by sPcakers sn1ihar、 1th thc languagc of thc :crSi0n by、 vork"、 g、 Ⅴith cxisting 、

origil)al tcxt Thc) thcn l)roduccd thc dehnitivc

Frcnch c)r Enghsl`translati° ns (Dn occasion, the innucncc 。f thcsc carhcr trans~ lati。 nsis

so Pron° unccd thatthc。 rigins ofthe(Qu芑

Ac° mParis° n oft、 0translati。 ns

of IJ,lcFc Ion「

b。 c。 is

口sPcaks

Ⅴcrsion

f°

r itscl∫

arc hardly in doubt

、

岬ic|e1Treml)lay

Elsa TrioIet

sEREBRIAKOV

sEREBRIAKOV

Donncr toutc saìc

Donncr toutc sa vic

⒊la scicncc, s’

habitucr;son cabinct de traⅤ ail,

;la scic】 1cc,

♂trc habitu芯 ;sOn cabinet de traⅤ ail,

TRANsLATION AND CULTURAL IDENTlTY ;s。 n audit°

irc,;dcs camaradcs

⒊s° n audit° ire,;des can△ arades Ⅴ芑norablcs

Ⅴcncrcs

Ct,tout Cl’ un

359

ct,soudain,

couP,

de but en blanc,

on nc sait Pourquoi,

sc rctrouⅤ cr dans cc s。 Pulcrc c♂ toycr t。 us lcs j° urs

sc rctrouⅤ cr dans cc cavcau,

Ⅴ oir

dcs gcns stuPidcs

tous les j° urs

des gcns idi。 ts,

ocoutcr dcs Pr° P。 S insigni丘 cants

ocoutcr dcs conⅤ crsations

qu1ne Prcscntent Pas lc rn° indre int芑

jc vcux vi、 :rc,j’ omc lc succ志

jc vcux

s

r♂

t

,

ivⅡ ,j’ 缸mc le Ⅴ

succcs j’

"mc la cd芯 j’

bri硝 ,le br“ t

“mc

j’

la colobHto,lc bruit,

ct, lCI,

“ imPκ ssi。 nd’ &rc cn cxll

C’

l’

Plcurcr sans arr合 t lc 。 opicr lc succ志 s dcs autrcs,

craindrc la1n°rt

Cst l’

cXil,

Plcurcr sans arr念 t lc 。

,

。Picr le succ盲 s dcs autrcs, craindre la rnort

.,

cn Peux Plus!

Jc n’

Cn Pcux Plus

JC n’ cn al Pas la fclrcc!

JC n’

Cn缸 p灬 la brcd

JC n’

Et l⒊

Et si aⅤ cc~∶ ∶ a,

, cn Plus,

on nc Ⅴcut Pas1nc Pardonncr

on nc Ⅴcut pas rnc Pard° nner

n△ a、 icillcsse!

n△

a Ⅴieillesse!74

Thc t、 :° cxtraCts are rcmarkably silnilar C。 1uParcd、・ ith Elsa Tri。

lct’

s translatlon,

Rnlchcl Tremblay’ s translati° nc° nt缸 ns Occasional Paradigmadc diffcrcnccs(cavCau/ s造 Pulcre),but his syntax bllows Triolct’ s alm。 st cxaCtly Thc similarity makcs one w° nder what the real rolc of retranslation is in Qucl)Cc In somc countocs,inter

mediate translations Play an csscntial r。 lc, Thcy Providc acccss to forcign、 vorks that、 Ⅴ oul(l rcmain othcr、 :isc unkn。、 vn for、 vant of a translator caPablC n。 t° nly of

rca(hnε thern in the original l)ut of translating thcln(lircctly int。 thc languagc of thc country75Thcre are a nun△ 1)er of cxPlanations for thc Phcn。 n1cn。 n of indirect translation in(Qucbec,that is tO say,translati。

n bascd。 n carhcr translati°

ns Works

tlanslatccl in this manner dF″ 虿 o'cxiSt in thc tar8ct languagc Thcrc can cⅤ cn bc scⅤ cral contcn11’ °rary translations of a sin81c vv° rk.A nun11)cr of Frcnch translations °f classics from othcr languagcs haⅤ c achicⅤ cd can° nical status ~translations of strindberg l)y Boris Vian, Pirallclcllo by BCnjamin CronⅡ Tri。 lct GiⅤ

“ n1° dcls/’

en thc similarity betxvccn Qu芑

it is dif⒔ cult t°

b。

cux, or Chckh。 Ⅴ by Elsa cois tlanslations and thcir French

sustain thc n。 tion that a Quob。

c° iS

audiencc、 Ⅴ oul(l nnd

thc Frcnch Ⅴcrsion hard t° undcrstand MorcoⅤ cr, 、 Ⅴhcn the translati。 ns arc by

Adam。 v,Pitocff,。

r Vitcz,。 nc can hardly clain△ that thcy(lo notrncasure uP l)ecausc

they`vcrc not translatcd by thcatrc spcciahsts VVc may thcrcforc c。 ncludc that, in thc Qucbcc theatrc,translati。 ns imPolted【 om Francc arc sccn to Play an anu“ nrlediating rolc, This is t;ill)crt Turp’ s argumcnt∶ XlVhcn I 1・ cad the Frcnch translation of l∫ orhcr C° urdJc,n。

imagc camc immcdiately to min(1,…

what was

lacking in the Frcnch translati° n、 vas not rcHcction or cn1otion;rather,it、 vas cⅤ oca-

tion The Frcnch t1・ anslation of∫ ⒈ r。 Fher C°

urd卩 e

’ sakl n。 thing to mc’ 76 This samc

360 ANNIE BRIssET a℃ umentis usc(l by Micllcl Trcmbl叮 and Gillcs M扩 s。 l“ st° Jusu、 thek° wn订 aln s ˉ lations, vvhich vverc mcdiatcd,Pa1・ adoxically, throu8h thC 、 cry Frcnch translations thcy wishcd t° rePlacc:

Whcn he rcad Elsa Tri° lct’ s translati。 n, Tremblav 、 vas struck bv its cly H要 d, litCrary charactcr ,,He thercl∶ )rc in“ tcd Kim Yar° shcⅤ skaya, 、 Ⅴhosc natiⅤ e langua思 e iS Russian, to translatc f° r hin1, 、 v。 rd by、 vord,thc languagc of Chekhov Thc rcsult、 vas signihcant and rcvcahng Trcmblay n。 ticcd that Chckh° v’ s languagc is morc ntzFurd丿 Ffldn rclatiⅤ

FiFcr召

t∶

,and that Chckh。 vian dialoguc is full° f undcrstatcment It was in duced his translation Thc rcsult,and y。 u、 ˉ ill

this sPirit that hc pr。

bc ablc t。 judge for yourself, is a dirccr

ChekhoⅤ than Elsa Triolct’ s

氵 dioi,,

It is ccrtainly closcr t°

translati。 n,PrcciSe l)ut not ro@ìFcr口

rΓ

D△ cctor Gillcs Marsolais usccl thc samc proccdure in his Lansltati° n° f As I didn’ t kn° 、 vs、 vcdish,IⅥ ・ ould n。 t haⅤ c darcd t。

translatlon°

f jlriss丿 uFic

ilriss丿 u山

c∶

produce a French

cxct that I was f° rtunate to n1cct Ulla Ryghe,

a Swcdish cinematograPhcr living h Qucbec t。

,77

… I was d△ cn ablc,thanks the

hcr c° llab。 ration (and to hcr dictionarics!), to go dircctly t°

SⅥ 厂 cdish

tcxt and to c° rrcct ccrtain n△ istakcs、 vhich had bccn carricd° vcr

fr° 【 n translation

t。 translati。 n

I comPared this tcxt to cxisting trans-

lations and 、 vas thcn ablc t° Pr° duce the ⒔rst draft of thc prcscnt translation7S

ARcr rcworkin:the丘 rst translation,which hc klt to bc too hteral,Gillcs Mars° arrivcd at thc samc c。 nclusion asˇ 1ichcl TrcmblaⅤ

lais

:

Thc rcsult、 vas a sccond,rn。 rc direct,rnorc“ spokcn” translation,a translation m。 rc imluediatcly accessible t°

thc pubhc and,nnally,I behcⅤ

c,

closcr t。 thc sPirit of strindbcr879

Thc si1nilarity of argumcntation is strilong Parad° xically,ignorancc of thc s° urce ‘ ‘ language led the t⒖ °translat° rs t° discoⅤ cr thc truth” of the original tcxt that

nccalcd Acc。 rding nΓ d arc morc“ n敲 ural,simPlcr and cl° ser to us” :O Thc litcraoncss, or arti6oahty that thc Qu。 b苔 c。 is translat。 r criticizes in French translati° ns can bc sccn as Proof that the distancc bct、 fcen thc Ⅴcrnacular and thc litera1ˉ y languagc is n。 longcr thc samc in Francc as it is in QuCbCc This is esPcciany truc凡 r the thcatrc The ncw Qu誉 b。 c。 is thcatre has prcvious translati。 ns,and csPccially French translations,had c°

to Trcmblay,the two En日

ish tlˉ anslt△ ti° 11s

achicⅤ cd its()、 vn Singularity, by doing aⅥ

of tJr,dc砀

ày、

vith this linguistic(listinction, It has

°f thc homc and the street, its status as a litcrary languagc To conf° rm to thc critcria of acctability in the nc、 v Qu。 b。 cois tllea⒍ c吓哽cm,the扛 anslati。 n ofa work hkc〃口 dem° isefJt・丿u乃召by B。 ris Vian mu哽 bc sh。 rn° f its French literariness This is prcciscly、 vhat G, N1arsolais(hd in his givcn thc koir,c, thc lan:uage

translation∶

TRANStATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY BorIs Vian

Gi11es Marsolais

丿

cdn:JC ri÷ ||vC

cl’

乃dn:Mol,JC谜 vC

ordinairc

quc jc suis coucht・

s。

us un

cl’

grand arbrc dans une f° 。b℃ ure.Je vCux m。 ntc・ r,

lc clair Paysage tout brillant

r合

tsombre Et

缸 cnvic de m° lltcr, molltcr jusqu’ au sommct,

j’

P。 ur rcgarder lc clair Paysagc o亡 brillc lc s° leil ct d。 r° ber les。 cufs

de soleil, ct d(:nichcr lc ni(l d’

sOus un grand arbrc

dans unc f°

monter au so∏11nct,Pour Ⅴ。ir

les Ocu凡

ordinairc quc jc suis

c。 uch。

r♂ t

o亡 d° rmcnt

361

or:1

d’

or dc ccttc niCh誉

e:2

Mars° lais’ s rctranslation has rcmoⅤ cd thc P。 ctic scansion that rcinR)rccs thc cxPres~

sion of thc(Ircam,but,asidc仟。m that, in what othcr ways iS his transla“ °n Particularly Quobt・

°f

one’ s0、 vn”

c° isP

Wc arc(langcrously closc t。

thc idc。

l°

gy of“ thc languagc

and° fs° hPsislll′ Ⅴhcn a、 Ⅴork、vrittcn in or translated int°

thc French

°f Francc is rcjccted on the grounds that it、 Ⅴoukl bc inacccssible to thc Quob誉 cois Pubhc M° niquC N】 ercurc, vvho playCd Mothcr C° uragc in Gilbcrt Turp’ s Qu忐 l)誉 c。 iS廿 anslati。 n,has this tO saΥ ∶ In thc Frcnch translati° n thcrc arc occasional cxprcssions that I didn’

undcrstand and a cliffercnt syntax;thcsc havc bcc。

t

mc patcntly clear in

this translation I∴ for examPle, I had had t° act in thc Frcnch translation ofthc play,I`vould haⅤ e had to rcad thc Enghsh translati° n to思 rasP

all thc subtlctics and all thc nuanccs This is。 Rcn thc casc f° r Frcnch translations of f° reign、vritcrs:3

The French translati。 n,underst。 od l)y thc Quob芑 cois Pubhc for dccadcs,suddenly bcc。 n△ es° Paquc and inaccessiblC to this Ⅴ cry Samc Pubhc T。 undcrstand tCXt,the⒒ anc° Ph。 ne readcr in QucbCc must hcnccbrth makc a(lctour

Enghsh, that is to say, 、 ia a forcign languagc Grantcd, o匀 ccdng to in Flench translati。 ns

is tl△

the Frcnch

by way of

、 vhat thc actrcss is rcally

c“ Poli山 ed” languagc tbat dt・ tracts分 om tl△ c

original tcxt Acc° l【 1ing to Gilles Marsolais,it would bc abnormal

wcrC not“

tlˉ

Ⅱ a foreign languagc Play anslatcd。 r adaPtcd by a Qu芑 b。 c0s bc忆 rc bcing staged灬 4GiⅤ cn thc

dcsirc to rctcrritoriahzc, thc nati。

nahty of thc translat。 r bcc。 mcs, aPParently, a

m钊 °r critcˉ rion忆 r lc要 timizh8translad。 ns of lDlar stagCcl in Qucbcc and hr cnsuHng thcir acctance Yet Mars° l缸 s cchocs B° r`Vian,who hilnsclf f°rcsaw ‘ thc ncccssity for a‘ ncⅥ :Francicization of丿 uFic as Part of thC Cvolution of the ’ languagc of thc Frcnch thcatrc,’ :s In 1968, thc languagc of thc thcatrc in Quebec undcr、 vcnt a revoluti。 n 。f truly Copcrnican ProPortions (Quob誉 c。 is translators had :° od rCas。 ln for trying t° bridgc thc gap bet、 :ccn thc languagc of thc Frcnch theatre and thc languagc of thc ne、

tl△

catrc For Trcml)lay and忆 r many othcrs,Qu誉 b。 cois

translati° ns arc

c On thc stage than Frcnch translations bccause thcy makc usc °f an 。ralcy that cchocs cⅤ cryday sPeech And indccd, parts of the dialoguc in A/lichcl TrcIublay’ s transladon 。fⅠ c ΓdI,J`d arc markedly(hffcrcnt仔 °n1 th° sc of Elsa ll△

orc cffccti、

Triolct’ s vCrsion∶

`nc氵

362

ANN1E BRIssET

Tremblay

Elsa Triolet

Jrdrind:(Dn cst touttcs

△rdFin口 :l`。 us sOrllrllcs tous

des Piquc-assictte chcz lc

des Parasitcs chcz lc bon Dicu

bon Dicu,T°

Toi,cOlnlnc sonia,con】 luc Ivan

i,c。 Iumc s。 nia,

P忐 troⅤ itch,PcrsOnne

c()lumc Ivan Potrovitch, so11nc rcstc,ricn hi1・ PC1ˉ on travaⅡ lc

Toutcs

c,

t。 utcs!

(Dusqu’

Π′ 句叮inc:Au

tl ctX汪

cst S。 nia

1纟

il

sc hsse du n1al JrcIr1nd∶ s。

attcntc⒊ sa、

Pist°

b芑 cois

’

`°

I、

an

∶ |troⅤ itch Hs ont Peur qu’

J∫ dr1n

Pis(〉 usqu’ i CSt

Thc diffcrcncc bct、 ccn thcsC t、

“

P〈

n’

n ftlsilP

and Qu芑

jar山 n Ellc

chcrchcnt Part。 ut

chcrchcnt IⅤ an P。 trovitch

Partout

cst

cst`句avec lc doctcur,ils

Avcc lc doctcur,ds

Hs° nt Pcur qu’

llons!Tous,… O心

sonia?

Ⅰ 「叩inc:Au

jardin,

ici nc rcstc

i nc ricn fairc,tous nous

tl:Et o也

il

ic

est s°

n

lct?

translati° ns rcflccts thc(hlfcrcncc bet、

htcrtlly co(lcs忆 r tllc thcatrc In t11e Qu誉

l)。

c。

`cen French

is thcatrc,thc

naturahst’ codc is thc cquiⅤ alcnt of thc Frcnch litcrary codc This is clcarl) cxcm^

tII,J-cI,thc naturalist codc Γ Phncd in Tremblay’ s Plays :ut in his transladon of匚 `ncfc :e comparc Trcmblay’ s and is f° und only in the languaε c emPl° yCd l)y Marina If、 nly a hnc hne Triolct’ s translatl° ns of the Play, it bec° n1cs clear that therc is 。 vo countries It is c、 cn hnCr i11 Ciillcs 、 ° f thc t、 bet、 ecn thc thcatrical language His Quob芯 ct,ls translauon。f thc Play Mars° lais’ s tI anslati。 n of∫ lf口 dem° uìc・ “ ^c`Jc丿 behes xx hat,as a translat° r,he says° fhis Ⅵ。rk∶ 。ur aPProach t° intcrnatlonal Frcnch 厂、 c haVC a Ⅴ°cabulary, a sPirit, is f;r rcmoⅤ cd from that of our Frcnch cousins, 、 vcll∶ 、 vhich are all our ovvn” He has hiddcn this irrcconcilablc dⅡ Tcrcncc cxtrCmelⅤ 、

ic:ASsCz Ⅱ ′ 丿

I)° ur

commcnccr!Ⅴ icns avcc mol!Jc nc Pms v。 yagcr seulc

aujourd’ hui, lc jour dc la saint_Jean, cntassoc(lans un train

忐 toulˉ lant,

au rnihcu d’ unc f° ulc de思 cns qui′ :ous d忐 visagcnt!Etlc train qui s’ arr♂ tC

° udrait voler! Non,je ne PCux Pas Jc nc ;cbaquc station, quand on Ⅴ Pcux Pas!s6 k exPrcssCs hcrself in an intcrls this l)ot the languagc of an aristocratP The c° ° nationa】

Qu芑 b芑 c0s as rc6ned as tllclt° f11cr mistress,cvcn if oCcasionally sl1e uscs

al° cal turn。 f PhrasC CmPhasizing hcr status as a、 Chrisrin召 :止 c° utcz

⒔niP丨

Jcan,、

。ulcz-Ⅴ ous、 cnir

voman ofthc‘ ‘ pcoPlc” ∶

danscr avcc luoi quand j’ aurai

I

mˉ s;rcnvcrs ddns“ Oh,ses mauvals jours aPpr。 chcnt ct cllc est t。哟°

rcmPs′ a,Vcncz

v。 11s clanscr avcc moi n1aintcnant'7

Cr,a(hffcrcncc bct、 vccn the languagc uscd to translatc and thc translati。 ns,csPccially、 vhen thc trans~ langua:e used by translators to discuss thchˉ Thc1・ c is,h°

l菠 ° rs

、

`cⅤ

are Playwhghts or dircct。 rs,and thcrelorc bcl° ng to the thcatrc Quitc

TRANS七 ATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY

363

n1 their Frcnch cultural and hn8uiStic heritage Thcy arc trying to PlacC a coFdon sdniFdirc around thcir burgc。 ning thcatre, but thcy havc fadcd t° crcatc a distinctivc lan8uagC for thc thcatrc, a languagc that could be uscd as a systcmatic and cohcrcnt languagc of translation, clcarly, they arc trying to dissociate thcmsclvcs fr°

When thc chosen targct language is a sociolcd tl△ arc in11ncdiatcly struck by thc di:1°

at is山 stinctiⅤ dy

Qu造 b。 coiS,we

n,° n thc° ne hand, and thc prcface and instructions to thc dircct。 rs or actors,on thc Other Thc justi~ ・ sccttion忆 r the“ Quebccizcation” of九 rcign texts is Ⅵ rittcn im a languagc tllat n。 l;;f§

∶ ∶ ∶∶ 扌∶ ∶ t∶

I∶

f「

」∶ ∶ ∶ ∶∶ ∶ 【 ∶ ;变扌 r∶

si∶tr∶ Flξ

:∶

SSia bct、 vecn thc translati。

F嘿

thcir Quoboc° iS rcadcrs that thc Play

I∶

lf∶

C∶

:t∶

;Jj∶

llll昱 :a皂:

、 vas translatcd F。 r thc exPrcss PurP° se of

putting it withn th0r rcach GⅡ lcs Mars。 l“ s ancl Jcan-Claude Germain arc,each in his。 wn“ ・刂,tlaC m° st ol丌 ious examPlcs° f tlais tt・ n(lcncy Qu芑 b。 c0s tra灬 latcrs

arc inconsistcnt, in that thcy emPloy both thc vcrnacular and thc rcfcrcntial languagc Ho、vcvcr,thC r° le° f the languagcs is rcvcrscd:the vcrnacular is uscd to translate thc f° rcign tcxt,、 Vhilc thc rcfercntial languagc is uscd to c。

mmcnt on thc

tcxt,Translations into Quob。 c。 is therebrc Play an idcological rathcr than a mc(li ating r° lc Thc diglossia bct、 vccn the dial° guc and thc c。 lllrnCntary or stagc (lirccti。 ns in thcsc translati。 ns(lcmonstratcs to、 Ⅴ hat cxtent thc audicnce is l)cing lllaniPulatCd Thc discoursc on languagc used by translat° Play′ vrights,cnables fr。 n1、 vhich

thcm t。 introducc an idc。

l。 gy

oftlu占

z・

rs, 、 vho oRcn d° ublc as cirJ to thc pubhc,a Pubhc 犭

thcv cxcludc thcmsclvcs

Notes 1

Jak° bs。 n, 1969, 353

2

R/1。 unin, 1963 Scc also Lad∏ 1irars synthcsis(1979, 85-114),

3

Mounin, 1963, 165

4

・ Thesc vcry qucstions、 Λ cre raised by T saⅤ

ory∶

CcrⅤ antes Publishcd Don @ixore in 1605; shoukl that st。

ry l)C

contcmPorary Enghsh,such as hc、 vould havc uscd at thc tilnc had he bccn an Enghshman, or into thc Enghsh of translatcd int。

todayP Thcrc can bc,as a rulc,very littlc d° ubt as to thc ans、 ver, 忆r,in m。 st cases,a rcadcr is justi丘 cd in cxpccting to6nd the kln(l of Enghsh that he is accustomed to If a functi。 to producc in the

n° f tramslation is Π1inds ofits readers thc same elllotions as tl△ 。sc

Pr。 duced by the° riginal in thc n1inds of thc readcrs,thc ansⅥ /cr is clcar, Yet thcrc is nced to n。 tice in ing the Possibility of

exctions Ⅵ广 hCnCⅤ cr thc °riginal author is rcad morc f° r his manner than for his lnattcr,We1nay rcad thc sPccchcs of Ciccr。 f° r cxamPle, chiCny that、 vc may havc an oPPortunity to aPPrC^ ,

qucncc Ofrcccnt years thc m° st el° qucnt sPcakCr° f Enghsh has becn sir Winst° n Churchill,and churchill’ s style、 vas ’

ciatc his cl°

not Ciccr。 s stylc Should a sPccch l)y Ciccr。

bc sO translatcd as tO sound as ifit had been dchⅤ crcd bⅤ ChurchdlP N°

(1968,56-7)

364

5

ANNIE BRIsSET ‘ ‘

Ga、vcda” is a synthcsis of sevcral rcgisters, thc stylcs of ninctecnth-ccntury

and of scvcntccnth-ccntury sarmatian Bar° quc In his n° Ⅴel ,Gombr。 wicz rc crcatcs“ thc sOund of a styli'Cd way。 fsPeakng

P° hsh st° ry— tellers

rrdns HFFdnr诀

, , ,,dchbcratcly rustic(an affection c° mParable t° the languagc Proust gaⅤ c t。

thc Gucrmantt・ s)… a mlxtuκ that co功 uκ s uP a‘

Pt’ lishncss’

of brmσ

Aftcr cxplaining hoⅥ 严an inⅤ ented language is uscd to cxP。 sc thC archacol。 gical laycrs° f this n。 stc△ 惟要° lishness,C.JclCnsk dcm。 nstrtatcs how translators° fthc n。 Ⅴcl l,lanagcd to dcal、 vith、 vhat aPPearcd t° bc dchcicntirncs,”

cies in the target languagc∶ It secmed futilc t°

l。

。k for

ac。 hcrcnt Frcnch modcl In cascs

、 Ⅴhcrc thcrc、 vas an archaically colourful、 v° rd in thc Pohsh tcxt, 、 vc turncd t0、 vritcrs such as Madamc clc S总 Ⅴign造 ,Saint~Si1non,or cⅤ cn

La Fontainc,and sirnPly b° rr0、 vcd cxPresSi° ns silnilar to tl)c

oncs in thc origina1,Thcsc cxPrCssions Playcd thc samc rolc in thc

Frcnch tcxt (c。 ntrast bctwcen contcmPortily and Past timc

Ⅰ alcnt Pσ i。 dS,witty allusion to qu“ nt hrmer dmcs)as th。 r eq“ 、 in thc P。 hsh tcxt, (Dn oCcasi° n, a datcd svntactic dcvicc cnabled

us to render thc nn~dc~si志 clc colour。 f ccrtain agCs,that lond °fm° cking, hum。 rous distinction uscd tO describc Particularly suPerscial charactcrs in thc n°

Ⅴcl

(G。 mbr。 wicz,1976,20;our tl anslati。 n)

6

E, Nida has f° und a Practical ans、 ver to this difscult qucsti。 n∶ thc sPccch of ˇ vomen should have Priority bccausc it is、 vomen,not n△ en,、 vho are rcsPon_ sible f° r cducating thc childrcn. Thc PrOSClytizing objcctivc that motivatcs

‘

Nida’ s translation° f thc Bil)lc exPlainS thiS‘ Pragmatic” soluti° n to a funda-

mcntally hnguistic Pr°

blCm(Nida and Tal,cr1982,32) h morC c。

mmon

cascs of l,ihnguahsm or chglossia, Nida and Tabcr’ s choicc of Pri。 ritics sirnilarlⅤ

is

m° tiⅤ ated:

・ ° languagcs, or to a language dcsignatcd as nati° nal or° f⒖ cial,or t。 a language sPokCn vh。 cann。 t co1nlnunicatc by an apprcciablc nun△ 1)cr of Pe。 Plc 、 Priority is givcn to thc larger of t、

cffectiⅤ cly

in any othcr languagc

, With rcsPect t°

thc lcvel of

languagc to bc uscd in thc translati。 n,Priority is giⅤ cn to co∏ 11non

language °r PoPular languagc translations Ovcr translati。

ns lη adc

in litcrary languagc,

(ibid, 176-7)

7

Bcrman, 1984,46-7; our translation

8

Qu。 tcd by C Bruncau,1955,126 9 Du Bellay,D豸 1ns召召ri`FusFr虿 rion dc F口

杨n卩 ue∫ dnfu” c,B° ok I,Ch,V(qu。 tCd

by M° unin, 1955, 14), Wc sh。 uld n。 t rcjcctcd and imPugned translati。

10

G。 bard, 1976, 34;our translation

11 Il)id 12 Trudcau, 1982, 122 13 Bergcron, 1980

f° rgct, ho、 vcvcr,

n灬 an agcnt° f

tllis订

that Du Bcl1ay

ansbrmation

TRANstATION AND CULTURAL IDENTITY 14 S Robin⑽ n tl11d D smith,PidcFjcdf Ffdn山 ook NΙ

15

’ σ cdndcfIdn frε nc为 (Torollto∶

acn1illan 1973),i,

Ibid, 1,6、

102,72,74

16

Bcrgcron, 1981, 11;our translatiOn

17

Ibid,, 9

18

365

Ⅱ)id,8

19

Thisis hoⅥ Nida dc⒒ nes adaptati° n(1982,134),

20

Lal。 ndc, 1979, 21;our translati。 n ‘ ’ 0n thc c° nstruction of ‘ rnem° ryˉ screens’ and reintcrPretati。 ns made by

21

hicb is P° rtrayCd as“ thc initial graPhcrS of thc C。 nqucst,`宀・ catastroPhC。 f Frcl、 ch Canada,thc=1P。 cLa`厂 PSc jⅤ ° "'that ’ Plungcd a coumtry haPPy undcr thc Fr1)nch, intO subjcction and hull1ihation,’ scC WCinmann, 19s7,

nationahst hist°

1ˉ

i°

277-88 22

Ri° ux, 1974, 17;our translation

23

I1ere is ho、 v the authors,both univcrsity Profcssors,descril)c thc goal of thc Pr口 crjcd/Hdndboo攵

fC￠ n4dicn ￡

Frcnch:“ It is thc auth°

rs’

hopc that it、、 ill aid

Con11uunicati° n and undcrstanding bct`、 CCn thc t、 ˉ on1ain languagc grouPs and als°

dcmonstratc thc richncss of cxPrcssi° n °f Frcnch-Canadian sPccch, a

languagc attuncd to our Canadian rcality” , 1973,back coⅤ cr

24

Lalondc, 1979, 53

25 26 27 28

scc,in pardcular,R/larcel, 1982and Trudcau, 1982 Rossi~Landi, 19s3, 87;cn△ phasis in the° riginal Dubois, 1978i44 5;our translati° n Lal° nde, 1979, 53;our translation

29

Ibicl , 15,

“ st autcurs cn Proic au mal quob芯

30

J

31

Garneau, 1974;our translati。 n

亡thicr~Blais、

cois,” in

Ⅰc Dcyoir,20Fcb

1988,D-8;our translation,emPhasiS addcd

32 Lalon(lc,1979,53 In an茳 uclc by J G° dbout,cnutlcd“ Ma languc,ma n1aisOn,”

、、c Hnd the same thcmc of thc imPurity introduccd by thc inln△

grant: In d1e、 illagcs and towns of QuCl)Cc,thcre arc Pa哎 ictllally u型 y nei{::hbourhoods vvhcrc buildings, bcsidcs bcing coⅤ crcd in

multicol。 urcd ncOn lights,arc(lcc。 rated in an astonishing varicty of styles

Thc er-by sccs in thcsc l)laces thc dchri°

us

cxprcssion。 f a shattcrcd(∶ ulturc Ⅵ=hcrc stylcs,insPi1ˉ ed l)yt11c traditi° nal Canadian h° usc,the sPanish castlc, ° r by Victorian turrcts,rcn1ind us that hc1・ c,in our country,PcoPlc can recon/hⅤ has M。 ntrcal bccn struct thci1・ univcrse as thcv Ⅵish 、、 dis丘 gurcdP T。 build An△ erican skyˉ scraPers To buⅡ d Itahan 、・ hitcˇ brick buildings in 1・ cd-brick strects Could thc Grccks havc bccn f° rbiddcn to Put l)luc paint on thc grcy stoncs and coukIthe Portugucsc have bccn told n。

tt。 transforn1slatc ro°

&

/C should Pcrhaps Percei、 c bilinguahsm in 、、 d1is、 va) A single languagc is harmony,rnorc than。 nc lan思 uagc into1ˉ ainb。 xxˇ

is vvar

s7

,But sincc languagc is thc architccture ofcmoti。 ns and

i-

366 ANNIE BRIssET ′ 、 thought,thcrc are Places on the Ⅴcrgc° f rnadncss 、 c are liv~

lng1n one (Ι

,Jul) 1987, 104)

11cr u〃 ìr犭

33

J-P Fayc uscs the cxPrCSSion“ ccttc inconnuc onigmatlquc” in his PrchcC t°

Lalondc, 1979(P 6)

34 35

ˇIiron, 1970, 118 Ibid , 118, 124

36

Ibi(1,, 118

37

Wcinmann, 1987, 315

38

Mir。 n, 1970, 118

39

Thc (lcsire f° r a statc, to bc constitutcd in a Nation-Statc, thus corrcsPonds ncccssarily to thc dcsire that n1° tiⅤ atcs ccrtain individuals or ccrtain grouPs `vithit1 a s° cicty to in△ PoSC d1Cir intcrprctation()fthe national h)tcrcst on all n1cn△ bcrs oftl)c socicty

′ 、、 hcn thc f° rl【 △ cr takc ovcr thc Po′ Ⅴcr oft11c state, )・ ou ma〉 cxPCct thC nati。 nal intcrcst thCy inⅤ okc to bc rrcsCntcd as all d1e morc urgcnt and at thc san△ c umc allthc m。 re objcCti、 =e,so great、 vill be thc desirc for l)o、 ver that ln° tivates theln, and s° irnPeri。 us their detcrn1ination tO imPose on all ofsociety a conceP_ tion of itself that is dcstructi、 c of its habitual、 vay of living and d1inking

(N1ori11and Bertrand, 1979, 138-9)

40

G° bin,

41

Lal° ndc, 1979, 12

1978, 107;our translation,cn11)hasis in thc o1・ iginal

42

Ibid , 13

43 44

n)id Ibid, 15

45

Chambcrland, 1969,69;our translation

46

Ibid

47

Lal° ndc, 1979, 20 Thc inccst thcn1c is also found, intcrcstiI1gly, in R/lichel Trcmblay’ s BoyVo1"′ a,b。巧。r(1974) Thc thcn)c aPPCarsi11a nulvbcr。 f plays, 1Ι

btIt T】

48

・ cml)lay

uscs it as a mctal,l1° r and nc,tjust to cⅤ

oke a sooal Problem

Lalondc, 1979, 13,

49 Ibid, 18 50 Ibid, 164 51 Ibid, 166 52 Lal。 nde,1974,℃ o志 me amchc” (Prc)tts蛀 Poem) 53 Luther,quotcd in Berman, 1984,45; our translation 54 M Garneau,production notcs for lnlcb召 rh at Lc Tho含 tre dc la RIanuhcturc; quotcd l)y Andr亡 s and Lcfcb、 rc, 1979,84

55

56 57

Ibid,

M Gar】 1cau,“ AG,aⅡ c

gauchc,”

in1974

ShakcsPcarc, 1978,41,Thc Original text is as follo、

vs∶

‘ 、 v / HoⅥ 厂tCndCr tis to lovc the babc :c that1nilks mc,/I woul(l,whilc it was smiling at my hcc,/Ha、 I havc giⅤ cn suck, and kn°

TRANs1ATION AND CULTURAL IDENT1TY plucked luy niPPlC f⒈

on△

367

his bonelcss:umS/And(lashed the brains

。ut,had I s、 vorn as you/ Havc donc t。

this

(ShakcspCarc, 1962,851)

58

Andr亡 s

and Lel辶 bⅤ rc, 1979, 84;our translati。 n,

59 Thc忆 llowhg

aPlDetlrs on tllc back coⅤ

D1J1Ι 】 Ji9 diJ1ji(F丿

, hd/ hd∫

sclnsovcisci s’ cn sp1`cicronr-】

60

61

丿 sP

f。

Bic刀

Chekh。 Ⅴ,nd, 2 “

V(lomc Proz。 ro、 ryx GosFin力 tzJd

na dⅤ orc s°

62

rlcz∫

￡ :1it∶

lnc。 n。 ,Ⅴ esclo

?廴芪

ll。

Pdr′

s大

σ° fthc play by J,-C Gcrmain,197⒉

、 ved by si `cs s。 Cr, c’

° Fonndmi,7d koε

召 n scl1Ι Ci召 nr, ccs

oroJ1'丿 dcn b° f’ ζ oJ7d`

P。 ldCn;

V zalc nakryˉ v句 ut st° l dlja za、丈raka” ∶Chckh° v,

s`JF莹

:1∶

insoucis s’

esr sc rcsPccrcr∫

、孑山。tl ctl、

”

utll’

G曲 crt

klbhShcd,nη n⒌

TtlrR

Thc cxtract i8 quotCd dircctl) hôm thC manuscriPt, dositCd xxith thc ing is thc origind tcxt(P,1)・ National Theatre sChool hbrary ThC follo、・ ⒎ ￡sr∫ sΓ △B￡ ND, ⒈ I1NG, D￡ D￡ ∫ lr Pt/BL'Kt丿 :lf ΓOR

R

〃Ass￡ RΓ￡RK△ Ι

R, srE￡ ΙT s∫

cH

`F￡ Γ日 1I△ nJ∶ /ch bin ⒎ sscr,记 r攵￠ r hiCr in dcr tIfc・

HauPstaclt v。 11sczuan Mein GcschoR ist m。 hsclig、 Vcnn cs、 cnig gil冫 t, lliuss iCh、 ˉ cit danach laufcn, 1h1d gibt cs、 1cl,bi11ich 厂。hnc、 crdiCnst Abcr in unscrcr Prorin/hcrrscht ubcrhaupt g1ˉ ossc rasscr 、、

Armut Es hcisst allgcmcin,dass uns nur noch dic G。 ttcr helfen k。 nnen

Zu mcincr unaussPrechhchCn Frcudc crfahrc ich v。 n

cincm Vichcit1kau忙 r,(lcr、

id hc1ˉ

umkommt dass cinigcr dcr hoch

Ⅴartet ・ Iscrdcn dir、 n Dcr Himmcl soll schr bcunruhgt sein wegcn dcr

stcn Gotter sChon untcrlIx cgs sind und auch hier in sczuan cr、

viclcn Klagcn,dic zu ihm au∴ tcigcn, ‘ (BrCcht,‘ I)cr gutc Mcnsch、 0n Sczuan,” in Di召 s芒 JC大 Cr° n BcrF° Fr Br召 cJar, 595;cmPhasis addcd) 63

64

Editor’ s notc in Brecht, 1975, 11

French translations use the reⅤ erse Procedurc

Thc

‘ ‘ rnarchand d’ eau”

CxPrCsSCs hiInself as if hc xx・ crc a l)1cmbcr of high socicty:

、 VANG~Jc suis rllarchand d’ cau,ici,dans la capitale clu sc Ⅱn y a p邡 beauc° up

Tch° uan M° n commercc est PcniblC Quand

cau,je d。 is allcr l。 in P° ur Cn tr。 uⅤ cr Et quand il y en a bcau~ coup, jc suis sans ressourccs, N1ais dans notrc ProⅤ incc r盲 gnc Tout Ic lη onde dit que seuls g誉 noralcmcnt une grande Pau`rct。 lcs (lieux Pcuvcnt cncore nous ai(lcr J° iC incffable, j’ apprcnds d’ un luaquignon qui circulc beaucouP quc quclqucs-uns dcs(hcux d’

les Plus grands sont(loj;cn r。 utc ct qu’ on I)eut aussi comPtCr sur

cux au Sc-Tchouan Lc cicl scrait tr芑 s inquict du fait(lcs n° n)brcuscs plai11tcs qui lnontcnt vcrs lui (ibi〈

65

Brccht, 1976, 30,

66

Ibid, 31

67

Tren1blay, 1969, 3

68

Ibid

l,7)

368

ANNIE BRISsET

69 TKmblay,Pr℃ Cd为

i召

's deF‘

mm brⅠ

Ⅰ抄 F des rq/ons fdmmd stJI Fcs T/ieuX￡口亻 ons,qtlr,ted in zN。 uΓ 召FFc ComPczJni召「Ja莒咨F肥 fc1(Oct° bCr1974),10

70

O’ Ncill,Dcsire

71

C)’ NcⅡ l,nd,81

72 73

Ibid, 100, R Bahbar(1985,280-98)has analysed thc Pr° cedurcs uscd by Frcnch noⅤ cl_

undcr rh召￡

`ms,in1959,57

ists to crcatc local c。 l。 ur She notes in Particular that tcxtual elements CmPl。 ycd to crcate a rural cXtct oRcn aPpear in itahcs and must be read in a di==trcnt tone and trcatcd diffcrcntly fr° lll thc main body of thc tcxt A

口力n召 by G sand,h whch thcrc is an attcmpt to dcknd a dialcct, the old Frcnch° f Berri, 、 vas a failurc Bahbar points。 ut that thc usc of thc dialectin thc samc c。 ntcxt as the national lan8uage had no in∏ ucnce° n Frcnch n。 vcl likc夕

thought of thc tiInc shc attributcs this failurc t。

thc c。 ntcmPorary i〈 lCo-

sPhere, thc Rubhcan idcal bcing t° Prom。 tc con1munication alnong citizcns with di仃 crcnt m。 thcr tongucs Thc lcgitilllatc language 、 vas thc languagc of thc statc, and cvcrⅤ cffort had to bc madc t。 cradicatc di仔辶 rcnccs, logical atln°

74 75

Chckh。 v, 1967,373; 1983,44-5 This situation can l)c aPPliCd to a c° untry likc Isracl In this rcsPect, sec G TourⅤ , 1980, translati° n

76

TurP, 1984, 3;。 ur

77

Krysinski, 1983, 10-11;our translati。 n,cmPhasis addcd This。 bscrvation is sirnⅡ ar to M. Bataillon’ s analⅤ sis of thc translation of PFdr。 noΓ bv E Triolct; “ thc analysis ends、 vith thc f° ll。、 ving obscrvation∶ The translation traP in Elsa’ s 、,。 rk is that shc is sPlcndi(lly nui(l” This“ PohshCd” translati° n,adds Bataill。 n, “ corrcsPondCd exactly to 、 Ⅴhat、vas hapPening in thc theatre of thc nftics9、 sixi爸 mcs

78

dssises de`d Frdducrion丿

rd`rc(Arlcs:Actcs Sud1989),82-5

Marsolais, 1977, 11;our translation

79

n)id

80

Krvsinski, 1983, 11

81

strindbcrg, 1985, 13,

82

Ibid,, 14,

83

1rr犭

ˇ1acDuf,1984,14,

84

~1ars° lais, 1977, 12

85

Ibid

86 87

strindbcrg,nd,52 Ibid,5,8

Chapter 26

Gayatri Chakraˇ Orty s卩 iˇ ak

THE POLITICS OF TRANSLATION

T二 fP∶ ;|虽

p。

F&∶sl至 :扌

蛋廴∶ ∶ f∶

:扌 ff∶

∴f∷ ∶∶ ⒒ 权窒∶ :摞

;∶ 1∶ J∶

:圩

::’

l∶

as thc proccss of rncaning construction1 In lny viC`v,languagc rnay bC Onc° f rnanⅤ clemcnts that allo、 v us to make sense

°f chancc,。 f thc sub individual f° rcc~⒔ clds° f bcing Ⅵ,hich chck into placc in(liffcrcnt situations, s、 ⅤcrⅤ C fr。 ∏】thc straight or true linc of languagc in-thought NIakng sense of ourselvcs is 、 vhat Produces identity. If one fccls that thc Pr° duction °f ˉ identity as sel± rneaning,not just1neaning,is as Plurahzcd as a dr。 P of、 vatcr undcr an1icroscoPc, onC iS n。 t abⅣ ays satis⒔ cd, outsidc of the cthico~P。 htlcal arcna as such,with“ gencrating” though“ °n onc’ s own (Assuming idcnti” as。 r廴要n may bc unsatisfact。 ry in thc cthic。 -P。 htical arcna as 、 vell, but considcrati。 n of that novv、 vould takc us too far aHcld.)OnC° f thc、vays to gct ar。 und thc c。 n⒔ ncs。 f one’ s“ idck△ tity” as° nc ProducCs Cxp° sitory Prosc is to、 vork at s° meonc clsc’ s titlc, as onc works wiCh a languagc that bcl° ngs to∏ 1any othcrs,This,aRcr all,is onc of of things, of oursclvcs I an1thinking, of course, of gcsturcs, PauSes, but als°

the scducti。 ns。 f translating It is a sirnple

Ⅱ1in1ing of thc rcsponsibility to thc tracc

°f thc° thcr in thc sclf RcSP° nding, thcref° rc, t。

NΙ ich志

lc、 vith that frccing sensc of rcsponsibility, I

can agrce that it is not b° dies。 f1neanin8that arc transfcrrcd in translation And fr。

n1the ground° f that agrecmcnt I、 vant to considcr thc r。 le played by languagc

r thc clfcnr, thc pcrson、 vh。 acts, cⅤ en though intcntion is not fully Prcscnt to itsclf, Thc task。 f thc fcⅡ 1inist translat° r is to considcr language as a cluc t。 thc 、 v° rkings of gcndered agcncy.Thc vvriter is Ⅵ'ritten by hcr language,of coursc,But f°

1992

370

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY sPIVAK

the、vrith1g° f thc、 vritcr、 ˉ ritcs agcnc) in a xx∴ ay that】 11ight bc diffcrcnt sˉ °n刁 that of thc British、 v。 n1an/citizcn、 vith thc11ist。 ry of British fcn1inism, focuscd° n thc

task。 f⒏ ccing hcrsclf i°

s impcrial Past,its° Ren racist prcscnt,as、・ cll

ln Bl・ ltain’

as its“ n1adc in Britain” historΥ

°f rnalc(lon1ination

Translation as reading

i摅

j;∶ 罩

i;li±

埘 ;:ll革 ˉ krcnccs,wc rCmaln saR “sakty” is tbc aPPropriatc tcrm here,bccausc、、 c are 器

拉

talki11g of risks,。

蓝

f、 iolcncc

摹谳

挣

t。 t11c translating n△ cdium,

I felt that I、 vas taking thosc risks、

vhcn I rcccntly translatcd sOn△ c latc cightccnth_

ccntury Bcngah P。 ctry,I quote a bit fr° n)rny‘ ‘ Translator’ s Prcfacc” ∶

I111ust oⅤ crComc、 vhat I Ⅵ as taught in sch。。⒈ thc highcst mark for thc most accuratc collcction of synonyn1s,strung togcthcr in thc rn° st Pr° x-

irnatc syntax I rnust rcsist both thc solcmnity of chastc Vict°

rian Poctic

‘ ProsC and thc R)rccd sh1】 l,licit) °f‘ Plain Enghsh” , that haⅤ c imposcd themsclⅤ cs as thc norn1 , Translati° n is thc most inthuate act of rcacling I surrcndcr to thc tcxt、 vhcn I translatc,Thcsc s。 n8s,sung day a⒒ cr

day in h111ily ch。 rt1s bcforc clcar lnemory bcgan,haⅤ c a Pecuhar

intirnacy for lue Reading and sur1ˉ endeIˉ in: takC 。n ne、 ˉn1eanings in such a casc,Thc translat° r earns Pern1ission to transgrcss11orll the t1ˉ acc of the other ~bcf° rc m clll。 ry— in thc cl。 scst PlacCS。 f thc self2

Ⅴ 、扌严苏H瑟 r丨泔扌 ∶ ∶ ∶竽罟∶ 1岩喙器:求营 ∶ 捃扌 ∶ Ι⒒苕J刂丑 i器茹 :Ij; }蒜拉s{tI∷ ⒒ 萝 F毖戒c斌 i∵∶ Ⅱ ∶ l△ 茁 ∵ ÷∶ ∶ ∶ ∶ ∫ 犭 Ι∶ Languagc is 11ot cVcrything It is onIy a i:I∶

:i∶

;;:∶

:;∶

closc to it.By jugghng thc disruptiⅤ

;;∶

}∶

l∶

1∶

LⅠ

vhcrc the self loscs its

:1Ⅰ :∶ 1:∶ i∶

:∶

j1丨

1I1革

c rhct。 ricity that breaks the surfacc in n。 j∶

sⅠ

ital cIuc t0

:∶

t ncces-

t∶ lⅠ fl::l∫

腻扛耜燕∴ ∶奔社邋媾l ;腓 ∶ 群掩产燕扛港 ;f樊 ∶ ltf弼 !榭找共粹 1∶ ⒒∶ Ⅲ∶∶ IJ了燕∶ 斟燃射 |;抄谳 Ⅰ耳∶ ∶ ∶ 楝社黼 ì:∶

;∶

:i∶

iil礻 |lj∶

j1∶

li|;I丨 il∶

j|丨

i)∶

1ˉ

!∶

i嘹

J∶

:

‘ THE

POLITICs OF TRANsLATION

371

defcrrcd int° an。 ther self、 vh。 rescmblcs us,h° 、 vcⅤ Cr rninirnallⅤ ,and、 vith vvhom

we can communicatc.)Btlt a m° rc homdy Staging ofit occurs across two eJthly languagcs,Thc cxPcricnce° f containcd altcrity in an unknovvn language spoken in a di"erent cultural lnilicu is uncannⅤ

,

Lct us no、 /think that,in that。 thcr language,rhctoric may be disruPting logic

in thc matter of thc Producti° n of an agent, and indicaung the f。 unding violcncc 。f thc silcncc at work within rhcto0c L° 要c all° ws ustojumP Ⅱ。mw° rd to worcl by mcans 。f clcarly indicated c。 nncctions Rhctoric must 、广 ork in thc silencc :昌 :∶

蕊甜嘿潸 F男 )⒒

%∶ l、

盅r穷盟:T占黯iJ`F掣

nshiP by、 vhich a、 Ⅴ。rld is madc f°r the agcnt, so that thc agcnt can act in an cthical、 vay,aP° htical、 vay, a dayˉ to-day、 vay; so that thc agcnt can be ahⅤ e,in a human、 vaⅤ ,in thc、vorld,Unlcss onc can at lcast c。 nstruCt a modcl。 f this f° r the othcr languagc,thcre is n° rcal translati。 n ti。

unf。 rtunatcly it is only to° casy to Pr° ducc translati° ns if d1is task is c° mplctcly ignorcd I【 uysclf sec no choicc bctvvccn thc quick and casy and slaPdash、 vay,and translating、 Ⅴcll and Ⅵ・ ith difHculty Thcrc is no rcason、Ⅴhy a rcsPonsiblC transla~

tion should takc morc tin1c in thc doing Thc translator’ morc ti1nC,and her loⅤ

c f° r the text n△

s Praration1night take

ight bc a matter of a rcading skill that takes

patience But t11c shccr matcrial producti。 n ofthc tcxt nccd not bc sl。 vv 厂、、 ith。 ut a sensc of thc rhct° ricity of language, a sPccics °f ne。 ~c° loniahst ConstruCtion of the non~、 :cstCrn scene is afoot No argument for c。 nⅤ cnience can bc PcrsuasiⅤ c here That is al、 vays the ar思 ument, it sccllas. This is whcrc I traⅤ fr。 n1

A/lich志 lc Barrett’

s cnabhng notion of thc question

structurahsn1,Post_struCturahsn1has sh。

cl

。f lan思 uagc in Post-

vvn somc of us a staging ofthc agcnt`vithin

a thrcc~ticrcd noti° n oflangua:c(aS rhct。

ric,logic,silcncc) We must attcmPt to

cntcr or dircct that staging, as onc(lirccts a play, as an actor interPrets a scriPt,

That takcs a diffcrent kind °f cFfort fr° m taking tIˉ anslati° n to bc a mattcr of syn° nylll, syntax and local colour T° bc° nly critical, t。 defer acti° n until thc Production° f the ut° Pian trans~ lator,is impractical Yct,whcn I hcar Dcrrida,quitc justiHably,Pont° ut thc (lif6culties l)ct、 vccn Frcnch and Enghsh, evcn、 vhcn hc agrccs to sPcak in Enghsh

“

I must sPcak in a lan8uagC tllat is not my own bccausc that will bc m。

rc just” 、 vant to claim thc ri8ht to thc samc digni⒔ cd comPlaint f° r a、 v。 man’ s tcxt in Aral,ic。 r Ⅴictnamcsc+ Itis m。 K ju呲 ω g卜 c acc6s to thC largcst numbσ 。 fkm“ ists Thσ cfo父 thesc tcXts must bc maclc t° sPCak En囹 ish It is m。 R just to sPcak the languagc of tl△ c maJori” whCn thr。 ugh hosutali” a largc numbcr° f lcSmini哎 s givc tllc凡 rcign kmi nists thc right t° sPcak,in Enghsh.In the case° fthc Third Workl f° reigncr,is the law° fthc mⅡ 。rity that。 f dcc° rum,thc cqttltc△ blC law。 f dcmocracy,or the“ law” 。f thc str。 ngcst? VVe lmight focus° n this confusion Thcrc is n° thing ncccssarily I

mcrctricious at)。 ut the wcstc・

m、 minist

gazc(ThC“ naturalizing” °fJacqucs Lacan’ s

skctching out of thc Psychic structurc of thc gazc i1】 iour has alxs'a〉 iS

of grouP Pohtical behav~

sccmed to mc a bit shaky) On thC。 thCr hand, there is n° thing

esscntially n° blc ab° ut

thc law° f the maj° rity C此 hcr It is mcrcly the casicst way

。fbein8“ dcm。 cratic” 、ith lninoritics,In thc act of Ⅵ∫ h。 lcsale therc can bc a l)ctrayal of thc dclnocratic idcal into thc la、

translation int° Enghs11

v of thc str。

ngest This

372


hapPens vvhen all the litcraturc of the Third、

V° rld gcts translatcd int°

a sort of

vvith it translatcsc,s0that thc litcraturc by a、 voman in Palcstinc bcgins to rcscmblc,

in thc kcl。 f its ProsC,s0mCthing by a man in Taiwan Thc rhct°

ricity of Chincse

and Arabic!The cultural P° htics of high-gr0、 vth,caPitahSt ASia-PaciHc,and(lcⅤ astatcd Wcst Asia! Gcndcr(liffcrcncc inscril)cd and inscril)ing in thcsc(hffcrcnccs! F° r

the student, this tcdious translatcse cannot comPetc、

vith thc sPcctacular

styhstic exPeri1nents of a Monique Wittig or an Ahce Walker Lct us c° nsklcr an cxamPle、 Ⅴherc attCndi11g to thc auth° r’ s styhstic cxPcri’ ments can producc a diffcrcnt text RrlahasⅥ ・ cta DeⅤ s“ Stanadayini’ is aⅤ ailablc in i’

t、

Vo Ⅴersions5Dcvi has cxPrcsSCd apPr。 Ⅴal for thc attcntion to hcr signature stylc

‘ tn thc Ⅴcrsion entitled‘ Brcast-giⅤ cr” Thc altcrnati、 c translati。 n giⅤ es the title as “ Thc Wct~nurse” ,and thus neutrahzcs thc auth。 r’ s irony in constructing an uncanny 、 vord;cn。 ugh likc‘ ′Ⅴct~nursc” to makc that scnsc,and cnough unhkc to shock It is as if thc translat。 r should dccidc to translatc DⅤ lan Thon△ as’ s fa1n° us titlc and

opcning linc as

‘ ‘

IDo not go gently int°

that good night’

’

Thc thcmc of trcating

vcr-as~co∏ 11nodity and thc breast as metonyn△ ic d1c brcast as organ of labour~p。、 Part^° bjCct standin思 in for° ther-as-objcct_

thc、 vay in、 vhich thc story plays xly・ ith s bodⅤ - is l° st cvcn bef° re Ⅴ°u

Marx and Frcud。 n thc Occasion of the、voman’

cntcr thc story In thC text Mahas、 vcta uses ProⅤ crbs that arc starthng cⅤ cn in thc rct-nurse” lcaⅤ cs thcn△ 。ut Shc decidcs not to try Bcngah Thc translator° f“ Thc、、 to translatc thcse hard bits° t。

f earthy、 visd° ln,c。ntrasting、 ith class~sPeci⒔ c acccss

m。 dernity,also rrCscntcd in thc story Im fact,if the t、 vo translati。 ns arc rcad

side by sidc,thc l。 ss of thc rhctorical silenccs。 f thc Original can l)c felt fr°

m。 ne

to thc othcr First,then, the translator must surrcndcr t。

thc text she rllust sohcit the text

v thc lilnits of its languagc, bccause that rhetorical asPect、 tO sh。、 silcncc of thc abs。 lutc fraying of language that thc tcxt

manncr Somc think thisisjust an ethcreal way oftalknε

Phy Butn。

Ⅴill p。 int at the 、 Ⅴards off, in its sPCcial

about littˉ

raturC or Phil°

amount oftough talk can get ar° und the fact that translati°

S° _

n is the rn° st

intiluatc act of reading unless thc translator has earncd thc right to bec°

mc thc

inti1nate rcader,shc cann° t surrcndcr t° the text,cannot rcsPond to thc sPecial call of thc tcxt The PrcsuPposition that、

^fomcn havc a natural or narrativc-hist°

rical sohdarity,

mcthing in a、Ⅴoman° r an undiffcrcntiated、 Ⅴ°men’ s story that spcaks to another 、 Ⅴ°man vvithout l)cnc丘 t of languagc lcarning, n△ i:ht stand against thc that thcrc is s°

translator’ s task of surrcnder Paradoxically,it is not Possible for us as cthical agcnts /c to imaginc othcrncss° r altcrity maxi1nally, 、、

haⅤ c to turn tllc°

thcr intO sOmc-

thing likc tlac sclf in° rdcr t° bc cthical To surrcndcr in translati。 n is rnore crotic

‘

than cthica16In that situation thc good~vvⅡ hng attitudc‘ shc is just likc mc” is not

ⅤCry helpful In s° far as Mich志 lc Barrett is not likc Gayatri sPiⅤ ak,thCir fricndshiP is m° rc cffcctiⅤ c as a translati。 n. In ordcr to carn that right of fricndshiP 。r surrcndcr of identity, of kn° 、 ving tllat thc rhctoric of thc tcxt indiCatcs the lirnits

。flanguagc for you as long as you are、 vith thc tcxt,you have t° l,c in a different vvith thC lamguagc,not cvCn only、 vith thc sPCciHc text. Lcarning about translati。 n。 n dle job,I came t° think that it、 v° uld bC a Pracvas such that Ⅴith thc language bcing translated 、 tical helP if° nc’ s rclationshiP 、

relati° nshiP

somcti1ncs Onc Preferred t°

sPcak in it about inti1natc things This is no more than

, THE POLITICS OF TRANsLATION

373

a Practical suggcsti。 n, not a thcorctical t・ cquircmcnt, uscful cspccially bccausc a

、oman writcr、 ``△

stagin思

ho is、、 ittingly or un、

‘ ‘

’

ìttiI1gl〉

a“ kminist”

_an(l ofcoursc all woman

vnl rClatc t。 thc thrcc~Part cn h1 this broad scnsc ~ 、 ‘ of(agenc) in) lan8uage in、 vays(]chned out as‘ priⅤ atc” , sincc thcy 111ight

1tcrs arc not

ftn)"1ist’

cⅤ

qucsu。 n the morc l)ubhc lin8uistic n1anoeuⅤ rcs

。f intirnacy 、 vith thc medium, In Sudhir 【【 orfd, a song about Kah 、 vritten by thc latc nincteenth-ccntury ’ ’ m° nk Ⅴivekananda is citcd as Part。 f thc Pr。 °f of thc‘ ‘ archaic narcissisn△ of the Indial、卜icl malc7(Dc、 i makcs thc samc Point with a l唿 ht touch,with rckrcncc to Krsna and SiⅤ a, t〉 h)g it to sexisn1 ratl、 cr than 11arcissinn and 、 Ⅴith° ut PsychoLet us c。 nsjder an cxamplc of lack

Kakar’ s f/,e Jnncr

analytic PattCr) Fr° m

Kakar・ s(lcscriPti° n,it vvould not be P° ssiblc t° ghlnPSc that“ thc(lisciPlc”

stanCcs of ViⅤ ekananda’ s comP° sition ・ h。 bccamc a Ramakrishna nun, a whitc、 voman of thc s。 ng Ⅵas an I1・ lshwoman、 Ⅴ among malc Indian n1。 nks and dcv。 tcCS In thc acc° unt Kakar rcads, thc s。 ng is vith thc 。riginal languagC translatcd by this `von1an, 、Ⅱ hosc train"1g i11 inti1nacy 、 xx ho givcs thc of the singular circun△

is as Painstaking as one Can hoPe for T11crc is a strong identihcati。

n bctvccen Indian

、 crnbraced às callcd, als° 、 vhat shc undcrst° °d t。 bc thc Indian Phil。 S。 phical 、 vay of lifc as cxPlaincd by /ivekananda,itsclf a Pccuhar,rcsistant conscqucncC of the culturc of imPcriahsn1, 、 as has bccn P。 intcd out by many For a psychoanalyst likc Kakar, this historical, ・ ea、 c PhiloSoPhical and indced scxual tcxt of translation should bc the tcxtile to“ ‘ ‘ 、、 ith Instcad, thc Enghsh versi。 n, giⅤ en” by the an。 nym。 us‘ klisciplc” , serⅤ cs as no lnorc than thc° paquc cxhibit Pr° Ⅴidil)gt`、 idcncc of thc ahcn fact。 f narcissisn1 It is n。 t thc sitc° Γtbe exchangc° 「languagc At thc bcginni】 1g of the agc qu。 tCd by Kakar,thcrc is a rckrencc t° Ran) ‘ ‘ Prasad (or Ram Pr。 shad) Kakar proⅤ i(lcs a botn。 tc∶ Eig11tcCnth ccntury singcr ’ and Poct 、:h。 sc songs °f longin8 for thC NIothcr arc vcr) Popular in Bcngal’ hat I an1 c∶ alling thc abscncc 。f I bchcⅤ c t11is f° 。tnotc is also an indication of、 Ⅴ and Irish nati° nahsts at this l,criod; and Ni、 cdita, as she

,

lnt11nacⅤ

Ⅴivckananda is, an)ong ot11cr th"1gs, an cxan1plc of thc pccuhar rcactiⅤ

c

construCtion of a glorious“ India” undcr thc Prov° cation of in1Pcriahsm The rejcc-

’

tion of“ Patriotisn1’ in faⅤ our° f“ Kah” rortcd in Kakar’ 8age is PlayCd °ut in this hist° rical theatrc, as a choice of thc cultural ftmalc sPhcre rathcr than thc col° nial1nalc

sphere:It is undoubtcdly‘

‘

truc” that f° r

sen Pr° viclcs a kind of idcal sclf scn had traⅤ

such a6gurc,Ram PrOshad

cllcd back fio1n a clerk’ s job ir、

colonial Calcutta bcforc the Pcrmanent scttlc1ncnt ofland in 1793to bc the court poct of onc ofthe great rural lando∽ n ers、 vhosc s。 cial tyPe,and、 vh。 sc conncction to natiⅤ c culture, 、 vould bc transf° rn)cd by thc Scttlc111ent In °thcr 、°rds, Vivckananda and Ran)PrOshad arc t、・ o11nomcnts of col° nial discursivity translating thc Hgure° f Kah Thc dynan1ic intricacy of that(hscursive tcxtilc is m° cked by thc usclcss f° 。tn° te ” It、v。 uld be idlc11ere to enter thc(lcbatc ab。 ut the“ idcntitⅤ 。f Kah or indccd ’ ‘ ’ 。thcr goddcsses in⒈ Ⅱndu‘ P。 lytheisn△ But sin1ply to contextuah7c,lct rne add that ‘ it is Ran1 Proshad about、 vh。 sc P° etry I `、 rotc tl、 c‘ T】 ˉ anslator’ s Prcfacc” quOtcd carher Hc is by no n1cans silnPly an archaic sta8e_ProP in thc disciPlc’ s of

’

Vivekananda’ s“ crisis’ , son1c morc lines△

on△ 1ny‘

‘

‘

Ram Proshad playcd

Prc%cc’ `‘

374


、 vith his m。 ther t° nguc, t1・ ansvaluing thc Ⅵ・ ords that arc heaⅤ iest with Sanskrit n1caning I haⅤ c bccn unablc to catch thc uttcrly ncⅥ ⒎but uttcrly gendered tonc of affectionatc bantcr”

_—

not only,not cvcn largcly,“ longing” ~“ bct`veen the P° ct and

Kali” unlcss NiⅤ c(lita mistl anslated,it is thc dif%rcncc in tonc betwccn Ram Pr° shad’ s

innovating Playfulncss and ViⅤ ckananda’ s high nati° nahst solcmnity

that,in spite of the turn fron1nationahsn△ to thcˇ Ι othcr,is historically signi⒔ cant, The Pohdcs of thc translatl° n of thc culturc ofilupcHahsn1by the colonial subjcct

has changed noticcably And that changc is cxprcsscd in the gendcring of thc oicc poct’ s Ⅴ

How do wolη cn in ContemPorary Pol),thCism rclatc t。

this Peculiar mothcr,

Ccrtainly not the Psych° analytic bad Inother vvhom Kakar dcriⅤ cs from Max Wcbcr’

n1isrcadin8, not CⅤ Cn an organized Punishing mothcr, but a child~rnothcr

s

Ⅵ=h。

vith astringent violcncc and is als。 a m。 ral and affectivc m。 nitorP9 PuniShcS 、 ()rdinary、 :omen, not saintly、 vomCn, XVhy takc it f° r grantcd that thc inv。 cation of goddcsscs in a hist° rically mascuhSt polythCist Sphcrc is ncccssarⅡ y fcn△ inist? I

think it is a wcstcrn and malc-gcndcrcd sug思 cstion that PowCrful 、 v° l,nCn in thc s吞 kta(saktl° rK瓦 h-Ⅵ ・ orshiPPing)traditi。 n take Kah as a role1nodcl m ,cen goddesses Mahaswcta’ s Jash° da tells me m° rc about thc rclationshiP l,et、、 ng ordinary、 vomcn than thc Psychoanalyst And hcrc to。 the CXamPlc of and st1ˉ ° Ⅴron8” can bc offcrcd Thc French an intin△ atc translation that goes rcsPectfully‘ ′ 、 ⅤiF芯 of a Bcngah artist translated s° me° f Ram Pr。 shad sen’ s sOngs in the t、 vcntics to accon△ Pany her husband’ s Paintings bascd on thc sOngs. Hcr translations arc n】

arred by the PerⅤasive orientahsln ready at hand as a(liscursivc systcn1 ComParc

two agcs,both⒍ anslaung the“

sam c” Bcngah,I havc at lcast tricd,if%ilcd,t。 catch the unrclenting1uockcry of sclf and K5h in thc° rigina⒈

Mind,why忆 odoosc{i・。mM。 thcr? Mind minc,think powcr,br犴 cc(lom’ sd° wcr,bin(lb° wer with lovc r°

Pe

In tilnc,n】 ind,v。 un1indcd

not Ⅴ°ur blastcd lot And Mothcr,(laughtcr~hkc,b° und uP housC_fCncc to duPc her(lCnsc and dcⅤ °tcd fello、 Ⅴ

0h vou’ ll scc at(lcath h。 wn△ uch N1un△ A couplc n1inutcs’

Ⅴes

v。 u

tcars,and lashings of、 vater,co、 Ⅸlungˉ Purc.

Herc is the French, translated by me int° v° cabularⅤ

l。

an Enghsh comParablc in t° ne and

:

Pourquoi as-tu,rnon含 mc,dolaiss。 lcs PiCds dc M含 P O csprit,m。 ditc Sh。 kti,tu。 bticndras la d。 hⅤ rancc Attachc~lcs ccs PiCds Saints avcc la cordc de la d芑

Au b° n momenttu n’ as ricn Ⅴu,c’ est bien l犭

t。 n

Ⅴ。ti° n lllalheur

Pour sc joucr dc son Hd志 le,Ellc rn’ cst apparuc

⒊roParer ma cl♂ turc 含 C’ est⒊ la rn° rt quc tu c。 mPrcndras l’ am°ur dcˇ 】 1ci,。 n Ⅴ crscra quclqucs larmcs,Puis° n Puri⒔ cra lc licu, Sous la f° rme de ma sllc ct n1’ a aid芑

.

i THE POLITICs OF TRANSLATION XlVhy haⅤ

375

c you,my soul[n,。 n咨 n,c is,adn△ ittedly,less hcavy in Frcnchl,

lcR Ma’ s、 ctP

Ol,aind,1ncditatc uPon shokti,you、 vill obtain dchvcrancc. Bind th。 se h° ly fcct`vith the r° Pe° f dCⅤ 。ti。 n, In good tirnc you saⅥ 广n° thin8,that is indecd your s° rroⅥ / T° Play、 :ith her faid1ful° I11thc f° rm ofFny(laughtcr It is at dcath that

ne,shc aPPcarCd to mc and hclPcd me t。

Ⅴou、 vⅡ l understand N1a’

Hcrc,thcy will shcd a fllw tcars,tllcn Pu⒒

rair n△ y

cnclosure

s loⅤ c

灯

tl△

C place

And hcrc thc Bcngah:

\卩虽奉 FJ=遘、 .,祜喻浼「S羔 Ⅴ羝飞瑞王擗常黥\ r混 rw罐丨丨 :丫 ~杯 ∶ 照弑 \岈、 ~η

Ft歹lˉ

"

}∶ l∶ i{∶

I hopc thcse cxan△ Ples dCn1° nstratc that(lth of comn1itrllcnt to correCt cultural pohtjcs,felt in thc dctails。 f Pcrs。 nal lifc,is someti1ncs not cnough Thc hist。 ry of thc languagc, the history of thc author’ s momcnt, the history of the language in~ and-as_translati° n,rnust n:urc in thC′ veaⅤ ing as vvcll

By logical analysis,wc don’ t ju虻 mcan wh敲 thc philos° Phcr docs,but als。

reasonablcncss~that vvhich、 vill

all。

v rhct。 ricity to bC aPProPriatCd, Put in its 、

Placc,situatcd,secn as only nicc Rhctoricity is Put in its Placc that、 vay bccausc it (hsrupts VVo1ncn、 vithin malc-d°n1inatcd socicty, 、 Ⅴhcn thcy intcrnahzc scxisrll as normality,act out a sccntario against fcminism d△

t△

t is brmally analo妒 cal

t。

thiS・

Thc relati° nshiP bctvvccn logic and rhct。 ric,bct、 vccn gran11nar and rhct。 ric,is also a relationship bct、 :ccn sOCial logic, social rcas° nablencss and thc(lisruptiⅤ eness()f h思 uration

in social practice Thesc arc thc⒔

rst t、 vo

Parts of our three_Part rnodc1・

But then,rhetoric Points at thc Possil)ihty of rand° mncss,of contingcncy as such, disscn△ ination,

thc falling aPart of languagc, thc P。 ssibihty that things 1uight not

dwa” bc sCmioti∞ lly。圪alllZed (My ProblCm with Kristcva and thc℃ re_ is that shc sccms to vvant to cxPand thC Cmpire °f thc mcaningˉ ful by grasPing at、 vhat languagc can only Point at) Culturcs that lllight n° t haⅤ c d1is scn1iotic”

sPeci丘 c thrcc~part n△ odcl

Ⅵ・ ill

still have a d。 n1inant sPhCrc in its traf丘 c、 vith

and contingcncy Writcrs likc Is Amadiumc sh。 sphcrc as bi。 logically dctcrn1incd,onc still has t°

languagc

、「us that, 、 vithout thinklng of this think in ° f a sPhcrC dCtcr~

∏1ined by dc⒔ nitions of secondary and Pri1nary scxual characterisdcs in such a、 vay that the inhabitants。 f thc° thcr sPherc are Para-SubjcctiⅤ d。 n、 inant

grouPs’

c,not fully subjcct ll Thc

、 vay of handhng thc thrcc~Part ontology of languagc has to bc

lcarnt as、veⅡ _if thc sub° rdinatc vvays of rusing、 vith rhctoric are to bc discl° scd.

To(lccidc、 vhether y。 u arc prarcd Cnough to start translating,thcn,it Fnight hClP if you havc graduatcd int。 spcaking, by ch。 ice °r PrcfcrCncc, of intirnate

376

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY sPlVAK

Ⅴ vorkcd my、、a)r back to n1y carhCr mattcrs in thc language of thc Original I havc ∴ cnicnce or Classr° 。 1ConⅤ enicncc or point: I cannot see、 hy thc Pubhshcrs’ conⅤ ˉ tirnc conⅤ enicnCc for Pc。 Plc′ ∧h。 do not haⅤ c the tirnc t。 lcarn should。 rganizc the lΥ

construCtjon of thc rcst° f thc、 v。 rld for、

‘

`cstcrn fClninis】

n Fi、 e years ago,beratcd

、。ne ought to be a bit m。 re as unsistcrly, I、 vould think,‘ Well, you kn。、 ctC,”

耦

,but thcn I askcd n1ysclf again,“

:F时丨犭【;扌I1托 lJ:;∶ 芦嘎

gi、

ing

What an1I giⅤ ing,or givh1g uP7To、 vh。 n1am

:丨fJ暴戈

l∶

,⒒

甘

⒒ :`l∶ Ⅰ Ⅲ 蕊

:∶

:强 lⅠ

not PrCtend to bc a Lnarg"1al But surcly by den1andit、 g higher standards of transla~ rigina17 tion,Ia1n not lnarginahzing n)yself or thc language of thC。、orks t structurc 、 this thrcc~Pa1・ I havc learnt thr。 ug1】 translati1】 g [)cvi h。 `Ⅴ

differcntly fr。

m Enghsh in my native languagc And here anothcr l"st。 rical

凇察按襻 W° rld

ir。 ny

谢弼撵谢JIl雄

:蕊

translation tradc I1。 Ⅵ・t0aCCePt that thc vvhccl has comc around, that thc

1=丨 i衤

′t搌 v°

1主

l棋 :融抖擀 ∶ 拉∶∶ 撖找黹扶

∷f廴

s】

:忡

l{∶

kt。

c。 niont

thc ltlt・ a th荻

w脑

△吏

sccl△ q rc“

ant h the sPace d

祺燕 J酣刂狱恧耕撅千 Jj置撤蚌 ni茗

|∵ l龊烈拉找:∷ ∶ 喙茧

tn⒊ :;1:lr⒊ f珲 {〖 rI】 l∶ i乩 “

“

r找

c拄

・

Gendering” is an aⅥ k、 vard11c、 v gcndcring” could not bc translatcd into Bcngali 、 vord in Enghsh as、 vell Akhter is Pr° f° undly inⅤ olⅤ cd in international fcn1inism, ‘

′ orkl I coul(l not translate‘ gendcr” into thc us kn1inist And her basc is Thh・ d、、 n, betvvecn a suPerlative rcadcr° f thc contcxt for hcr. This n1ishring of translati° s°

cial text such as Akhtcr,and a carcful translator likc lnysclf,spcakil`g as⒒ iends,

has addcd to luⅤ scnse of thc task of thc translator

Go°da11d0ad is a∏ cxible sta11(la“ l,likc all哽 andards Hcrc anothc1・ lcssc,l)0f

:杜

擀群嗅挂擞蓝 sI龄柚 P堂

:茨

t1i痊

THE POLIT1CS OF TRANsLATION Pubhshing houscs routinc】 y cngage in luatcriahst confusi° translator1nust bc at)lc to nght that IuctroPohtan n△

377

n ofth。 se standards Thc

atcriahslll、 vith a sPecial kind。 f

flcdgc,n° t rnerc PhiloS。 Phical c。 nⅤ ictions sPeciahst’ s kn。 Ⅵ

・ In。 ther、Λ ords, the Pers。 n、vho is translating must haⅤ c a t。 ugh scnsc of thc

sPeciHc tCrrain 。f thc original, so that shc can nght thc racist assumPti° n that all

Third W。 rld w° men’ sw1・ itin8iS good I am oRcn aPPr。 achcd by womcn Who xl,ould l钛 c to put Dcviin wkh just In山 a11womcn writtsrs I am“ oublcd by this, bccause“ Indian womcn” is not a托 mhist catcgory.(ElsCwhcre I havc泸 gucd that f collS订

udlllg° 匀 cα S° f kn。 wlc(乜 c~曲 °tlld not haⅤ c ntational

`PistcmcF~waF。 namcs cithcr)13Somctimcs Inclian w° mcn writhg means AmcHcan w。 mcn wⅡ ting v° mcn Ⅵ 。r British 、厂 riting, cxct for national ° rifin, Thcrc is an etlln。 _cultural agcnda,an obhtcrati° n of Third W。 rld sPcci丘 city as、 vell as a denial。 f cultural citi‘ zenshiP,in calling thcrll luCrcly‘

Indian”

.

lMy inidal Point、 vas that thc task of thc translat。 r is to surrendcr hcrsclf t°

thc

hnguistic rhct° ricity of thc °riginal text Alth° ugh this P° int has largcr Pohtical

t unirnPortant1nini1nal conscquCncc。 f ignoring this task is thc l° ss °f“ thc literarity and tcxtuahty and sensuahty of thc 、 vriting” irnPhcati。 ns,、 vc can say that the n。

(Mich志 lc’ sw。 rds) I haⅤ C w° rked my way to a sec° nd Point,that thc translat。 must bc ablc to(liscrin1inatc on thc tcrrain of thc。 riginal Let us d、 vcll° n it a bit

1・

longcr,

I choosc DcⅤ i bccausc shc is unhkc hcr sccnc I haⅤ c hcard an Enghsh °f shakcsPcare criticism coming fr° m thc cmcnt,wC arc als° dcnicd thc right to bc critica1, It、 vas of c° ursc bad to havc Put thC Placc undcr subjuga~ tion,to haⅤ c tricd to⒈ nakc thc Place° ⅤCr、 Shakcspcarcan suggcst that cvcry bit subc° ntincnt was by that

irtuc Ⅴ

resistant By such a ju(蟪

"thofCalculatcd But that docs not1ncan that cⅤ crythi11gd△ at is con1ing out that Placcrcstrictions aRCr a ncgotiatcd indc-

Pcndcncc ncarly ⒔fty yCars ago is ncccssarⅡ y right Thc old anthropological suPpoSiti。

n (and that is bad anthr° P。 logy) that CvCry Pcrson fr° m a culturc is

nothing but a、 vhole exan△ Plc° f that culturc is actcd° ut in my colleaguc’ s sugges-

tion, I rcmain intcrestcd in 、 v11tcrs 、 vh° arc against thc currcnt, against thc mainstream I rcmain conⅤ inccd that thc intcrcsting literary tcxt n1ight bc Prcciscly thc text where you d。 n° tlcarn what thc m句。 lty vicw of m句 ority cultural rrc 1・

scntation or scl∴ rrcSCntation of a nation state n1ight bc, Thc translator has to makc hcrsclf’ ,in thc casc of Third W。 rkl、 vomcn、vriting,ahnOst bettcr cquiPpcd than thc translat° r、 vh° is dcahng vvith thc xs,cstcrn Europcan languages,becausc of

thc fact that thcrc is so much ofthc。 ld colonial attitudc,shghtly disPlaced,at、 vork in the translation racket P。 st_structurahsm c口 n radicahzc thc ⒖cld 。f PreParati° n s° that sirnPly boning uP on thC language is n° t enough; thcrc is als。 that sPecial rclati° nshiP

to thC Staging of languagc as thc Producti°

attcnd to But thc agcnda of Post^structurahsn△

n° f agcncy that onc must

is lnosdy clsc、 vherc,and the rcsist-

ancc to thcory am。 ng mctropohtan fclllinists 、 vould lcad us int。 yet another narrat1Ⅴ c

Thc undcrstandiI1g ofthc task。 f thc translator and thc practicc of the craft arc relatcd but diffcrcnt Let me summarize ho、 ⅤI、 vork At⒔ rst, I translatc at sPccd If I st° p to think ab。 ut、vhat is hapPening to thc Enghsh,if I assu1nc an audicncc, ifI take thc intcnding subjcct as rnorc than a sprin:board,I cannotjumP in,I cann°

t

378

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK

surrcndcr My 1ˉ clationship 、 Ⅴith DcⅤ i is casygoing I am ablc to say to her∶ I surrendcr t。 you in y。 ur Ⅵˉ liting, not you as intendiI1g subjcct 1ˉ hc1ˉ c, in fricnd~ Sl’

iP,is anot11cr knd ofsurrendcr,surrendcring to t11e tcxt in this xlˉ n ost ay1neans,】【 Ⅴcrsion this、 :ay,I rcvisc I revisc

ofthc t11ne,bcil)g litera1,、 Vl)cn I havc pr° duccd a

not】 n tcrms of a Possible audicncc, but by thc protocolS of thc thing in front。 f

mc,in a sort of Enghsh And I kc h。 Pir1ε that thc student in thc classro°

n△

、 vⅡ

l

bc able to tbink that thc text is just a Purvcyor° fs。 cial rcahslu if it is t】 ˉ anslatcd with an cvc toward thc dⅤ narnic sta空 ng° flanguagc min△ cd in the rcvi“ c,l1by

n° t

thc rules of the in-bct、 veen disc° urse Produccd bⅤ a litcrahst surrcnder

Vain h。 Pe, PerhaPS, f。 r thc acc。 untabilitⅤ is diffcrcnt W11cn I translatcd :ic、 vcdin a m句 jOurnal br d1c1iⅡ Fd fr口 n’ m口 rc,丿 ‘ 71c,I was re、、

cqucs DerH(la’ sD口 Jt・

lD1ˉ

and last ti1ne h1the casc of rnⅤ

translati°

t

ns。 f DcⅤ i,I haⅤ c al1n° st n。 fcar of bcing

accurately judged by my rcadcrshiP herc It1nakes thc task m°

rc danger° us and

morc riskⅤ ,And that for mc is d)c rcal diffcrcncc bctween translating Dcrrida allcl

i, not merclⅤ t11c rathcr mOrc arti⒒ 0al dilˉ translating Mahas、 vcta Dc、・

lt・

re11cc

bctⅥ ccn dcc° nstruCtiⅤ c PhⅡ os。 phy and lDohtical⒔ ction

ThC oPPoSitC ar:umCnt is not neatly truc Thcrc is a large numbcr of PcoPlc

in thc Third World、 vho rcad thc° ld imperial languagcs Pcoplc1ˉ eading currcnt fcn1inist Hcd。 n in the Eur° Pcan languagcs、 v。 uld Probably read itin the aPPr° Priatc

ial language And thc samc gocs for Eur。 Pean Philos° Ph〉 ThC act of transthc Third World languagc is oRcn a P° htical cxcrcisc of a differcnt sort king forvcard,as° f this vcriting, to lccturing in Bengah on dec° nstruCtion I an△ 1° ° 厂 ledgeable b。 th in Ben:ah and in in F1ˉ ont° f a highly sophisticatcd audicncc^ kn° Ⅵ dec° nstruction(、 :hich thcy read in Enghsh and Frcncb and s。 n1ctj】 ηcs、 vrite about in Bcngah),at JadavPur UniⅤ crsity in Calcutta It wdl bc a kind()f testlng。 f thc

in】

PC1・

lating int。

P° St^colonial translat。

r,I think

Dcmocracy changcs int° thc law° f忆 rcc in thc casc of translati。 n△ 。m tlle 厂 Thh・ d、、。rkl and、 Ⅴ。n】 cn cvcn n)orc bccausc of thci】 ˉPccuhar rclati° nshiP to xx hatcvcr you call d1c Pubhc/PrivatC diⅤ iclc A neatly rcvcrsiblc argumcnt vvoukl bc Possiblc if thc particular Third WoIˉ ld countrv had Corncrcd thc Industrial Rc、。luti° n nrst and cmbarkcd。 nm° noPoly impcriahst tcrrit° rial capitahsn△ as onc 。fits conscqucnCcs,and thus becn ablc t。 in11)。 sc a languagc as international norn1 so】 ncthing likc that idi° tic joke:ifthe scc。 nd World VVar had gonc(h=Rtrcntly、 thc United states、 voukl bc sPeaking JaPancsc・

such cgahtarian rcvcrsiblc judε emcnts

arC aPpr。 Priate to countcr-factual fantasy Translati° nt・ cmains dcndcnt upon thc languagc sk1l of tllc malority A Promine11t Bclgian t1ˉ ansladon theo1・ ist sol、 cs thc Pr° blCn1by suggcsting that,rathcr than talk about i° n is inv° lvcd,° ne sh。 uld sPeak ab。 ut thc

thc Third VVorld,、、hcre a l° t。 f EuroPean Rcnaissancc,sincc a grcat

dcal °f 、 vholcsalc cr° ss_cultural translation fr。 n1 CIraeco-Roman antiquity `vas

undertakcn thcn VVhat。 ne。 vcrlooks is thc shccr authority ascribed to thc。 nals in that11istorical Phcnon)cnon Thc status ol a languagc in thc、

rigi

vorld is、 hat ^ˉ

onc rnust considcr、 vhcn tcasing out thc p° htics oftranslation Translatcsc in Bcngah can bc dcridcd and criticizcd by large gr°

uPs ofangloPhonc and an81ograPh:cngahs

It is Only in thc11cgemonic languagcs that thc l)cncvOlcnt d°

not takc thc li1nits of

ill into That Phcnon)cnon bccon1cs vn oRcn unil、 structcd good、 ˉ hardcst to nght becausc thc indiⅤ iduals involved in it are8Cnuincly bcmcv° lent and thei,・

o、

Ⅴou are identi付 cd as a trouble lnakcr This bccomes particularly(hIHcult、 vhcn thc

' THE POLITICs OF TRANsLATION

379

mctroPohtan lt・ nìnist, 、 vh° is s。 n1ctilucs thc assilnilatcd Post-colonial, invokcs, indeed translatcs,at。 o quickly sharcd fcn1inist notion of acccssibility. If you、 vant t° makc thc translatcd tcxt acccssible,try d。

i11g it for thc Pcrs。

n

、 vh° Ⅵ`rote it The Problelll comes Clcar thcn,for shc is n。 t、 Ⅴ ithin thc samc history 厂 °f style 、、 hat is it that you arC lnaking acccssiblC?Thc acccssiblc lcvcl is thc lcⅤ cl 。f abstraction 、 cady f° rmcd, 、 vherc 。nc can sPcak indi~ `here thc individual is ah・ Ⅴidual rights, When you hang out and 、・ ith a languagc a、 9ay i° l your o、 Ⅴn l∫ ”g臼 sc"’ )s。 that)・ °u“ ant to usc that languagc by prcfercncc,son1Ctin1es,、 vhcn l△

(∶

fε

you discuss son△ cthing co1nPhcated, then you arc on thc

Ⅵ=ay to making a di1nen~ sion of thc tcxt acccssiblc to thc rcader, 、 vith a light and casy touch,t° 、 vhich shc docs not acccdc in hcr eⅤ eryday If you arc rnabng anything else accessible,thr° ugh a languagc quickly lcarnt 、 vith an i(lca that you transfer content, then y°

u are

betraying the tcxt and sh° 、 ving rathcr dubi。 us Pohtics

Ho、: 、 vill 、 v° n1cn’ s sohdaritⅤ bc n1casurcd her Ho、 v xx1ll their c° lllrnon expcricncc bc rcckoned if° nc cann。 t in1aginc thc traf6c in acccssibility going both 、 vaysP I thh1k that idca shouId l)c givcn a dcccnt l)urial as gr。 und of kn。、 vledgc, togcthcr、 vith thc idca。 f humanist1"1ivcrsa"ty It is good to think that、 vomcn havc ・ somcthing in con11uon,、 vhcn° nc is approaching、 v° mcn、 vid)、、 h。 n1a rclationshiP

、 vould n° t° thcr、 visc bc P。 ssiblC It is a grcat丘 rst st, But, iF y。 ur intcrcst is in lcarning if thcrc is vvomcn’ s sohdarity,hovv about lcaving this assumption, aPpr°

~

priatc as a mcans tO an cnd likc l° cal ()r global social 、 v° rk, and trying a sccond stP Rathcr than in1agining that、 Ⅴ°men automatiCally haⅤ e so1uething idcnti丘 ablc iI1 col111non, 、ˉ hy 】 10t say, hun11)ly and Practically, m〉 6rst c〉 bhgation in undcrstanding sohdarity is to lcarn hcr 111od1cr~t° ngue You、 vill see inuucdiatcly`vhat

the differenccs are You 、 vill

also f辶 cl thc s°

hdarity cvery day as you make the

attcmPt to lcarn thc languagc in、 Ⅴhich the° ther、 v。 man lca1ˉ 11t to rCCognizc rcahty at hcr rnothcr’ s kncc,This is I)raration for thc intilnacy of cultural translati°

n If

you are goin思 to bludge° n somconc clsc by insisting on your、 :crsion of s。 lidarity, you havc thC。 bhgation to try out this cxPerilllcnt and scc h。、 far your sohdarity

goes In °tbcr 、 Ⅴ°rds, if you arc intcrestcd il) talking ab° ut thc °thcr, and/° r in

mahng a clahu t° bc the °thcr, it is crucial t。 lcarn od1cr langua思 cs This should be distinguishcd "。 lll thc lcarncd traditi。 n 。f languagc acquisition for acadcn1ic Ⅵ:° rk I an△ talking ab° ut thc imPortancc of languagc acquisition for thc w。 man 9om a hegemonic m。 nolinguist culturc who makes cvcrybα ly’ s li炙 miserable by insisting on 、 von1cn’ s sohdarity at her Price I am uncon1fortablc 、 vith notions of fcΠ 1inist sohda】 ity 、 vhich arc cclcbratcd vvhcn cⅤ erybody h)Ⅴ olvcd is similarly vhich 、 vomcn all ovcr the 、 vorld ProducCd Thcrc a1ˉ c c。 untlcss languagcs in 、・ haⅤ e gr° 、、n uP and becn fcmalc Or ∫ 。n1h1ist, and yct the languages 、、 c kc on lcarning by rotc are thc P。、 verRIl Eur。 Pcan 。ncs, son1Ctin1es the PoⅥ `Crful Asian oncs, lcast oRcn thc chicf African ones The‘ ‘ other” languagcs arc lcarnt° nly l冫 y anthroP° l° gists、 vho il,usF Produce kn0、 vledge across an istcluic(hvide They arc generaⅡ y (th。 u:h not invariably) n。 t intcrestcd in thc thrcc~part structure Ⅵ厂 c are discussing If、 :e are discussing sohdarity as a thcorctical Position,、

、 `cn,ust also rcmcmber

that n。 t all thc、 vorld’ sⅥ ・。mcn arc litcratc Thcrc arc traditi° ns and situations tbat

rcmain obscu1ˉ c becausc“ c ca1111ot sharc d1cir liI1guistic constit11ti° n

kis【 om this

380

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK

anglc that I haⅤ c felt that learning languages lnight sharPcn°

ur o、 vn

presuPPoSitions

about、 Ⅴhat it rncans to usc thc sign‘ ‘ 、 voman” If、vc say that things sh。 uld be acccs~ ’ sible t。 us,、 Ⅴ ho is this“ us’ P、 Vhat d° cs that sign mcanP Alth° ugh I havc uscd thc cxamplcs of、

v。 men

all al° ng, thc argun△ cnts aPPly

acrOss thc b° ard It is just tllat womcn’ s rhctoricity may be doubly obscurcd I(lo

not see thc adⅤ antagc of bcing comPlCtCly f° cuscd 。n a singlc issuc, alth。 ugh ˇ onc must estabhsh Practical Pri。 ritics In this b° 。k, 、 Λ c arc conccrned、 Ⅴith Post~ structuralisln and its cffect° n fen△ inist thc° ry 、 Vhcrc somc post-struCturahst think~ ing can bc aPPhcd t。 the c。 nstitution of the agent in tcrms of the litcrary oPcrations

。f languagc,、 vomcn’ s tcxts rnight be。 Pcratin8diffCrcndy becausc of thc s°

cial(li+ˉ

fcrcntiation bct、 vcen thc scxcs.Of coursc thc Point apPhcs8cncrally to the c°

擗 PriⅤ ate

lonial

恰 W溆 ‖ 鞋蜗坩打扌辏氵抖擀 languagcs 、 Ⅴhcn I 、 vas talking about languagc lcarning But even 、ithin

thosc privatc languages it is rny conⅤ

iction that therc is a(liffercncc in the、 vay in vvhich thc staging oflanguage Pr° ducCs not only the sexed subjcct but the gcndcred

agcnt,by a Ⅴersion of ccntring,Persistcntly(hsruPtcd by rhctoricity,indicating con-

tingcncy,unless dem。 nstratc(l otherwise,this f。 r mc rcm“ ns thc c° n(lition and effcct。 fd。 n△ inant and sub° rdinate gendering If that is so,thcn xx'c haⅤ

c sOme rca-

sOn to R)cus。 n、 Ⅴomcn’ s tcxts,Let us use thc、 Ⅴord“ 、roman” to namc that sPacc。

f

para-subjects dc付 ncd as such by thc social inscriPti° n。 f Prirnary and sccondary scx-

ual charactcristics,Then、 vc can cautiously bcgin to track a sort of c°

llllllonahty in

being sct aPart,、 vithin thc differcnt rhctorical stratcgics of diffcrcnt langua8es But hcre,hist。 rical suPcri。 rities of class must bc ktin mind Bharati Mu蚰 crjCC,

cⅤ cn

Anita Dcsai and Gayatri sPiⅤ ak(lo n。 t havc thc samc rhct。 rical⒔ 8uration° fa8cncy as an ilhtcratc d° mcstic scrⅤ ant Tracking co∏ 11nonahty through resPonsil)lC translati° n can lead us into arcas of (lifFcrence and(liffcrent(liffcrcntiations This rnay alSo bc in△

Portant bccausc,in thc hcritage。 f imPcrialism,the kmalc legal subjcct bears tllc mt△ rk of a【￡lurc。 f Europcanization,by contrast with tllc fthmale anthroPol° cal。 r httSrary subjcct 要 fr° rn

thc area F° r cxample,thc divisi。 n betvvecn thc Frcnch and Islan1ic c° dcs in

modcrn A熔 cria is in tcrms of hmily,ma汀 iagc,inheritancc,lc妒 timacy and kmale social agency Thcsc are diffcrcnccs that vve must kc h` Π1ind And 、 vc n1ust hon。 ur tlac diⅡ erencc bctween cthnic min° Hties in dae First W° rld and mtll° rity P。 Pulati° ns ofthc T1△ ird In c° nvcrsauon,Barrctt

批揖虾

:1Ι

had askcd1ne ifI n。、 v inchncd morc t。、 vard Foucault,

芏骑吊甘板旗龚茁 c妓

j⒎

VIf扌

contributcd t° Frcnch this。 rdinaryˉ languagc doublct(thC abdity to knoⅥ f[asl)t° takc its PlacC quicdy bcsidc v° uòi卜 Ji昭 (thC wish to say— meaning to mcan)

On thc mOst rnundanc lcvcl,P。 uΓ o丿 r_sczΓ oir iS thc sharcd skⅡ

l、vhich all。

、 vs

us

to makc(c。 mmon)sensc。 f tllings It is ccrtainly n° t only Power/kn。 wlcclgc in thc scnsc of Puissdncc/conndissdncc Thosc arc aggregatiⅤ c institutions Thc c。 mm° n

Ⅴay 、

in、 Ⅴ hich one n△ akcs scnsc of things,on thc。

individua1.

thcr hand,l。 scs itsclf in the sub~

、

THE POLITICs OF TRANSLATION

381

Loohng at P° uΓ oi'_s口 /oir in tcrms of、 vomcn,onc ofrny f° cusCs has bccn ne、 ilxllnigrants and thc changc of n1。 thcr~t° nguc and Pouvcl1r-sdΓ oir bct、 vecn rnothcr and

:

daughtcr

VVhcn the daughtcr talks rr° ductivc rights and thc m° thcr talks honour,is this the birth。 r(lcath of translation?

Pr° tecti1△ 思

Foucault is als° interesting in his nc、 v notion of thc cthics of thc carc for thc self.In ordcr t。 bc ablc t° gCt to the subject of ethics it rnay bc ncccssary to look at thc、 vaⅤ s in、 vhich an individual in that culturc is instructed to carc for thc self 琬

thσ than thc imPcridis1n~sPCci6c父

culao哎 n。 u。 n tl.at the cthical sulDlcc・ t is莎 ven

as human,In a sccularis1n、 vhich is structurallⅤ idcntical vvith ChristianitⅤ

1aundcrcd

in thc blc昶 h of m。 ral Philos° Phy,thc subJcct of cˉ thics h hcelcbss Breahng otlt, Fouω ult w灬 inⅤ csugaung。 tl.er w刂 s° f mahng scnsc of how tl△ e su匀 ect bec。 mes cthical Tlus is。 f intcrcst bccause,givcn thc connection bct、 vcCn imPCriahsln and sccularism, thcrc is aln△

￠ ay of gctting to altcrnatiⅤ c8encral voiccs cxct °st no Ⅴ

throu8h rchgi° n Andifonc d。 cs n° t look at rchgion as rncchanisms of Producing tl△

te血涮汕匀∞t,。 ne

gets

Ⅴa"o“

kl△ ds

of△0ntlammt乩 “n”

W∝

kt・

浴h

culttl1・ al

:cthical Philos。 Phy ha、 Ct。 bc interested in reh~ P° htics and its c。 nnections to a nc、 gion in thc Pr° ducti° n° f ethical subjccts Thcrc is much room hr、 minist work

hcrc bccausc、・ arc of rchgion as a cultural cstCrn fcn1inists have n。 t so far bccn aⅤ ￠、 Ⅴorking on instrumcnt 1・ athcr than a mark of cultural dircrcncc I am currcntly Hindu Pcr忆 rmatiⅤ c cthics with ProfkcssOr B K MatⅡ d Hc is an cnl唿 btcnc(l malc kminist I am an acti、 ,c攵 minist HclPcd by his lcarning an(]his opcnncss I am lcarning to distinguish bet、 vccn cthical catalysts and cthical motors even as I learn to translatc bits of thc sanskrit ic in a、 vay diffcrcnt fron1all the accePtcd translati。

‘ good Enghsh” ,but on that

ns,bccausc I rcly not only on lcarning,not only on‘

hich I haⅤ c thrcc-Part SchCmc of、 Ⅴ

s。

lcngthily sPokcn I h° Pe the results、 vill PlcasC

rcadcrs If、 Ⅴc arc going to look at an cthics that c1η crgcs fron1s° mcthing othcr than thc historicallⅤ

secularist idcal - at an cthics。 f scxual(liffcrcnccs,at an cthics

that can coniont thc cmcrgcncc of hndamcntahsms with° ut apology or dislnissal 0jr and thc carc f° r thc sclf in c of thc Enhghtcnmcnt~thcn PotIvojr-scz Γ ’ ‘ ・ Foucault can1)c illuluinating And thesc‘ 。thcr、 ays’ bring us back to translation,

in thc nan△

in thc gcncral scnsc

Translation in general I want n。 w to add tw。 scctions to what was8enerat【・ d【 om thc initial conⅤ crsa tion、 vith Barrctt, I、 vill dⅥ广 cll° n thc politics° f translati。 n in a gcncral scnsc,by

、 vay ofthrcc cxamplcs of“ cultural

translation”

in Enghsh,I、 Ⅴ ant to1nakc thc P° int

that thc lcssons。 f translati° n in thc narr。、 v scnsc can rcach much furthcr. F订虻,J・ 11a1】 t’

M C。 ctzcc’ s fo召 ,15This book rePKκ n“

s desirc to giⅤ c

tl△

Ⅴoicc to thc nativc Whcn Susan Bart。

c imPr。 Phdy° f tl△ c domi

n,thc cightccnth-ccntury

En掣 i曲 w° man△ om Rox￠ n￠ ,attemP‘ tcl ttx涎 h a muttSd Friday(i。 mR。 b立 nson C四 sot・ l to rcad and Ⅵ.ritc Enghsh, hc dra、 vs a11incomPrChensible rcbus° n his slatc and

、 viPCs it out, vvithhokls it, Y° u cann。 t translatc △°n△ a PoSiti° n of rnon° hnguist SuPeri° rity Coetzec as、 vhite creolc translatcs R° bins° 刀Crusoc by rrcscnting Friday as thc agcnt of a、 vithholdin:

:蚪

茧撖擀夸鞯 F茁撼芽 “ /hat Nan” _hcr motller’ 、、 s、 llow slaⅤ c ancl△ icnd ‘ —‘ told hcr she had forg° ttcn, along Ⅴ vith thc languagc shc told it in Thc samc 莨榉

紧

actcr of thc nOⅤ el,rcmcmbcrs∶

擒T贾 ± ⒎ rt弼恕措里r羰 ⒎ 秽帑、 JJ虫茗黥【 c背瑟 rI∶ Tu揽 I料:i℃ 扌黯;∵ πLT扌卟岘kσ :、

:∶

:I售 :∶

抵擗燕拭扭拱奉燕截拔啦Ⅲ￥ thc author rePrcsCnts 、 vith violcncc a certain l)irt11in_dcath, a dcath~in~birth ()fa St° ry that is n。 t to translatc or On,strictly spcaking,thcrcf° rc,an aP° ria,and vith thc mark 。f untranslatability on it, in thc l)° und b。。k, yct it is Cd on, 、 Bc`。 vcd, that、 vc hold in。 ur hands C。 ntrast this t。 thc c° nHdcnce in acccssil)ihtⅤ

in the h° usc of po、・ cr,

vhcrc history is、 vaiting to l)c rcstorcd 、

Thc scenc of violcnce bet、 vccn mothcr and dau8htCr(r° rted and cd° n

by thc daughter sethc to hcr daughtcr Dcnvcr, 、 vho carries thc nan△ e ofa、vhite trash girl,in Partial ackn° 、 vlcdgcmcnt of、 vomcn’ s sohdarity in birthing)is,then, thc condki。 n° f0m)PoSSl"li叮 ° f Bc′ ° ″d:17 Sl)c Pickcd Iη c

uP and carricd me bchind thc smokch。 usc Back thcrc

ShC° Pcned uP hcr drCss front a11d liRed hcr brcast and pointcd undcr it Right on her ril)、 vas a circlc and a crOss burnt right in the shn shc

“ am This,” and she Pointcd Ycs,A/1a’ am,” But ho、 v、 ill you kn0、 vn1 R/1ark n1c, to。 /’ I said , ,

said,“ This is y。 ur ma’

‘ ‘

said ,

“

Did sh”

askcd Dcnvcr“ shc slappcd my hcc” “ 、 Vhat

for'”

I

“

I dicln’ t

undcⅡ tand k tllcn Not dllI had a mark° f my own,” ll, 61) This scene,of clailning thc brand° fthe。 xx ncr as“ my oxs・ n” ,to crcatc,in this br° kcn chain。 frnarks oⅥ /ncd l,y sarate、 vhitc rnalc a8cnts of Pr。 ken chain

ofrc mem° ry h(cnslavcc→ daughtσ s

as a思

cn“

fa 。

Pcrty,an unbr°

h“ tory not to be P灬 scd° n,is

of necessity morc Poignant than Friday’ s sccnc of、 Ⅴithheld Ⅵ=riting frolll thc、 vhitc 、 voman、 vanting to create history by giving hcr‘ ‘ o、vn” languagc And thc lcsson is thC(irn)P° Ssil)ihty of translati。 n in thc general scnsc Rhct。 ric P° intS at absolutc

崔揶点喇 p祺逋押崔茧涨絷 r器

but雨涮 hd・ c∞ v叽 σ 叩血 g ltt・产 :%5∴ 丨【 ‘ ‘ With this inv。 cation of c。 ntingency, 、 vhcrc naturc n△ ay bc the 8reat b。 dy with° ut° rgans of woman” ,wc can ali8n。 urSClⅤ Cs wid1Wilson Harris,thc auth° r 黥

。f

瑟g℃。

:忘早柱 :Ι u怼

Tflc Gqydnd@drrcF,忆 r whom trees aK“ tllc

lun幺 s of tlac掣。bC”

1S Harris halls

thc(re)birth° f thc nativc imagination as not1ncrcly thc trans lation but the transsubstantiation 。 f thc spccics What in m。 rc、 Ⅴ °rkaday language I havc callcd thc

‘ THE

POL1TICs OF TRANsLATION

383

obhgation °f thc translat。 r to l)e able to jugglc the rhct° rical silcnccs in t11c t、・ ° languagcs, Har1ˉ is PutS thiS

、

Enghsh∶

丁11c

ày, po"1ting at thc nccd for translating d、

c Carib’

s

Caril)l)can b。 nc flutc,n】 adc ofhu111an bonc,is a sccd in thc soul of

thc Ca11bbcan It is a Prirnitivc tcchnology that 、 Ⅴc can turn ar。 und CrsionPl C。 nsun1ing our biases and Prcjudiccs in oursclvcs wc Itrans Ⅴ caI)lct the bonc flutc bclP us opcn° ursclves rathcr than rcad it thc Ot11cr ay— as a mctony1nic〈 lcⅤ ouring of a bit。 f flesh I9Thc link° f lnusic xx・

′ 、 vith cannⅡ )ahsm is a subhmc parad。 x,、、 hcn thc rnusic ofthe bonc llutc opcns the d。 ors, absenccs Ho、广in, and thc nativc in)agination Puts togcthcr thc ingrcdicnts f° r quantun1 immt|diacy out 。f unPrcdictable resources

广 Thc bonc Hutc has bccn ncglcctcd l冫 y Caribbcan、 vritcrs,says、、 ils。 n Harris,bccausc ˉ 1ting l)rizc-、 vinning hction Progressivc Progressi、 e rcahs111is a cha1・ isluatic、 vay of、】 rcahs1u measuresthc bonc Pr。 lati° n

gressiⅤ e rcahsm is thc t。

。_casⅤ acccssibihtv of trans_

as transfcr of substancc

Thc ProgrcssiⅤ e rcalisn1。 fthc、 Ⅴcst disn1isscd thc natiⅤ c imagination as thc PlacC of thc fctish Hcgcl 、 vas l)crhaPS thc grcatcst sVstclnatizcr 。Γthis disn1issal, And in its prcscnt charis1η atic incarnation s。

Psychoanalytic cultural criticisn△

mcthucs

mcasurcs thc l)° nc 、 vith uncanny PrCciSi。 n Itis I)crhaPs not f° rtuit° us that thc v givcs us an of⒈ Icgel that is thc cxact °PP。 SitC of Harris’ s age l,clo、

Ⅴision The parad。 x。 fthc subhme and thc b。 nc11crc lcad to n° n_languagc secn as inertia,、 vhcrc thc structurc of age is n1crc logic Thc authority of thc suprcmc

language makcs translati。 n in1PosSil)le∶

ˉ Thc Subhn1c is thcrcforc the Parad。 x。 f an object、・ hich, in thc 、 cry held of rrcScntation,ProⅤ ides a、・ ic、 v,in a negative、 Ⅴ ay,ofthc din△ cn~ sion of what is unPrCse11tablc … Thc b° ne,the skull,is thus an° bjcct

、 vhich,b)n′ eans ofits Pr“ 冖 cc,hlls° ut thc、 :oi(l,thc impossibility of thc Sipi、 ing″ PrcsenFdrJt,n。 I thc sd)jcct … Thc ProPⅡ iuc,n“ Wealth厶 thc Sclf” rcats at this lcvcl thc ProP。 Pr° POSiti。 ns arc Hcgcl’

s⒈

siti° n“ Thc

tion 、 vhich is at nrst sight absul^(l, nonscnsical, tcrn△

sPirit is a b° nc” Iboth

Ⅵ'ith a Pr° PoSi、 vith an cquation the

in both cascs we arc dcaling

s of“ hich arc incomPatiblC;in b。 th cascs xlc cncountcr the same

logical st1・

ucturc of agc∶

thc subjcct, totally lost in thc mcdiun△ °f

languagc(langua思 c of gestLlrc and grimtaccs;langua思 c ofH蔽 tC叮 ),hn(ls its。 bjccti、 cc。 unterPart in the incrtia of a l`° n lanε uagc objCct(skull, 111oncy)20 Iils° 、、 n Harris′ s vision js abstract, translating NIorris。

n’

s

‘

h1t。

an

`vcathcr” occanic、 'crsion。 f quantun1Physics But all thrcc cultural t1ˉ anslat° rs cited in this scctio11ask us to attcnd to thc rhct。 the crc°

lc’

ric、 vhich p° ints to thc lin△ its of translation,in

s, thc slaⅤ c~daughtcr’ s, thc Carib’ s usc of“ Enghs11’

’

Lct us lcarn the

lcssOn° f translati。 n from these brⅡ hant inside/。 utsiders and transIate it into thc situati° n of° ther languagcs

384

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY sPI∨

AK

Reading as translation In conclusi。 n, I、 vant tO sho、/h。、厂the P° st~c° lonial as thc。 utsidc/insi(lcr translatcs、 vhitc thcory as sbc rcads, s。 that shc can discrirninatc on the terrain of the

・ origi11al shc、、 ants to11sc、 Ⅴ hat is uscful Again,Ih° thc translat。 r in thc narr。、・scnsc

Pc this can 。 n a lcss。 nt°

“ Thc link °fn1usic 、 vith cannil)ahsln is a subh】 uc Parad° ˉ

T∷ r冫:Nr冱

:∶ ⅠL诜生

⒒

;累 ⒒ 靴

x,”

I bclicvc XAfilsOn

F:;。 ;∶l;:蕊 f1紫

ical acc° unt of the aesthctic subhme in Enghsh(hscoursc, ostcnsil)ly far fr。 b。 nc

flute,bc° f1Isc冫 By、vay° f s∶

∶ ∶

iI∶

ans、 Ⅴ cr, I、 Ⅴ dl辶 lsc〗 11y

罗 n) thc

rCadi11g of Pcter dc B。

° ′ ∶∶坛:Ⅰ J∶ :∶ 11∶ 王iIi;?:∶ ∶t∶ Ⅳ∶ 扌:庄 ∶l∶ ∶T.11∶ r准 :|昱

lla’

s

1S1尹 ;II1i∶

P,4:“ 、 Vhat was it t° bc a subjcct in thc cightecnth ccntur)?” ThC rcadcr~as translator(RAT)iS Cxcitcd,Thc long ci思 11tccnth ccntury in BⅡ t泣 n is thc acc。 unt of thc constitution and transforn△

ati° n ofI1ation int° c1nPirc Shall 、、e rcad that StoryP Thc bo° k、vdl lcast t。 uch on that issuc,if only to s、 vcrⅤ c A11d、、omen`vill

n° t be sccn as touchcd in thcir aε cncy f° r1uati。 n

by that change The book’ s strong fen1inist symPathies relatc to thc Enghshxloman only as gt:ndcr Ⅴictiln, But thc cruditi。 n。 f the tcxt all。 Ⅵ /s ust° think that this s。 rt of rhct。 rical rcading luight /hat is it t。 bc a P。 st-c° l° nial rcadcr。 f bc thc mcth。 d to° Pen uP thC questi° n‘ ‘ 、、 ThC rq>rcscntativc κadcr d孔 c Discoursc ofrhc nial Has that hw of d1cn△ 句°rity l)ccn。 t)scr`cd,or thc

English in thc twcnucth ccntur)P” su3″ mc wiⅡ bc P° st c。 la、

l。

v。 f thc str。 ngP c)nP・

72 RAT co1η cs to a discussion of Burkc On thc subhn△

e∶

Thc intcrnal rcsistancc of Burke’ s tcxt,, rcstricts t11c full Play of this t∞ PC[Power

… as

a tl oPe artictllajn8d△ c techn。 l。 cs° f tllc sublimc], 妒

thcrcb) dcfCating a dcscriPti° n of thc subhmc cxPcriencc uniqucly in

′ ercd[sic丨 subJCd Put bricfⅡ ,Bul太 e,br a number 。f rcasOns,among、 Ⅴhich、・ e must includc Pohtical ain△ s and cnds,st。 Ps sh。 rt。 f a discourse on thc subhmc, and in so doing he reinstatcs thc tcrms of tllc cnPo′

ultimatc P。 wCr ofan acljaccnt disc。 ursc,tlacol。 gy,which locatcs its own scl∴

authcnticating poⅥ rcr grirnly、 vithin the b° undarics of godhead

Was it also bccausc Burkc v、 as (lcly in1Phcatcd in scarchi【 1g out thc rcccsscs °f the luental thcatre。 f thc Enghsh lnaster in the c。 lonics that hc had s。 n1cn。 tion of 山ferent khds of subjccDt and tllcrc忆 rc,likc sOmc KuⅡ z bc忆 rc conmd,rccOilcd in h° rr° r

元

ˉ bcbK thc sublimcly emPω 、 Cled sul)jcttP was it bcmtlsc,likc sc,1uc

::{lⅠ1默

r∶

〃贺懈 ∶∶ 糕扌 :ff1F恶志 △ s⒈

I∶

m哕

l;旱 ;lIl∶ r尤 er discourscrs on thc subhnη c, oPCnS doors for other RATs to cngage in such scholarly sPcculati° ns and thus cxceed and cxPand thc l)o° k SL,b丿 j刀 9C,

:∶

in noticing Burke’ s diffcrcncc fronη

thc Otlη

PP 106, 111^12, 13⒈ RAT comcs to thc English Nati。 nal Dcbt,B1・ idsh coloniahslu、 :as a violent dcc° nstruCtion of thc hyphcn bctxx'ccn nation and statc2;

In imPeHalism thc na0。 n was subl(im)atcsd int。 cmPirc・ Of ths,no clue in「 J,c

′ THE

POL1TICS OF TRANsLAT10N

385

unding in 1696,and thc transforthc anccstor of thc m°dcrn chcquc, had s。 mething hkc a rclati。 nshiP、 vith thC f。 rtuncs ofthe East India C。 mPa11y and thc foundin思 °r Calcutta in1690,The ndFior⒓ ‘ z`dcbt is i11hct thc sitc° f a crisis lnana8cmcnt,xs hcrc tllc nadon,sublime。句cd as m△ 昶tlladng su叻 cd of ldCology,changcs thc蚯 gn “ dcbtor” into a catachrcsis。 r false luctaph° r by、 vay of“ an accePtance。 f a Pcrlna~ ncnt (hscrancy bCt、、ccn the total ci1ˉ culating spccic and thc dcbt’ ’ , T11c Frcnch 、 \′ ar, ccrtainly thc immc(hatc ef丘 cient causc, is soon 、 vovcn into the vastcr textile Djsc°

tΙ

rsc Thc Bank of England is(hscusscd,Its f°

matiOn of lcttcrs of crcdit t°

D氵 scoursc Cannot sec the nation covcrinε for thC c。 lonial econ° my.As on thc Occasion of thc racc~sPeciscity。 f gcndcrin:, So。 n thc(liscoursc of n△ ulti_

of crisis 「/le

natiol1al capital,the argun1cnt is kePt don】

cstic,、 vid1i】 l

England, Eur°

Pcan24RAT

snuflles° ff, disgruntled shc丘 nds a ki11d °fc。 mfort in N】 ahas、、 eta’ s livid H8ura~

tion of the、・。n1an’ s body as body rathcr than attend to this hist° ry。 f the Enghsh

body“ as

ice in。 rclcr to rcturn to lit]itS l。 St htcrality” a dis⒔ guratiⅤ e dc、・

as translati。 n has】 nis⒔ rcd

c)nP 140RAT c。 n1es sccn as“ dcmandcd, to】 11ention

Rcading

hcrc, to thc cldcr Pitt. Although his functionahty is initially

by the incorPorati。 n of nati。 n” ,it is not possiblc not at least

cmPirC、 vhcn sPcaking of Pitt’ sv。 iCc:

、 rks its d。 ublcd intervcntion into the sPirit and `。 charactcr of thc thucs;at oncc the suprcmc examPlc ofthC PriⅤ ate indithe v。 icc c)f Pitt

vidual in thc scrvicc of thc statc,and thc Pri、 atC indiⅤ i(]ual cradicated

by the nccds of a Pubhc,nati。 nahst, con、 lη crcial emPirc h1this scnsc the Ⅴ。icc° f Pitt bccomes thC1110st CXtrcn1e exa1nplc of the tcxtualiza~ tion ofthc body for the rest of the ccntury (P 182) Wc11ave sccn a litcral casc of thc tcxtuah/ation of thc surface of t11eb° dⅤ bct、 feen herc1】 1othcr hits(lau8hter to stoP11cr sla、 e lnothcr al1d slave daughtcr in Bc`c,,饣 tF,、 Ⅴ s^couP,literPrδ that the signs of that tcxt can bc cd on,a lcsson lcarnt虿 ally aRcr the bl° 、 n branding, Should RAT cxPect an v° f thc daughtcr’ s。、厂

t11inkinε

。f the ing on of thc textuahzati。 n° f

thc intcri。

r ofthc body through the v° icc,

a luctonyn1for c° nsciousncss,l1ˉ on1master hthcr to111astcr son冫 t。

。k thc⒔ rst steP t° changc the nationahst cmPirc t。

Inllla Att of1784C扪

T11c)9oungcr Pitt

thc imPerial nati。 n、 vith the

Tl,c DiscotfIsC ofrhc svbFⅠ me Plot tl△ tat sul,limc rcl叮 ?N【 ’ t yct

But hcrc,too,an excecding and cxPanding translatiOn is possiblc, P1ˉ

edictably,RAT Hl)(ls a f° °th。 ld in thc rhetOricit)ˉ

of Tl’ c Discα

c C11aPtcr

`烬 ‘ 10bcgins: “Thc scc° nd Part° f this study has stcaddy cxan1ined h。、 v thcOry’ scts

out to lcgislatc and c。 ntrol a PracticC, h。、 v it ProducCs thc cxccss、 Vhich it cannot lcgislatc, and rcmoves fronl thc centrc to thc boundary its lh11it, lirniting casc”

(P,23O).This age rea(ls to a dcc°

nst1ˉ 11ctiⅤ C RAT as an enabling sd∴ dcscriPtion 。r the tcxt, although、 jthin thc lilllits of the b° 。k, it dcscril)es, n。 t itsclf but thc objcct。 f its il`vestigau。 n By the timc the cnd of thc book is rcached,RAT、 cls

that shc has been、 vrittcn into the tcxt∶ As a hist。 r)of that rehsal an(l rcsistancC[t11is bookl PreSen“

a rccorcl

、n con△ ing into l)cing as history, the hist。 ry of thc thou思 ht it °f its °、、 vants to think differcntly, over thcrc, It is thcreforc, only aPProPriatc

386

GAYATRI CHAKRA∨

ORTY sPIVAK

that its c。 nclusion should gesturc to、

vards thc lirnit,risk thc reinvcrsi°

n

°fthe b° undary by SPcaking fron△ the othcr,refusing sdcncc t° 、 vhat is unsald.

。f tlnc t,ther叩捉c,“

Bcyon(l this“ da1110ur hr a uss”

is勹 u“

” Ⅵˉ eatlaσ ,

undcr dlc sgure° fRAT(rCadcr~as translat。 r),I baⅤ c tricd to hmn the P° a certain kind。 f clandestinc P° t【

st~c。

litics° f

lonial rcading, using the n1aster marks to Put

D:Cthcr a history Tht1s we丘 n(l° ut what books wc can bragc,ancl what wc must

sct asidc, I can usc Pctcr de Bolla’ s TFlc Disco1JⅡ 召on rh召

。f thc col° nia】

subfir,】

c to oPcn uP(lull

ccntury VVas T。 ni lXlorrison, a 、 vritcr 、 Ⅴell、crsecl in contcmPo1・ ary litcrary thcory, obhgcd to sct aside Paul dc R/lan’ s‘ ‘ T冂 1c ’ Pur|oined Ribbon’ hist。 rics

cightcc1】 th

P23

Eightccn scⅤ cnt)ˉ four and“

hitc f° lks、verc stnl on thc l。

okcd in a lynch Hre、vas a“ holc othcr thing that had、vorn° ut11is luarro“ It、 vas thc ribb° n l)lood c°

。se I丬 uman But nonc of ⒈ Ic thought it

“∴ as a cardi11al fcathcr stuck to his boat,He tugged and`vhat calnc loosc in his hand、vas a rcd ribb° n knotted ar。 und a cu【 1。 f、 vet、 voolly hair, chnging still to its bit。 f scalP

Hc kt thc ribbon; thc skin smcll

naggcd hirn

(PP 180-1) M()rri⒃ n ncxt inⅤ okcs a langu吃 c wh“ C SCl、・ cdgc is so ll刂 cd t11at n° ‘ 尹⒐ dJc ctan “ This tilnc, ald10t1gh hc coukln’ t ciPhcr l)ut onc word, hC hcilitatc l辶 ll age∶

behevcd hc kne、 v、、ho sP° kc thcm.The Pc。 PlC。 fthe br° kcn nccks,。 f⒔ rc_c° okcd ’ blood and black girls`vho had l° st thcir11bb。 ns’ (P 181) Did thC exPlanati。 n of pron1iscs and cxcuscs in cightccnth-century Gcncva not Illake it acr。 ss into this ’ “ roar’ PI、vill not chcck it out and mcasurc thc bonc flute I 、 vill silnPly dedicatc thcsc Pages to thc author。

f Bc`° Γ cJ,in

the11an1c of translati° n

Notes 1

Thc srst Part of d● ls essay is bascd on a conⅤ crsation Ⅵ1th A/lich志 lc Barrctt in

2

Fortllcoming I20021什 om sca8ull PrcSs9CalCutta, ’ “ Facditation’

the sulllmcr of1990,

3

is thc Enghsh translati° n of a Frcudian tcrn1、 vhich is translatcd

尹9vJc in Frc11ch Thc dicdonar)n1Caning is∶ ˇ Tcrm uscd by Frcud at a t11nc whcn he was Putting11c)rwtlld a ncurological m。 dcl of the functi° ning of the Psychical apParatus (1895)∶

thc Cxcitation, in ing fro1n onc ncurone to anothcr,

runs into a ccrtain rcsistancc;、

、hcrc its a8C rcSults in a Perma-

ncnt rcductio11in this rcsistance, thcrc is sai(l t°

ˉ 、 ill cxcitation 、

oPt for a facilitatcd path、

be rocilitati。 n;

Ⅴay in Prcferencc to onc

wherc no hcihtati。 n has。 ccun・ ed U hpltlljcl△ etandJ

B PC,lltdis,The Ι虿刀Ju唧 Cσ P沙山 o Press,London,1973j,P・ 157)

Ⅱnd,s立 s[H。 galth

THE POLITICs OF TRANsLATlON 4 Jacqucs Dcrlîda,“ Mar)・

5

F° κ c

ofL小 v∶

Quaintancc,Dcnsrruc冖

^Γ

11c‘ M)ˉ stical

p,,口 nd∠ hc%s"biF艹

Foullclauon。

387

f Autl△ orit):’

丿 usricc;cdrdozo

,t1ˉ

Ⅰ口Ⅱ=Rε ric⒒ `,

XI(July— Aug,1990);p,923 `犭 “ Thc Wct nurse” ,h Kah儿 r Women(eds),rrurh TdFcs∶ sFo冖 es Ⅱ ′ n山口n№ mcn (Thc、 V° mcn’ s Prcss, L。 nd° n, 1987),pp, 1-50(⒔ rSt pubhshed by Kah for

Women,Delh, 1986),and“ Brcast妒 Ⅴcr” ,in Gayath ChakraⅤ 。rty J刁

Orhcr 1I%iFds; Essd”

spivak,

s(R/lCthuen/R。 udedgc, Ncw York,

in Cu`r1`r口

1987),Pp,222-40 6

η

'PofiFitˉ

I~ucc Irigaray argues persuasi、 cly that, E∏ 1rnanucl Iˇ evinas to the contrary, 、、ith"1thc ethics° f scxual diffcrcncc thc crotic is cthical(‘ ‘ The Fccunditv of

rc29cc,tr.Carolyn Burkc and G C Gill thc Carcss” ,h her Erhics σ sexu￠ ′Dj〃 ∶ (C。 ncll ul1i、 crsitv Press,Ithaca、 NY I19931) 1・

7 Sudhr Kakar,rhc∫ nncr lIor`‘ ⒎ .J勹 rh° 口n口 ” c sr“ 夕 fcˉ f,`″ h口。d口 nd勤 oε 丿 jn`ndi口 ,2nd cdn(Ox%rd1I11iⅤ crsity Press,Delh,1981),】 )l> 171″ ・Part° f ‘

this discussion in a shghtly diffcrcnt R)rm isincludcd in my‘ Psychoanalysis in Lc竹 Ficld;and Ficld、 vorking:ExalnPlcs t° st thc Titlc” ,in Michacl Munch° 、 v dnd夕 is,PhiFosoP`!,=dnd CuFrtI″ (RotltlC’ dgc, cJ’ °

tll,d Sonu Shamdasani(C(lS),P沙

London, 1994),pp.41-75 8

Scc Partha Chattc刂 cc,“ Ncltiondism and the、 Voman QuCstion” ,in Kumkum sriraJ⒎ I%Il’ cn(RutgC1・ S university Prcss, Sangari and sudcsh Vaid(cds), Rc c‘ 】 Nc、 ⅤBrunswick,NJ,1990),pp

23353,br a dct“

lcd discussion of this

gcndcring of Indian nationahsm

9 Max Wt・ L,er,Tl,c

'￡ Rt・ F匆 ic,n?厂灿山d∶ Tlnc s。。。 f Hjndu。 md刀 d BuJJh^m,tr Hans H Gcrth and D° 11Ma1ˉ ti11dale(Free `唧 Press,Glencoc,Ill,1958)

10

ˇ1orc on this in a more Pe1ˉ iIη

s° nal

context in SPiⅤ ak,“ stagings of thC()rigin”

,

T/ljrJ Texr

I⒖ Amadiumc,l∫ dfc Dduf凡 Fc^FcJ’ ,è Husb口 n汰 (Zc(l Bo° ks,L。 nd° n,1987) hat(latcd f° r this intcrventionist in 12 For background。 n Akhtcr,alrcady somcⅥ 广 ll

,‘

thc hist。 ry。 f thc Prcscnt,Scc Yayori NⅠ atsui(Cd,), lI。 r,,cn、 L。 ndon,

13

“

NIot・

P。

14

(Zcd B° 。ks,

c on P0WCr/Knowledgc” ,in Thomas E,Wartcnbcrg(cd,),Rc Tf,in女

inJ

I,c,(statC UniⅤ crsity of Nc、 v Yot・ kP1・ css,Albany,NY,1992)

SPivak,“ Can thc subaltern SPeak7’ \in Cary Nclson and La、 vrencc GrOssbcrg (cds),Jrdrxjs氵刀 dnd rhc rrlrcrPrdσ tI1・

15

/ls丿口

1989),ch, 1,

F氵

cl,9?厂 cu`ruΙ

c(u血 vcrsity of

Ⅱlin〈 )is Prcss,

bana,Ill, 1988),PP 271 -313

For an extcndcd c° nsideration of tbcsc and relatcd P。

′ intS, see lη y“ 、 Crsions

Oftbc Margin∶ Coctzcc’ s Foc rcading Dcfoc’ s Crusoc/R。 x口 nd” ,il`Jonathan Arac (Cd),Thcorl'口 nd rrs Consc甲 uε nc召 s(Johns HoPklns ulllⅤ crsity Press,Baltimore,

1990)

16

Toni Moros°

n,Bc`。 Ⅰ 'cd(Plumc

Books,New York,1987) PagC numbers arc

includcd in n1Ⅴ text

17

For(in1)possibility,sec my‘ ‘ Litcrary RrcSCntation of thc subaltcrn” , in my

18

∴ r刀 Orhei Ⅱ r`dx,PP 241 68 ° Karl、 1arx,“ Ec。 non△ ic and PhⅡ osoPhical

lxIa11uscriPts” ,in R° dncy Li、 ingstonc

and Gc。 ge Bcnt° n tr, ￡dr,'丨丨 11‘ inJs(Vintagc, Ne、 York, 1975), PP Vilson Har11s,Tllc GÎ丿 279一艹00;、 dnd(V口 rrer(Fal)Cr,Lt,l1don,1985) ThcSe qu° tati。 ns are fl。 n1WilsOn Ha1ˉ ris,“ Cross-cultural Crisis∶ hnagery,Languagc, 1ˉ

388

GAYATRI CHAKRAVORTY SPIVAK and thc Intuitivc Imaε inati° n” , Con1n△ 。nxs ealth Lecturcs, 1990, Lccturc n°

19

2,31()ct 1990,university of Can1t)1・ i(lgc, Dcroda t1・ accs thc tralcct。 r〉 ˉ。f thC Hcgdian and Pre_Hc8clian discou1・ sc of thc ft,tish(Jacq11Cs Dcrrida,G杨 s,t】・Richard Rand and John P Lca`ˉ c),J1

|11ni`Crsity of NCbraska Prcss,Lincoln,Ncbr,1986j)T11C worshippcr ofthe fctish cats human flcsh The、 Ⅴorshil)Pcr of God f辶 asts。 n the Eucharist Harris transⅤ crscs thc fetish hcrc thr°

20

slaⅤ oj Zi'ck, T/l召

subFiI,lc Ol,,召

ugh thC nativc imaginati。 n

cF犭

~′

de。

丨 o⒏ `,tr J。 n Barncs(Verso,Lond° n,

1989), PP 203, 208, 212

21 Pctσ

de Bolla,孔 c DI义 0urse?/rfl召 subhme;Rcd山 nfs汕 Hi立 °弘 △csrhc・ rics dnd Fhc PagC numbers ale妒、・Cn in my tcxt Rckrcnccs and discussion of“ The Bcgun1s of Oudh” ,and“ Thc hllPeachmCnt su勿 ccr(Bl昶 kwCll,Oxford,1989)

22

of Warrcn HasdngF are ω btˉ 忆und in rllc防 Ⅰ 冖nfs

dnd sP召 cchcs σ ￡Jmun(f tl,1981〉 ,、 o1 5∶ /j,山 dj l'口 tfr‘ Is t,nd Bcn￡ dF, PP・ 410^12, PP 465^69 P・ 470; and in 、。1 6∶ '刀 dⅠ Cl; Bur大

23

c,cd P J M沮

shall(Clarcnd° n

Pkss,Ox忆

I・

Ιd″ nc乃加J of Thc Hds” nfs∫ mPc夕 chmcnr聍 sPccuvcly scc111y“ Reading thc Archivcs:the Rani of sirmur” ,in Francis Barkcr(cd,), ￡uroPc dnd∫ rs Orh召 “ (uni、・ crsity of EsScx,Colchcstcr, 1985),PP 128-51

24 Ibid 25 Patll de Man,“ Thc Purl° incd Rll,bon” ,rePrintt・ da~s“ Excuses(Ca￡虍ssi@ns)” in de Mcall,△ FF昭 ohes∝ Rc口山iaJ(Yak uniⅤcrsity PlcSS,New HaⅤ cL1,1979), pP 278^301・

Chapter 27

Kwame Anthony A卩卩iah

THICK TRANSLATION

As誉

ma忐 hia

Akan圮 ♂ no na Ntaho dc goro br芑

[A mattCr which troul)lcs thc Akan Pe° Play tllc l)r芑 k。诺

drum11

k芑 te

Ple,the Pc° Ple° fG。 la take to l△

Kaka ne。 ka nc ayafunka fanyinan)oka Tood1achc and indcbtcdncss and st。 mach achc,dcbt is Prckral)le21 【 Kamcs誉 kwakⅤ c

sc∶

s芑

。nim so abo rcb誉 bcrc a,anka wank。 ware adobo

nk° nt°

vn that thc pahn nuts 、 Ⅴcrc going to IThe dr。 ngo says∶ if hC had kn。、

riPen,then he would not haⅤ c marricd thc rama Palm with a twis∞

d

lcg l

I

T忠 n1苟

狼坩黠跺

l斌

l呈击描

挟

∴忿

∶ ∷ lⅠ ∶ 摁拦

‰ 默

报

or langua8e sPokcn in and ar。 und my homctown of Kumasiin Ghana Thcy arc

but three° f thc7000~。 dd Provcrbs that1ny m° ther has c。 llcctcd oⅤ cr roughly the pcriod of rny lifctilnc, and shc and s。 111C friCnds have been trying to undcrstand

thcm br the last dc∞ dc Or so;lattcrly I havc cd them h sctting out to pⅡ Parc a manuscriPt that(as wc say)rC(luccs many of thcse sa艹 ngs忆 r tlac nrst dme t。 Ⅵ・ riting,that glosscs thCm in Enghsh,and that offcrs als。 ,in each casc,、 vhat I haⅤ c °ffered Ⅴou∶ 、`hat、 'e call a literal translati° n 1993

390

KⅥ /AME ANTHONY APPIAH C)oincidcntally (or, pcrhaPs, n° t so Coincidcntally) I haⅤ c SPCnt lliuch of thc

samc decade 、 v。 rking in xshat analytic Phil° s° phers call thc thcOry 。 f mcaning or Phil°

s°

r of trying to say`vhat an adcquatc thcor~ Phical scn、 antics∶ in tbc actiⅤ it〉

ctical of thc mcanings of、

v° rds

and phrascs and scntcnces should l° °k

hkc

It would父 cm nattlral Cnough,Phmd`fticⅠ c,tll bring tllcsc“

ò ac・

tiⅤ

itks~of

translati11g and d1e° rizing about l、 △ caning~ togethcr, l)ccause of thc sin11,lcst

°f ˉ 、ayS Pt to nnd 、

bcgh1ning thoughts ab。 ut translation: laamcly that it is an attcnη hat has bccn said in of saying in onc languagc something that mcans the samc as、・ an° thcr

、hy

What I、 vould likc t。 do in this cssay is to exPlorc sOn1c oft11c rcasons at this〃 d乃 cic d1。 ught shoul(l bc rcsistc(⒈ I shall arguc tllat n,。蛀 of

it is tl△

j扌

,〕

、 v1△ at intcrcsts us in thc translati。 ns that intcrcst us most is not mcaning, in the scnsc that PhⅡ 。soPhy of languagc uscs thc tcrn⒈ in n△ any cascs, as thc Pr。 Ⅴcrbs qtlrcly由

ns thcy cxcmPli灯 ’ ow and hr K灬。 gctung tllc mcamng,in this scnsc,hght

is hardly cvcn a⒔ rst st to`Vards undcrstanding,

II Lct1nc start agai11、 Ⅴith a sin1Plc th。

ug11t∶

、 vhat、 vc translatc arc utterances,things

vith、・。icc or pcn or kcyboard; and thosc madc 、∴th、 v° rds bv men and、 v。 mcn, 、

、hiCh hkc a‖ actions arc undcrtakcn for utteranccs arc thc Pr° ductS of aCti° ns, 、 rcasons sincc rcasons can bc C。 n、 plcx and cxtcnsiⅤ c, grasping an agcnt’ s rcasons can bc a diff1cult l)usincss; and xxe can casily fccl that

:c 飞、

haⅤ

c not dug dcly

enough,、 vhcn vvc haⅤ c told the l,cst st。 ry xs・ c can uttcrances~ordinarⅤ cvcrvdaⅤ remarks— —arc in this rcspcct solue、 vhat unusual for、 Λhilc it rnay not be easy t。 give

of why somcone h灬 ,亿 r cxamI)lc,uttk・ κd tllc、・rds“ s a lo、 cly, vⅡ l bc inchned rdinary c。 ursc of things Enghsh sPcakcrs 、 Sunn) day/’ in thc 。

ay⒎ ″clcc。 unt

t°

SuPPosc that anyonc、

(〉

vh。 says this to tbcn△

intcntion t° cxPrCss thc th° ught that it is a loⅤ

‘ 【say‘ in thc。 rdi11ar) coursc oF thi1】

gs’

It’

has, as onc rcason for uttcring, thc

ely,sunny(lay

’ bccausc,in odd cn°

ugh cj1ˉ culη stances,

ugh ci1・ cun1stanCcs 、 VC111ight suPposc nO such thing;and that is bccausc in odd cn。 it n1ight not bc truc PcrhaPs-— t° imPosc on Ⅴou。 nc ofth。 sc bizarrc fantasics that

mark thc stylc。 F thc PhilOsoPhCr~_this is a sPcakCr`、 ho has bccn told this is an Enghsh scntcnce、 vithout bcing told、 'hat it n】 cans;pcrhaPs,shC is uttcring it not t。

cxPrcss that thought~xx・ hich she docs not kn0、 v it exPrcSScs

but to n1islcad

us into thinking shc is angloPhonc PerhaPS、 vc knoⅥ ・all this PcrhaPs still asscr_ toric uttcrances do ordinarily proPosc thcn1sclves as rnotivatcd,at lcast in Part9by a dcsirc to cxPresS a ccrtain sPcci⒔

c th。 ug1】 t

Thisis casy Cnough,ofc° ursc,to CXPlain∶ Part° f′ vhat is disti11ctiⅤ c about uttcr_ ancc as a kind of action, 、 vith distinctivc sorts of reasons,is that it is convcnri@n虿 f; and thc thought、 vc normally takc somc。 nc to bc intcnding to exPrcss in uttcri11ga scntc11cc is thc th。 ught3that the conⅤ cntions of languagc ass。 ciatc、 vith it

Gricc hmoudy suggestt,d tllat wc could say what an(asSCl t。 riC)utterancc n1eant nt。 )tlac bdicf4t11at it was conⅤ cntionall、 'intenclcd to by identi灯 ing the(cont【・ l′

Pr。 ducC;

and he identiHcd, corrcctly in n1y Ⅴie、 v, the heart of thc mechanisln by

THICK TRANsLATION

391

、 vhich thcsc bchcfo arc suPPosCd to bc pr。 duccd R。 ughly,he suggested that、 vhen a sPCakCr c。 n1Inunicatcs a bchcf by、 vay of thc uttcrancc of a scntcncc,shc docs so

by getting hcr hcarcrs to rccognizc borFl that this is thc bchcf shc intcnds then△ have dnd that shc intcnds thcn△

to havc that bchcfin Part bcc口

t°

usc thcy rccognizc that

Pri1nary intcntion, This is the hcart of uttcrancc_ n1eaning; thc conⅤ entions of languagc associatc、 v° rds、Vith rolcs in dctern1ining盯

J,Ⅰ

C/ll)chcfis t° be c° mmuni~

catcd by an uttcrancc, but it is by 、 ⅤaⅤ of thc Griccan mechanislll that this

communication° ccurs, 、 vhen it docs, This Gricean lncchanis1u~thc act that achieⅤ

cs its Purposc bccausc its PurP°

sc

is rccognizcd— — is ccntral to mcaning just bccausc it occurs both in thc cases vvhcrc

1ncaning is conventional and in th° sc cascs、 vhcrc it is not IfI say that“ John is in thc kitchcn or thc den/’ in。 rdinary circumstanccs I gct y° ut° bClicⅤ c,by、 vay。 f

thc Griccan mcchanisn】 , sOmcthing I haⅤ c n。 t litcrally s口 id— namcly that I don’ t VhiCh kn0、广、 To explain、 Ⅴhy you behcve this,、 vc sh0uld begin Ⅵith thc fact that in ordinary contexts our exchangcs are goⅤ crncd by、 vhat Grice called c。 nvcrsational rnaxi1ns: by understandings to the effect that、 ve arc trying to bc hclPful, trying to bc, for

CxamPlC,b。 th maxi1nally and rclcⅤ antly informativc, Sincc I k11ow you know this,I can assumc Ⅴou will in炙 r

that I cl°

n。 t kn。

w

morc prcciscly whcrc John is In tlttcring thc scntcncc I will havc your rccoε nizing this as One ofits intcndcd cffccts But Ⅴ°u knovv I kn0、 v you kno、 :this,and s。 y。 u

Ⅴ。u sh。 uld bchcvc that I、 vas bcing hclPful and,thus, Ⅴ。u to bclicⅤ c that I did n。 t kn。 wm° rc PrCciscly whcrc J。 hn was Thatthisis a casc ofthc Griccan mcchal△ lsm bllows分 om that hd that,l)ccausc I kn0、 vy。 u kn0、 v I kno、 vy。 u kno、 v this,I cxPcct you t° rccognizc that I had d1is intcntion and to c。 met° belicⅤ e that I(lid n。 t kn。 wm。 κ prcoscly whcrc J。 hn Ⅴas in Part bCcausc you rccognized the intcntion, It is nO surPriSC that Gricc,、 vho 、 disc° vcrcd this mcchanis∏ 1, also disc° Ⅴ ered such s。 -callcd conⅤ crsational imphca~ turcs: these th。 ughts 、 Ⅴc con△ municatc by cncouraging othcrs to(lra、 v infcrcnccs that go l)cyond thc meaning ofthc words wc uttcr(It will bC uschl latcr to haⅤ c can infcr that I intcndcd that

inkr that I intcndccl

a nan1c for thc casc Ⅵ・ hcrc Ⅴ°u and Il,oth kn° 、广P,CaCh kn° 、广 s thc Othcr kno、

vs it,

and also kn0、 vs thc other kn。、,s that cach kn0、 vs thc 。thcr kn。 Ⅵ/s it, and so °n ‘ I shall usc a standard shorthand f。 r this and saⅤ that in this casc Ⅵ・ c‘ lnutuallⅤ kn° w”

tl△

at P,)

Charactcristically for a philosopher, I have focuscd on language that is asscrtoric; but sirllilar hncs °f th。 ught can be aPPhed to optativcs Ⅵ厂 hiCh Cxprcss ˉ q Thcy diffcr i。 n△ simplc asscr Ⅴ ants~rather than bclic± PrekrCnccs~wishes Or、 tions in cxprcssing diffcrcnt sOrts of states。 f the sPcakcr・ T° dcal vvith qucstions

and。 rdcrs, 、 vc must思 ivC a(liffcrcnt of thc intcndcd rcsP° nse fron1 thc hcarcr, sincc qucstions and c° 1nmands are ain1ed at s° n1cthing more actiⅤ c than mcrc behcf D F° r PCrf。 rmativcs,n△ ore yet is rcquircd∶

for I can pron° uncc

you1nan and、 vifc

。nly`vhen therc cxists a sOcial Practicc of marrying, in vvhich my uttcranccs arc convcntionally giⅤ cn a ccrtain role

L)csPitc thcse difFcrcnccs,thc general theoretical Point hcrc apPhcs across thc b。 ard:it is Possil)lC to haⅤ e thc reas° ns、 vc

ordinarily havc for uttcrin8only bccausc

392

KwAME ANTHONY APPIAH

thcrc cxists、 vithin any c。 mn1unity of sPeakers of a singlc lan8uagc a sPcci⒔ c struc-

ture of rnutual cxPcctations about rcas° ns for uttcrinε Lcarning thc graln1nar and thc lcxicon of a langua8e is lcarning a comPlcx set° f instructions for gcncrating intendcd to achicⅤ c thcir effects in。 d1crs、 vho kno、 ,the and PrccisCly by、 Ⅴay of a rcc。 gnition。 f those intcntions,

acts that arc standardlⅤ

salne instructions

Whcn s。 mcb。 dy sPeaks,thcrcf° rc,in the ordinary coursc of things and in thc abscnce of c° ntrary cⅤ idcncc,shc、 Ⅴdl be takcn and、 ⅤⅡl cxPCct t° bc takcn by Partic~

iPants in thc conⅤ cntions of hcr language to haⅤ e thc intentions that thosc conⅤ cntions assOciatc,by、 vay of gran`lnar and lexicon,xx・ ith hcr uttcrancc,6Tol冫 c intt・ ntons is仅 )know tl△ c htc・ ml mca血 ng of what slac h灬 scaid; and the literal1ncanings of、 vords and phrases are dctcrn△ incd by thc、 vay in、 vhich

ablc t° ldenti灯 rh° se

thcy contributc t° 丘xing thc intcntions associatcd、 vith thc spcech-acts in、 vhich thcy can occur Lct n1c call thcsc thc Fircr饣 Fintcnd° ns ⅣVhilc cach utterancc of a scntcnce 、 vill bc surroundcd and motivatcd by morc than its litcral intentions,、 Ⅴill havc(in 。thcr w。 rds)lnore rcasons than thcsc,and whⅡ c som召 uttcrances vvill n° t cⅤ en ha、 e

these intentions~becausc, f° r cxamPlc, thcy arc clcarly ironically intcndcd~it remains truc that cxPlanations of、 vhat a spcakcr is(loing in uttcrin8a Sentcnce、 allll。 st al、 Ⅴ ays inⅤ olⅤ c

thcⅤ

vill

rcFcrcncc to tbc standard intcntions,cⅤ cn in thc cascs、 vhcre

are absent

III If,as I。 riginally suggested, translati° n is an attcmPt to Hnd、 vays of saying in onc

languagc somcthing that rneans thc samc as、 vhat has bccn said in anothcr; and if, as I havc rcccndy suggcsted,thc litcral1ncaning of an uttcrancc is a mattcr of、

vhat

intcntions a sPcaker、 v。 uld。 rdinarily bc takcn t。 haⅤ c in uttcring it;thcn a literal

translauon。 u:ht t° bc a scntcncc of, f° r cxamPle, Enghsh, that、 v。 uld° rdinarily be takcn to bc uttcrcd 、 vith thc intcntion that thc °riginal, for examPlC, Tvvi, sentcncc, 、 Ⅴas conventionally ass° c1atcd、 vith7 This th° ught has bccn rcjcctcd1nore° Ren than it has bccn afHnued in rccent

philosophy of language bccausc, for a varicty of rcasons, it has bccn thought that thc litcral intcntion that gocs vvith sOmc。 r Pcrhaps all scntcnccs is Onc that you can haⅤ c°nly if you sPcak thC languagc to、 vhich thosc scntcnccs bcl。 ng

Ifyou do

not recognizc thc SaPir~wh。 rf hyPothcsis、vhcn(lrcsscd uP ths、 vay,it is bccause the hyPothcsis iS normally cxprcssed as thc、 icv￠ that、 vhat languagc you sPcak affccts

、 vhat th° ughts you can havc: but then, if that

、 verc true, it 、 Ⅴ°uld aⅢ cct 、 vhat thoughts you could intend to cxPress also. If vvhat languagc you spcak detcrn1ines vvhat th° u8htS Or intentions y° u can havc,translati。 n,thus concciⅤ ed,、 Ⅳill

al、

vays

bc imPossiblc. PcrhaPs l)ecausc I、・ as br° ught uP l)Ctvvccn sCⅤ cral languagcs,not all of thcm

Ⅴarictics of Enghsh,I haⅤ c ncⅤ cr quitC bChcvcd that this coukl bc right 0f course thcrc arc sOmc thoughts that it is hard to imaginc somcOnc having、 vithout s° mc languagc— —thc thought that a I)article is a ncutral b° s。 n,for cxamplc~and。 thcrs that rcquire linguistic kno、 vledge constitutiⅤ cly:thc th°ught that R°nald Reagan is

smarter than my d。 g surcly rcquircs that I kn。、 v——、 vhich means kn° Ⅵ`h。 vc

t°

usc

、

in scntcnces~Ronald Rcagan’

THICK TRANsLATION

s11an△ c But surcly thcrc a1・

393

c thoughts—

‘

-‘ It’

s a cat/’

say— that you can haⅤ c、vithout sPcaking Enghsh;haⅤ c,uncontroⅤ crsially,n° ques_ tions bcggcd And ifthatis s。 ,can、 vC not sce ho、 v you c° uld haⅤ c thc th。 ught that

n,not bccause you kno、 v thc、 v° rds“ nCutral b。 s。 n” but bccausc y。 u kno、 v somC other、vords that refer,in somc othcr languagc,to thc samc thingP this is a ncutral bos°

so,at lcast,I think,th° ugh I shall not arguc it hcrc;bccausc、 vhat I、 vant t。 noticc no、 v is that cⅤ cn if this is right,、 vc

nccd only consider thc casc。 f proPer names to

sec that it、 vill oftcn l)ca1nattcr ofluck、

vhcther the relcvant intcntions are Possil)lc

con1munitics,bctwccn、 vhiCh、 Ⅴe arc translating To lnakc thc P。 int at its lcast comPhcatcd,it is no surPrise that you cannot cxactly say in TⅥ .i that thc for b。 th oft、

lr、

:。

ˉ all is,wcll,burnt sicnna This impossibility,though of thc hrst imPortancC in translation,is not thcOrct~

ically puzzhng;cxplanations of、 vhy TⅥi docs not have thc c° nct of burnt sienna or of a ncutral boson are too obvi。 us to be、 v° rth giving What I alll inchncd t。 (lcny iS thc morc cxc・

ltlng da11u~which R“ lows△ 。m any Ⅴicw thatinv。 lvcs hohslη

about lncanings~that、 :c

cannot translate any talk at all, because, f°

r examPle,

cvcry scntcncc in、 Ⅴhich it can° ccur subtly shades thc meaning of eⅤ cry、vord, so that“ tablc” and‘ η Γ isch” d。

not lncan thc samc,becausc n° thing adequately gets the

sCnsc of“ DCr Tisch ist ge1utlthCh” In standard circumstanccs thc litcral intentions

with which I uttcr“ It’ s a table” and Hans says“ ES iSt Cin Tisch” arc,f° r all thc argumcnts I kno、 v,thc samc, On this t° Pic I am only saying、 'hcrc I stand, n° tn△ aking argumcnts∶

ifl am

vhilc thcy right, thcrc arc barricrs to translati° n to bc noted hcrc,but, as I say, 、

an undcrstanding of、 vhy translati。 n is so (lifbcult, they do n° t seem theorctically puzzhng If you cannot conⅤ entionally c。 lnmunicatc a certain r cannot htcralintention in languagc A and you can in languagc B,then thc translat°

arc i1nportant t°

Producc a litcral translation;that is all it amounts to

IV But literal intcnti。 ns as、 ve haⅤ c sccn arc not thc only° ncs that can opcratc by thc

Griccan n△ cchanislu Scarlc luakcs a(listincu。 n bet、veen direct and indirect spccch-

acts,thc kcy t0、 vhich is、vhethcr thc main Point of thc uttcrancc is cd for by thc litcral intcnti°

ns∶

if n° t,then、 vhat

is prhnarily bcing collltnuniCatcd is bcing

Con11nunicated indirectly )(oticc,in ing,that thc distinction l)ct、 vccn indircct and(lirect is not the same as thc distinction bct、 vccn litcral and non~htcral uscs;

‘

I rnay say‘ Thcrc’ s an ant on your sh。 ul(lcr”

vith thc pri1nary intCntion of gctting 、

you to rccognize l)y thc Gricean n】 echanisn△ that I carc about you,an cffcct、 vhich 、 vill dend on、・ hat I say bcing takcn litcrally as、 vCll and l)cing seen to be true;

rIn△ ay 。

say‘ juhct is thc sun” non-htcrally (that is,

not asc“ bc to me tllc htcmhlltenti。 ns)btlt

m。 rdcr t。

vith 、

thc intention that you

c。 mmu血 cate

in山 K∝ 圩that

crsc,In othcr wor(ls,s。 mcumcs in山 rcct Juliet is the cenjal hct of lny httlc u血 Ⅴ colnmunication Pr° cCCds by、 vay of the litcral intcntions and sOmctirncs it docsn’ t All° f this can bc caPtured in translation,Provided the relevant hteral intenti° avaⅡ ablc

ns are

394

KⅥ /AME ANTHONY APP1AH

Ⅴ

∶ :丨

liljⅠ ;jii∶lt∶

甘椒

:)Ι 1∶

∶ 君扌丨繁丨∶ ∶ ∶ ∶ I∶

lf章 :l|∶

iI奋 :丨:替

jllll∶

}l丨i

:找 :r哏 lF点恝社黜 lW∶ 骒氵扌 =:f∶ :∶

l甘

:

THICK TRANsLATION

395

、 vhat shc intcnds us to undcrstand l)Ⅴ 、 vav ofthe GⅡ cean n△ echanism~it is Pl“ n that neithcr rllctaPhorS nor Proverbs Fncan

only、 vhat thcy say,

VI I haⅤ c

l)ccn csscntially accting thc thought that rncaning in thc br。 adcst scnsc is

、 vhat is c。 ∏1Inunicatcd bⅤ thc Griccan mcchanis1n. Litcral intcntions、 v° rk in the Griccan 、 vay; I haⅤ c suggcstcd that thc pr。 Ⅴcrbs do, to。 , though I have n° t said

much about ho、 v, It is clcar I think that n1ctaphor、 v。 rks likc this, ho、 vcvcr the dctalls go On onc soH of c° ntemPorary viCw,玎 ulict is the sun” is a litcral hlse h。

。d、vhich

inⅤ itcs us to think ofJuhet as standing to the sPeakcr as thc sun stands

to the vv° rld; on anothcr, rcsurrccted by Bob Fogehn, it is clhPtical for a si1nⅡ

c

、 vhosc

r° ugh mcaning is that“ Juhct has a signiHcant numbcr° f thc(c°ntCxtually) ’ sahcnt fcaturcs of thc sun,’ 9so shc is ccntral,as。 urce of、 varmth and nourishmcnt,

cnhvening,imPortant and— —onc lnust add Prosaically_ and so on But on cithcr Ⅴic、 v the metaphor is suPP。 scd t。、 Ⅴ。rk by gctting you to scc hoⅥ 厂it iS SuPPosCd to、Vork and gctting you to rccognizc that tbat is h° 、 vI、vant Ⅴ。u to undcrstand it, And herc both c。 nⅤ cntion(mcFdPh° r,howcvcr it works in dctad,is mutudly kn° wn t。 all° f us) and spccinc fcaturcs° f thc mutual kn° 、 vledgc of spcakcr and hcarcr that dcrivcs fron1c。 ntcxt intcract to Pr。 ducc lucaning

what PhiloSophcrs of languagc haⅤ c largcly attcndcd t° in thinking ab。 ut mcaning arc thcsc Gricean asPCcts ofrncaning— they inc1udc b。 th、vhat are n° rmally thought of as scmantical and as pragmatic Phcnon1cna, and thcy l)roadly, as I say, cxhaust thc rangc of phil。

Phicalintcrcst in languagc HaⅤ ing idcnti⒔ cd this intcI・ cst and its scoPC,my argumcnt仔 o1nn° w is dircdc(lt。 wards cxamining the ways in s°

which thc Point of much translati。 n廿 ansccnds what I am calling thc Griccan asPects of rncaning

ⅤII And t。 bcgin to scc、 Vhy,let us obscrⅤ c that thc sOrts° f things I haⅤ c bccn saying ab° ut

meaning arc not much faⅤ °red by thosc xlho spcnd thcir thuc in htcrary

studies, in Part, I think, bccausc faccd、 vith a rcal live tcxt, it see11△ s bizarrcly in_ approPriatC t° SPCnd° nc’ s thuc sPeculating about thc auth°

r’

s intcntions:thc auth° r

n1ay be long dcad,unkn0、 vn to us,unintercsting,and surcly,it vvill scen、 hcr intcntions haⅤ c n° thing t° d° 、 hat、 vc are intcrcstcd in Nor(lo I disagrcc 、 vith、 Ⅴ vith anⅤ of this∶ 、 vhcthcr a、v° rk is⒔ ctional。 rn° t,our litcrary intcrcst in it has usually vcry litdc to d。、 vith psychological facts ab。 ut its hist° rical auth。 r But it rcmains truc that in。 rdcr t° bcgin t。 haⅤ c a litcrary undcrstanding of rnany tcxts,、

vc must

usually⒔ rst kn° w its languagc wdl cnou思 ht。 bC ablc t° idend、 what tl・ C htcn~ tions convcntionallⅤ ass。 ciatcd、 vith cach of its scntenccs arc: that、ve must bcgin

Ⅵ/ith the litcral rncanings of、 Ⅴords, Phrases, scntcnccs More than this, in undcrstanding n△ any of thc tcxts that、 vc address as litcrary, 、 ve l△ △ ust grasp n° t lncrcly d1c litcral intentions but the、

vhole mcssagc that vv° uld bc coΠ 11nunicatcd by the

uttcrance of thc scntcnce in morc Ordinary scttings: rnetaphor and imPhcature,as

396

KXlVAME ANTHONY APPIAH

theⅤ °ccur

in丘 ction, 。ccur als。 °utsidc it These m° re comPlex elements of the ccur、vith the usual intentions

Griccan lllcssagc of thc uttcrancc in its context also。

suSPCndcd∶ 、 vc d。 n° t havc t。 bchcve that Janc Austcn tclls us that“ uniⅤ crsally ackn° vvlcdgcd,that

bc in、 vant° fa、

”

it is a truth

a singlc luan in p° sscssion° fag。 °d fortunc,1nust

vn ironic attitudc t° thc rclati° ns° f in。 rdcr t° cxPrCSs her° 、

marriagc, gcndcr "f辶 and proPcrty, but `Ⅴ c cIrC Plainly meant to rely on our undcr、 vould conveⅤ that ironic standing of thc fact tbat an uttcrancc of this sentencc attitudc outsidc thc Hcti。 n

Many, PcrhaPS most tCxts, in othcr、vords, require us to grasP the Gricean ’

burdcn that thc、 v。 rds、v。 uld bcar in ordinary uses But only“ mOst’ ;for、 vith sOmc texts 叩 mboliSt P。 Cms,latc JamCs J。 ycC,the Pr° ducti。 ns° fthe dada“ P° ctF~it vords in t110sc sccms that, 、 vhilc、Ⅴc oftCn nccd to undcrstand thc r° les that thc 、 tCXts Play in thCir rn。 rc normal hal)itats,thcrc is no intcntion at all that。 ur languagc associates wkh thc strings of words that⒘ dl bctwccn PeⅡ ods And somedmes,as

in Joyce(and勹 abbcrw。 cky” ),wC d°

n° t even haⅤ C

word~mcanings to rcly on∶

thc

、 v。 rds thcmsclⅤ es° Rcn havc no cstabhshed rncaning~no rulcs for ho、 v they sh。 uld contributc t。 dctern△ ining litcral intcntions;and、 vhat、vc thcn d° is cithcr t° scc

thcm as made△ 。mc虹 st血 g wor(ls,inv。 hng thosc meal△ lngs,or to rcly°

n associ-

ations of sound and thought that arc based on °thcr things than mcanings, or, Pcrhaps,to give uP alt。 gcthCr! But cven in thc casc of narrativc Hcti°

Prol)lCms° f identi灯 ing tllC h∞ rahl△

n,、 vherc thc scntences do n。 t raisc thcsc

tcndoⅡ ,I agree,as I跎

y,thc△ t

tl△

e htelahlltcn ction is t°

tions can hardly bc thc point of the mattcr, since to bc PackagCd as a丘

bc° ffcrcd、 vith thc literal intentions Canccllcd vhy on earth、vc should11avc thc PracticC° f It is a serious qucstion, I think, 、 ducing languagc、 vhosc undcrstanding rcquircs us both t。 grasp、 Ⅴhat xl=ould haⅤ c Pr。 bccn its litcral intcntions and to acct that thcse are not thc、

vriter’

s intcntions in

thC PKsCnt casc It is a question about whcthcr wc∞ n Jusr莎 ′the l,racticC J丘 cti。 n cxtcrnally It is Plain,I think,that、 vc c‘ n,th。 ugh thc story is comPhcatCd and has many ClCmcnts,but that is not an issue to pursuc no、 ∷What1s imPortant no、 v is hiCh is t° say it is that litcrary Practicc,likc linguistic PracticC,is convcntional- 、广 goⅤ crncd by a sPcci丘 c structu1・

c of mutual cxpcctations~but that thcsc litcra1・ y

conⅤ cntions _ unlikc linguistic convcntions - do not usuallⅤ

inv° ke

thc Griccan

mcchanlsm, Crb ds T。 usc a Pr。 Ⅴ imPly thtat,Starting with the hteral mcaning~sta1ting⒒ such is,as I sald,t° om thc ‘ Ⅴcry literal intenti° ns I haⅤ c‘ cancclled” _and l)uilding °n mutually kn0、 vn fact Akal△

(s°

uses。 f ProⅤ crbs arc,in this rcsPect, quitc atyPica1・

mC ofit,pcrhaps,cxtremcly contcxt-bound),you can、 vork out a truth that I do

intcnd to cxprcss, cⅤ cn though it is n° t thc truth associatcd、 Ⅴith thc litcral intcn~ tions This is a fcaturc that Pr。 Ⅴcrbs sharc、 vith

t、 vo

and thc fablc— —but not、 vith

the f° rlll。 fthe n° vel is constra1ncd

/hile 、 ln° st othcrs 、

by hist° rically dcvcl。 ping convcntions, thosc conⅤ

arc not, that is, suPPosCd t。。Pcrate in such a、

gcnrcs of⒔ ction~— thc Parable

entions do n° t carry a meSSage:

vaⅤ as to allo、 v

us to rcad。 ff thc

goⅤ crning intcntions of thc auth。 r,to ans、 vcr the qucsti。 n,“ vvhy did shc、 vritc this?’ And it is f° r this reason, I think,that attcntion to intcntions -in the n°

many otllcr gcnrcs~is likely to strikc us as a n1istakc

Ⅴcl and in

’

k

THICK TRANSLATION

397

Literary conⅤ entions, si1nPly Put, luakc l)osSible acts that can be dehned by reference not only t° thc n△ canings~both literal and n° n litcral,(lirect and indircct _ of uttcrances,but also to fcatu1・ cs that are br° adly fo1・ 111al__alliteration,rlleter, rhynη

c,Plot^structure VVhat thcy(lo】 )ot usually do— and herc,as I say,provcrbs

vc sh0u丨 dc。 nstruct a lueani11g_in thc scnsc arc an cxcti° n- is dctcrn1inc ho、、、

of a sct ofintcntions oPCrating through the Griccan mcchanism~f° r thc、v° rk Bccausc thc n° Ⅴcl and the s。 nnct arc not conⅤ cntionaⅡ y c。 nstitutcd by a Proccss 。f rneaningˉ gcncrati。 n,thcre is no sct of C0nⅤ cnti° ns to、vhich、 vc can1^cfcr,analogous to thc convcntions of literal mcaning, for deciding thcrc arc11o litcrary intcntions,convcntional and Griccan,t。

、 vhat the xxork mcans; corrCsPond to litcral

Ⅴhat a literal asscrtoric intcntions Becausc thcrc arc litcral intcntions、 vc can saⅤ 、

uttcrancc is陀 r~it is t。 communicatc sud1and such in忆 rmau。 n;it n1aⅤ bc P°

ssible, thcn,in literal translati°

n, to lii】 (l

a scntcncc in a targct lan思 uagc that l)as

跎ncc i1)thc ol,lcd-languagc, 、 Ⅴhy: thcre is no、 :a〉 oF CxPrcssing

n1ore or less thc samc htcrd i11teI1tio11s as tlac uttt・

If it is not possible, it luay bc clcar enough

that thought in thc target language, PcrhaPS becausc thc rcfcrcnt of s°

mc terrn is

Ⅴn thcrc, 。r bccausc a social PracticC in、 vhich thc uttcrancc is embcddcd unkn。、 ~ thc cursc, say

is abscnt succcss and faⅡ

vell~cn° ugh urc at this lcⅤ cl arc 、

dcHncd But Ior litcrary translation our objcct is not to produce a text that reProduccs the hteral intcntions of thc auth。 r~n。 t cvcn thc°

nc’

Pr° duce sOn1cd1ing that sharcs thc ccntrallitcrary pr°

Pcrtics of thc。 bjcct-tcxt;and,

s she is cancelling _but to

ious, thcsc arc vcr) much undcr~dctern△ ined by its literal1ncaning,e`cn \ litcrary translati° n, so it seelus to n)c, airns at in the cascs `vhcrc it has Onc 丿 cnVhosC rclation l)oth to thc litcrary and to the lh1gui:tic conⅤ Produc"1g a tcxt 、

as is ob、

tions ofthc culture° f the translati°

n is rc】

cvantly likc thc relations ofthe object~tcXt ssiblc,just

to its cukurc’ s conVentlons.A PrcoSC sCt of parallcls is hkely to be imP。

bccausc the chanccs that rnctrical and。 tl)cr忆 rmal katurcs ofa w° rk can l)c rePro

duced、・ hile PresCrving the idcntity。

f litCral and n。 n litcral, dircct and indircct,

mcaning arc`ˉ anishingly small.

And, in fact, 、 vc

n〕

ay choosc, righdy, t。

un〖

vC a1ˉ

translatc a tern1 in a C trying to prcser、

d1e litcral intcntlons,bccausc、 c1ˉ 1ICial But evcn if、 ve(lid not havc t。 that "d1hlto scen△ I11orc ``C Could,Pcr in,Possjbj丿

、 Ⅴay that is

c忆 rn1al、 aturcs

makc such ch。 i(Jes,even if

c,1ncet all thc constraints ofthc Griccan l11caning and all the

hterary con`Cntions,、 vc、vould not havc Pr° ducCd thc PerfCct translation∶ d°

bettcr,

、 vc Could airn to rroducC litcrary quahtics of thc。

、 Ⅳc could

bjcct-tcxt that arc

not a111attcr of thc convcntions so t11at thc rcasOn、 9hy、 ve cannot sPcak of thc perfect translati。 n hcre is not that thcrc is a dcsnitc sct of desidcrata and、 vc kn0、 /they cann。 t all bc met;it is rather that thcrc is no clc丘 nite sct of(lcsi(lcrata, 'k translation airns to produce a nc、 v

tcxt that1natters to onc con1munitⅤ

but it is lDaIt of。 that c° nⅤ cntion

thc、 vaⅤ another text rnattcrs to anothcr∶

ur undcrstanding of、 vhy tcxts lnatter that this is not a qucstion

settlcs;indccd,it is part of our1111derstanding of htcrary judgn1ent,

that thcrc can al、 vays bc nc、

、rcadings,

,)c、

reasons for caring about nc、 /ProPc1△ iCS

ˉthi1△ gs that111attcr about a tcxt,ncs1. 、

398

KⅥ /AME ANTHONY APPIAH

VIH It is a fcaturc,silnPly Put,。 fthC′ Ⅴittcn tcxt that、、 cd。 not ha、 c scttlcd and de⒔ nitc idcas about、 vhat I11atters about it VVhat is als。 clear is that in our culturc、、c have 1ˉ

哎 d唿 q"h Ⅰ lf轩

⒈ ∵ ⒒t圩扌 Ⅰ 扌∷ ￡ JJs1∶ 祜

1屋 lRⅠ

薮鞲l∫博分社W谳 ~Ill粥 =1,盯

PrCsCrvc ft)r us d1c lcaturcs that n1akc it、

、0竹 h

tCaChi【 1g

杜玉憔 Ⅲ l蚶菸茹燕l襟T菽J菇i碎茧掖丨拜∶ 丨Ii :∶

l∶ :∶ !丨

:甘

卩拒黥:咿 ⒈ 恝飞l挠 ∶ 沾yr巴上蔗万 ∵罩 ‘扌 :t【

conct° fa‘

lil|∶

l扌:∶

litcrary readi11g/’ likc thc conct or“ htcraturc” is

、、 hat

∶ ⒈ ′ ∶ tI∶ ∶ ItIf狱:{J∶ ∶ J1∶ ∶ ∶ ::∷∶ 执i∶∶ Fl;ij;sl∶ =只 f∶

{∶

aI1d Pohtics。 f litcrary Pedago8y∶ fr。 ∏1a scnsc about、 vhy、 Ⅴc sh° uld tcach tcxts,

:

k

THICK TRANsLATION

399

y乃 Ⅰ Ⅰ cJl vcc should teach,、 vhat this tcaching is vvorth to our studcnts,and s° 。n And ve n1ight 、:hat this n° tion suggcsts, of C0ursc, for thc conccrns of this talk is that、 seck to。 pcrate、Ⅴith a corrclativc notion of Pr° ductivc m。 des of translation, Such an aPpr° ach t° translation~hkc thc appr。 ach I haⅤ e clscwhcrc suggcstcd in the same Prag1uatist sPirit to what htcrary Scholars call“ rcading” — will dend on our having some sensc of、 =hat° ur PraCticC~of tcaching or translating— —is for I haⅤ c surrtiti。 usly introduced assumPtions ab° ut the kind of translation I am (hscussing by inventing、冫 hat n△ ay haⅤ e struck some° f you as the artincial catcgory 。f thc literary translati。 n, Actually this terrll n1ight be used equally x・ ycll t。 dcn。 tc t、Ⅴ o rathcr differcnt ki1△ ds。 f activity I Π1ight havc mcant by it-— though I did n° t ~a translation that ahns itsclf to bc a literary、 vork,a、Ⅴork、vorth tcaching,a、 Ⅳork

cry htdc on what k tclls us ab。 ut tllc whosc valuc灬 an。匀Cc・ t° f sttldy dcn(ls Ⅴ culturc什。m which the。 l,Jcct text it translates has comc such translad° ns _ Fitzgcrakl’ s R1Io∫ JF as °Pp。 SCd t。 that of Pctcr Avcry and John Hcath_stubbs

~can bc read as rc、 vardingly as any litcrary、 vorks,

But I had in lnind a differcnt notion of a litcrary translati。 n;t11at,namcly,of a translation that airlls tO l,e。 f usc in litcIˉ ary teaching;and hcrc it sccms to Iuc that

such“ acadclnic” translation,translation that sceks、 Ⅴith its annotations and its acco∏1-

panying glosscs to loCate tl△ e tcxt in a rich cultural and bnguistic contcxt, is ‘ cΠ 1incntly 、:orth doing I havc callcd this‘ thick translati° n” ; and I shall say in a

momclnt why Btlt bc允 re I do say″ 炒,I sl・ otlld hkc・ tO say⑽ mt・ th吒 ab。 llt the 广 ould ur思 ef° r thiS sOrt of actiⅤ ity,thC PurPoses by、 vhich its Pr。 duurPosCs thatI Ⅵ u说 ty may bC” dged

Remcmber、 Ⅴhat

I sai(l at the start∶ uttcrances arc thc Pr。

ducts° f

acti° ns,、 vhich

hkc all actions, are undcrtakcn f° r rcas。 ns undcrstanding the reas。 ns Charactcr~ isoc of other culturcs and(as an instance of this)othCr dn.es is PaⅡ

of what。 ur

this is csPecially imPortant bccause in thc casy atmosPherc° f rcla°rld of“ that’ s just your。 Pini。 n” that pcrⅤ adcs the high schools tiⅤ isl11~in thc、 Ⅴ tcaching is about∶

that Pr。

ducc° ur studcnts - onc thing that can gct entircly l。 st is the rich di汉cr~

cnccs of hun△ an lifc in culturc Onc thin8that nccds t° be challcngcd by our teaching

is the confusion of rclauⅤ isn1 and t° lcrancc sO scandal° usly pcrpctuatcd by Allan Bl° ° m,in

h厶

in a long succcssion of Amcrkan jcⅡ miad Ancl thcat, 。fc。 urse,is a task for n△ y SOrt° f tcaching~PhilosoPhical tcaching ˉand it is onc ,thc latt・虻

I aln haPPy to acct But thCrc is a r。

lc hcrc for litcrary tcaching also, in chal~

lcnging this casy tolcrancc,、 vhich amounts n。 t to a cclcbration ofhuman variousness but to a rcfusal t。 attcnd to ho、 v various othcr PCoPlC rCally are or`vcre /`thick

dcscriPtion of the c°ntcxt of litcrary Producti。 n, a translation that dra、 Ⅴs° n and crcates that s。 rt of undcrstanding, lllcCtS thc nccd to challenge oursclves and our

studcnts to go± tlrthcr,t。 un(lcrttRkc thc harder proJed of a genuindy in圮 rmc(l rCsPCct f° r。 thcrs t1ntil、

Ⅴc

facc uP to differencc,、 VC cannot scc、 vhat PricC tolCr~

ancc is dcmanding of us. In thc Amcrican acaclcmy,therehre,thc translation of A【 mc to nccd to bc(lircctcd at Ieast by such PurPoses as these∶

ican texts seems to thc urge t。 continuc

thc ru(liation of racism(and,clt thc samc dmc,through cxPlorati。 ns of炙 minist issucs and women’ sw1・ lting,of scxism);thC need t° extcnd thc Amcrican ima要 nation_an ima8ination that rcgulatcs much of thc、 v。 rld systcn1cconon1ically and v scoPe of thc Unitcd Statcs; thc desirc to devcloP P° htically— bcyond thc narr0、

400

KV/AME ANTHONY APPIAH

Ⅴie、 vs ofthc、 v。 rld clsc、 vhcrc that rcsPCct rnorc dcly thc auton。 my ofthc C)thcr, vic“ ・ s that are not gcncratcd solcly by thc lcgiti1nate but local Pohtical nccds 。f

AmcHca’ sn△ ultiplc

diasP。 ras

T° strcss such PurPoscs in translation is to argue that,△

an analysis of thc current cultural situation

oIu the standPoint of

an analysis that is frankly Pohtical~

ccrtain purPoses arc productiⅤ cly scrⅤ cd by the literary,thc tcxt~teachin8,institu_ tions。 fthe

acadcmy To offer。 ur

Pr° Ⅴ crbs t° Amcrican studcnts is to invite thcn1,

by sho、 ving hovv sayings can bc used、 vithin an。 ral culture to c。 ∏11nunicatc in、 Ⅴays that arc c° mPlex and subtle, to a dccr rcsPect f° r thc Pc° PlC of prc industrial socicties

Lct lnc cnd by saying that such a、 Ⅴay of undcrstanding rcadin思 and translating 、 vill rnakc thc qucsti° n ofho、厂、 Ve should(lo it highly contcxt-dcndcnt;so that, to teach thcsc ProⅤ erbs in tbc Enghsh-sPcaking acadcmy in Africa is a dircrcnt n1attcr yct again, If one bchcvcs that thc kinds 。f cultural infcriority con1plcxcs rrcscntcd in thc attitudes()f rnany African studcnts nccd to bc cⅩ orciscd, then ’ /estcrnized academy in Africa、 Ⅴill requirc thc tcaching of“ °raΓ htcraturc in thc、、 an apPr。 ach that d。 cs

t、Vo Crucial things∶

hrst,strcss that thc c。 ntlnuities bct、 Ⅴccn

PrC^colonial f° rms of cultural pr。 ducti。 n and c。 ntemPorary ones arc思

enuinc(and

thus ProⅤ ide a modahty thr。 ugh 、 vhich studcnts can valuc and inc。 rporatc thc

African Past);sccond,challenge directly thc assumP0on of thC cultural suPeriority /est, both by undcrn△ ining thc acsthcticizcd concti。 ns °f valuc that it 。f the 、、 PreSuPPoSCs,and l)y(listinguishing sharPly bct飞 Ⅳccn a d。 main of techn。 lo思 ical skill in、 vhich~once goals arc grantcd~comParis。 ns of cf丘 cicncy arc Possil)lc, and a

f valuc,in Ⅵˉ hich such c。 mparis° ns are by no mcans so unproblcmatic13 This丘 nal challcngc~t。 thc assumPtion° f Westcrn cultural suPcriority rcquircs d° main°

、 vays in、Ⅴ hich thc systcmatic charactcr of adly,acsthctic)judgments of valuc is the Product。 f ccrtain

us, in the last analysis, to exPosc thC

htcrary(and,In。

re l)r°

institutional Practiccs and not sOmcthing that cxists indePendCntly°

f those Practiccs and institutions But it rcquircs,at thc start,a thick and situated undcrstanding

。f° ral

litcraturcs of the s° rt for、 Ⅴ hich I havc,I arll sure,Provided only thc barest

hint of a sketch;thc sort° f understanding that、 Ⅴ dl lcaⅤ c you ablc both t° undcr~ stand and undcrstand thc truth in the、 v。 rds、 vith、 vhich I began∶ As忐

ma。 hia

Akanh。

n。 na Ntafc,♂

dc goro br。 ko〖

,

A matter which tr。 ublcs the Akan Pc° PlC,thC PC° Plc of G。 nja takc t° Play the br。 k芑 tc・

(lrum.

Notes Blc・

k&芑 is tllc(Akan)namc。

f° nc

oftllc m0n Dagomba drums,which acˉ

com-

PanlCS danc1ng The rnOst obvious thought suggcstcd by this Pr。 vCrb is thatif one has t°

cho° se

among eⅤ ils onc should cho。 sc thc lcast。 fthcm (ThC ProⅤ crb is typical of a 、 vh° le class ° f ProⅤ erbs that dePend ° n Playing 、 vith the sirnilar~s° unding namcs of dis“ milar° 叻ctts)

TH1CK TRANSLATION

、 vf° r all ki11ds。 f ambiguity, vhcthcr° rn。 t° ur

3

Or onc ofthc th。 ughts Thc c°

4

Putting it this、 vay av° ids taking sides。 n qucstions about、

nⅤ cntions all。

401

scmantics should be° nc that assigns contcnt in a broadlⅤ dircct rcahst rnanncr I think that f° r manⅤ tcrms dircct reahsΠ 1ab° ut c° ntcnts is corrcct∶ but that is a seParate iSSuc hcrc And,sincc istcn1ic authority in rcsPcct of onc’

so、 vn bchcfsis normal,、 vhⅡ c

thc auth。 ritⅤ to co∏ 11nand othcrs assuIη cs ccrtain relati° ns ofP。、 vcr,thC rangc

of intcntions onc can intelligibly bc hcl(l to haⅤ e dePcnds, in the casc of C0∏ 11nandS, in Part °n 、 vhat spcakcr and hcarer kno、 v about thcir P。 wcr~ relati。 ns

Ofc° ursc the convcntions rnaⅤ makc the intentions dcnd。 n fCaturcs° f

contcxt~what is PCrcePtual|SdiCnt,w】〕 at has” st

thc

bccn sai(l,wht△ t timc it

is,and a、 Ⅴh° lc host of rn° re such fcaturcs

、 vay

PhⅡ °soPhcrS 、 vill Pr° bably `Ⅴ ant at this Point to suggcst that thc right t°

ProccCd herc is to insist on diffcrcnccs I haⅤ

c bccn blurring: l)ct、vccn

uttcrancc-mcaning and spcakcr~mcanin8; or bct、 vccn V￠ hat is dircctly comn1unicatcd and 、fhat indircctly; 。r bCt、 CCn proPcrtics of thc t。 ken_ scntcncc amd ofthc tyPC F。 r thcm,lct rnc say that in thc。 rdinary cascs thcsc notions conncct vvith thosc I havc bccn using in thc folloⅤ Ⅱ ing 、 vay: thc n△

eaning of the tokcn~uttcrancc is thc sPeakcr△ neaning conⅤ entionally associ

ated vvith a standard unadorncd uttcrancc of thc tokcn、 vhcn thc c。 ntcxtual features conⅤ cntionaⅡ v dctermined as rcleⅤ ant arc thosc of the actual c。 ntext of utterance;thc mcaning ofthe typc-uttcrancc is thc function fr° t。

m contcxts

t° kcn-uttcrancc mcanings; thc sPcaker_nlcaning conⅤ cntionally ass° ciatcd

、 vith an utterance is丘 xcd bⅤ thc literal intentions associatcd、 vith it,thc intcn~ tions an uttcrcr of thc tokcn unad° rncd and in standard circumstances is convcntionally recognizcd as having vhcrc s。 mcOnc has This Pr。 verb 、 vould naturally bc uscd in a c° ntext 、 exPresscd Ⅴ ain rcgrcts The th° ught is something like this∶ that if y。 u (thC v° uld Pr。 sPCr, you n that onc PCrsOn (thc Pahn~nuts) 、 drongo) 11ad kn。 Ⅴ 氵 would not ha、・ e relicd on a Pcrson who was lcss successfttl(thC criPplcd ra帕 a Palm・ ) R。 l)c⒒

r口 rivc夕 J Fo8Clin,Fl召口

sPcσ kinf(New

Haven∶ Yalc uniⅤ ersity

Press,

1988) 10

J。 hn

Guill。 ry,“ Canonical and N° n~Canonical:A Critiquc of thc Currcnt

Dcbatc,”

“‘

￡LFf54(1987)

Thc Tcaching of Litcraturc’ is for mc alm° st tautol。 gica1.Litcrature is what ‘ ’ ‘ is taught, that is all” Rcnccti。 ns sur un manucl’ in Tzvctan Todorov and

scrgc Doubr° vsky,￡ nsc1Jncmcnr d召 12

“

(1988)∶ 13

Fd FirFJrdFLJr召

Otlt of Amca:T。 Pologics of Nath“

m,”

Thε

(Paris∶ Pl。 n,

1971), 170,

ydFc/o″ n口 F of Ch冖。sm2,1

153-78

Thcsc arc, in csscncc, thc Prcscriptions of“ ToP。 logics of Nativism” (scc ab° vc)

Chapter 28

κelth Harˇ ey

TRANSLATING CAMP TALK∶ GAY IDENTITIES AND CULTURAL TRANSFER

St茫

P。

・ r∴ i:∶∶ 三 c∶ ∴ ll刂 1:y鞋呈 l丨耳 ;s拍 tn∶ i狂 i罨 1∶ ∶ C揲 1940s to thc Prescnt whatis morc,can1p talk is ass° ciatcd、 vith a xx∶ h° lc rangc。 f h° moscxual idcntitics in Frcnch and `合EnghSh Hcti° n, froln thc marginahzcd trans-

vcstitc(GcnCt1948),thr。 uε h t。 middlc class“ ty” t〉 PcS(vidal1948/65,、 Vilson 1952,Bory1969),thc Postˇ stoncwall hedonisuc“ 几ggot” (Na、 arre1976,Kramc1・ ‘ uld bc assun1cd a1・

1978)and t11c Pohticizcd AII)s-a、 vare‘ qucer” (KuShncr1992),It c°

from this that、 vhcn translating such Hcti° n translat° rs need mcrcly to bc a、 vare。 f

、eⅤ er, 、 vhilc thc f。 rn1al asPccts of camp n1i:ht aPPCar constant, thc functions that

thc c。 mparablc rcs。 urces of camp in sourcc and target languagc culturcs H°

`Ⅰ

ca11)P Pcrfo"us in its di、 crsc contcXts are hr iom uni⒒

)rn△ I xxˉ ill arguc late1ˉ t11at

onc。 f thc chicf、 ariablcs(lctcrn1ining thesc functi° nal(hffcrcnccs is thc conction

°fh。 n△ 。scxuahty as a dc⒔ nhlg Pr° Perty ofidcntity For thC m° ant to notc that thc functi°

°f its

cΓ dFudr】

n△ cnt

it is i1nPort_

ns of camP arc intiInatcly l)ound uP xxit11thc qucstion

n, °

1 FoHmal and functional di1ncnsions of camp h)ordcr to oPcn uP thC factor。

f cⅤ

aluation to scrutiny,thc functions of camP talk

can uschlly l)cl,rokcn d° wn into two distinct(micr。

thc immediatc hcu。 nal

c。 ntcxt

of camP talk

and n1acr° )dimcllsi° ns First,

、 vⅡ l ° ftcn suggest Ⅵhcthcr it is to

be giⅤ cn a P。 Sitivc Or ncgative eⅤ aluative load For cxamPIe, a cha1・

1998

actcr such as

TRANsLATING CAMP TALK Cla】

ˉ cncc in Jcan-L° uis B。 ry’ s11oVCl￡ d Pcdu dε s

rcadcr as a cy】 1ical,sclf~abs。

Zδ br6(1969)is

403

PrcscntCd to thc

is camP talk(hc rbcd,cn)otionaⅡ y stuntcd indiⅤ i(lual ⒈】

is thc only hon)oscxual charactcr in tlnc book to cmPloy can11))iS rcad in thc novcl

η °f hiS liltlitcd a汉tctiⅤ c Potcntial In cont1ˉ ast, Bchzc in Tony as a key sympt。】 Kushner’ s Play△ 冖 Je厶 in Ⅱ ’ ic',Pd/r Onc; lriFfcnnium HPProdc为 c’ (1992)is PrCsentcd f’

as thc lη ain sourcc of cm°

cI・

ti°

nal and Practical suPP。 rt

dying ofan AIDs~rclatcd illncss

f° r Pri°

⒈Iis camP is Positivcly vicⅥ

r, a young gay man

cd in thc play as a sOurcc

of strcngth and luuch11ccded hum。 ur In both of thcsc cascs, thc c、 locatcd at a I11icro-∮ Llnctional⒔

aluati。 n is

ctional lcvcl Thc macro-Functional (limension taPs

into thc、 vidcr(sub)cultural valucs that11。 nn° scxual/8ay idcntity has cstablished for

:hich thc Hctional text oPeratcs and develoPs its lncanings Bory’ itsclf and、 vithin、Λ n° vcl、 v° rks hard t。 pr。 mote

the noti。 n of homoscxual° rdinariness

s

⒈Iis charac~

tcrs lovc,suffCr and live their liⅤ es just as hetcr。 scxual charactcrs do in c° untlcss othcr l。 vc st。 rics

Thcy just haPPcn to lovc PcoPlC。 fthc san1c scx In this c。 ntcxt, f(hffcrcncc and lnarginahty、 :hich Clarence’ s can1P talk is a n△ acro-cultural tracc 。・ it is dccn1ed desi】 ablc to oⅤ erCon1e In contrast,I<ushncr’ s rrcsentations of caluP

at thc n1icro lc、 cl arc instrumcntal in thc clab°

ration of subcultural diffcrcncc

as a dcsirablc goal Hnfc`s in△ mcrjcd PrCsCnts camP as a Sign of gay rcsistancc and

sohdarity in thc facc of a 、 Ⅴh。 lc array °f thrcats t。 thc gay indiⅤ idual and his community,flom AIDS t。 thc discriminadons and hyPocllscs of thC d° minant culturc In Kushncr’ s tcxt,camP is invCstcd、 Vith a pohtical chargc Prcdicated uP° n an irrcduciblc and subvcrsivc gay differencc Camp hcrc, thcn, reCeivcs a positiⅤ cⅤ aluativc

c

load in l)od1functi° nal dhuensions

It is、、 ith this rcc° gnition° f tllc d° uble-layercd naturc oft11c cvaluati° n ofcan1P that thc、 `。 rk° f a translator reachcs a kcy Point of dif丘 culty For,`vhilc thc n1icro-

functi。 nal dirnension of cⅤ aluation in a gi、 cn Source tcxt rnight arguably bc al,Parent

to a translat° r, as to any attcntiⅤ C rcadcr, rccoEniti。

n 。f thc macro-functional

di1nension of ca1△ 1I)Ⅵ ill(lcnd on a clustcr of factors that go bcyond closc attcntion t°

thc s° urcc text and involvc cultural and c、

cn aut。 biograPhical issues RD1ˉ thc trans~

lator, Thcsc issucs includc: (a) thc cxistcncc, naturc and visibⅡ ity ° f idcnF1Fics a11d communirjcs prcdicatcd upon sa〗 ηc scx ol)jcct claoicc in thc target culturc;(b) thc existcnce or abscncc of an cstabhsl)cd Jq丿 stclted J‘

l Cs(if rCtricvablc)i1△ ,'ol,/ccF氵

he1ˉ

丿】rdrurc r召

in tbc targct culturc; (c)thc

cnt in thc undcrtakng ofthc translation and

publicad。 n of thc translation(儿 r cxamPlc,whcthcr the tcxt is t。 bc Palˉ t ofa gay hst。 fn° vcls); (d) thC scxud/idenFi⒐ of thC translator and his。 r hcr rclati。 nt° a

ject In 、・ hat f° llo、厂 s k〉 cus on thc qucstions ot homOscxual/gay idcntitics,c° ∏ 1Inun-

gay subcultural grouP, its identitics, codcs and P° I、 vish abovc all t°

htical Pr。

itics and、 vriting in sourcc and targct culturcs and to attclllI,tt01i11k thc existcncc

。f such Prcssurcs、 ˉ ith

thc translatcd tcxtual pr。 duct

I、 nl bcgin l,y analysing an exan△

P】

C。 fⅤ crbal camP in a c° nte1nporary Enghsh-

languagc text, rclating this to a gcncral dcscriPtion

。f vcrbal camI) I 、 vill

then

oudinc sOme m句 or昶 c° unts of camp as a ctlltural Phcn。 mcn° n by stmight and gay SPCciHc examPlcs °f can△ 1, and itS

idcntihcd coniln△ cntators l)cl。 rc (liscussin8 t、 vO

translation,° ne r⒈ on△ EnghSh to Frcnch and thc° thcr fr° m Frcnch t。

Enghsh

404

KEITH HARVEY

2 ⅤerbaI camP A couPlC。 f

relatcd P。 ints nccd to bc madc bricfly bcf° rC l° oking at the cxan1PlC nccrns thc sPcci⒔ city to thc rcrtoirc 。f carllP talk °f thc featurcs I i(lcntiI,Thc scc。 nd rdatcs to thc naturc of tllc c、・ iclcncc I am c。 nsidcring Rusty

Thc ⒔rst Barrctt’

° rdcr

c。

s (1995, 1997)Cnquirics into gay men’ s languagc Practicc arc Ⅴ aluablc in ⒈ hs use of Pratt’ s(1987)linguistics of

t° think through thcsc issues

is particularly uselul In a c° ntact

rnodel° flanguagc usc,spcakcrs“ constitutc each othcr rclati。 nally (Pratt198⒎ 60) ThiS m。 (lcl c° ntrasts with the m。 re hmiliar

and in diffcrcncc”

“

hnguistics of con1munity” Prcscnt in dialcct。 l。 gy, according to、 vhich essentially holnogenc。 us languagc practices rcsult fron△ a conscnsual Proccss° fs° ciahzati。 n of thc individual by a c° ∏11nunity As Barrctt notcs、 vr)ly,“ Gcncrally,PeoPlc d。 not ’ raisc thcir children to talk likc h° m。 scxuals’ (1997∶ 191) A hnguiStics° fc° ntact

、:ould rcc° gnizc thc fact that gay mcn and lcsbians、 ˉ ork、 ithin and aPPr。 Priatc aili11g straight (and h。 moPh。 bic) discourses sPeci丘 cally, it xs・ ould l)c ablc t° PreⅤ for gay spcakcrs’

‘

frcqucnt usC oflangua8e Practiccs associated、 vith a、 vhole

rangc of co∏ ununitics‘ dc⒔ ncd in tcrms。 f Cthnicity, class, a:c, 。r rc8ional back~ vhitc n△ iddlc~class gay ground” (ibid) F。 r cxa1η plc, Barrctt suggcsts that、 vhⅡ c 、

ican~Amc11can Ⅴcrnacular sPccch(忆 r mcn may draw upon lcxlsi(lcnu⒔ ccl with A1Ι ・ eXt△ mPlc J″ 夕 1cnd al1dl/riss TJ,dn卩 ,° Rcn cmPbytStl as`∝ 敲小 es)⒛ d LlP。 n tl△ c“ tuJ :ith black sPecch cⅤ cnts (SCC als° Murray 1979, LcaP 1996∶ insults associatcd 、 5-10),A⒒ ican Amcllcan gay mcn might makc usc° f thosc katurcs of whitc woman’ s En81iSh that Lakof(1975)suggCstcd wcrc,Pical,忆 r examPle the c汀 ehl (liscrin1ination of col。

ur tcrms and thc usc。 f tag questions This Points to

verR】 l citadonal nuidity in languagc stylcs that is c。 nsonant、 vith Pratt’ s aP° 、

“

m。 dcl As Pratt hcrsclf notes∶

A hnguistics of c。 ntact、vill be deePly intCrcstcd in

Pr。 ccssCs of aPpropriation,penetrati。 n or co_oPtation of onc grouP’ s languagc by an。 thcr”

(1987:61)

This n°

ti。

n of“ ’

’

in languagc practicc is als。

uscful in addrcssing thc

qucstion of thc status of thc cvidcncc in my descriPti。 n° fcamP talk I an1chicfly intcrcstcd in htcrary rrcscntations, but occasionally rcfcrcncc is also made t°

、 vork(lonc in thc s° ciohnguistics of actual lanε uagC practice There scc∏ 1s,ho、 Ⅴcver, bc litdc” sti⒔ cati。 n hr mixhg thc two tyPCS oflanguage Thc c访 dencc【 °m

t。

cach6cld° f study aPPearS, strictly sPcaking,to bc inadn1issil)lc in thc Other This conclusion itsclfturns。 ut to rcst up。 n an assumPtion that can bc challcngcd,namcly that、 vhcrcas scti° nal rePresentations of talk arc c° ns∠ rucrc(f dchbcratcly by an author f°

r the PurPosCs of Charactcr develoPment and narrativc advanccmcnt,rcal languagc

use is a rg卩 cc冖

on。 f tl△ es。 0。 linguistic grouP(S)tt,which spcal【 trs bcl。 ng Barrett’

of thc inhcrently citatjonal naturc° distincti。 n bct、 vcen

s

f8ay camp talk underlnincs thc clcar

⒔ctional rePresentations of talk and real talk, B。

th, in this

, dra、 Ⅴ on a stock of languagc fcaturcs that arc inⅤ csted vvith cultural (and stcxκ o△ pkal)valtlcs in order to achicⅤ tity∶

“

f a sPeciHc c° c thc efˉrt’ “。

mmundi(len-

vish to usc languagc in a、 vay that、 vill indcx a gay idendty For sPcakcrs vvh° 、 the f° r∏ 1oflanguaε c oRCn reΠ ects a stcrcOtyPe of gay1ncn’ s sPccch” (:arrett

1997∶

192) What c° unts,thcn,is n。 t thc emPirically Ⅴcri⒔ ablc truth°

f the rclati。

bet、vccn a langua:c fcaturc and a sPCaker’ s idcntity,but thc fact that thcsc langua8c

n

TRANsLATING CAMP TALK fcaturcs haⅤ

405

c comc tO stand for ccrtain gcndered and subcultural di&它 rcnccs,

CamP talk cnhsts thesc stcre。 tyPical differenccs in ordcr t。

indcx a distinct scxual

idcntitⅤ

2.F On‘ he su吵 cc orcσ mP Tony Kud△ ncr’ s△ nJc`s

召 ricd,P￠ rr Onc∶ Ⅱ ⒈ m△ PPr。 dch召 s(1992;Act Tw° `fc,nni1Ι Ⅴerbal cxchangc bctwccn two gay male charattcrs,Bclize and Pri。 r Behzc is black and Pri° r、 vhitc. ThcⅤ 、 Ⅴerc° ncc loⅤ ers Behzc uscd to in△

il’

r氵

,

sccnc Fi、 :c:44)k破 ures a

bc a drag quccn Hc is visiting Prior in hospital,、 vhcrc the lattcr is rccciving care for an AIDs~rclatcd illncss, Prior is rcfcrring to thc fact that thc drug he is being giⅤ cn

‘

causcs hin△ to hcar‘ a Ⅴoicc” Behzc has thrcatcncd to tcll thc d°

ct° r

unless

Prior(l。 cs so hhnsclf∶

You kn° w what haPPens7whCn I hcar it,I gct hard

Prior:

C)h mⅤ

B召

P”ì'c∶ r∶ 。 C。 mIη c slo、 v

Bc乃

ga (Hc uscs hjs drm Fo dcn,ons″ d‘ c)And y(Ⅺ

know Iam

to risc ry,

'c;Myjaw achcs at thc mcm。 And Ⅵould you dcny mc this littlc s。 lacc~bctray my concuPis~

P为 ° r∶

ccncc to Florcnce Nightingalc’ s stormtroopcrsP Beì'c∶

Pcrish thc th° ught,1na b。

b。

° Thcy’ d changc thc drug ju哎 to叩 oll thc hn BcFiz召 :You and your b°ncr can dcnd° n mc P”

r∶

P” or:Jc t’ a(l。

rc,mal)clle N志 gre

BcFizc∶ All this girl~talk shit is Pohtically inc°

rrcct,you bo、 v Wesh。 uld

havc dr。 PPcd it l)ack、 vhcn、 :c gaⅤ c uP drag P冖。 r:I’ m sick,I gct to l)c politically inc°

rrcctifit makes me kcl bcttcr,

XVe can begin by n° ting that in this a思 C thCrc are certain ProP° sitional fcatures that arc tyPical。 f gay camP talk・

¨ Γ hc PrcOccuPati° n、Ⅴ ith scxual activity(thC Crcc~

tion,fcllatio)is oRCn assOciatcd,as hcrc,、

vith rekrcnces t° extinct ion and a

tragi_con1ic aⅥ 广 arcncss ol thc hcmcral naturc° f scxual dcsirc, Furthcrlu° rc, in

camP thc talk。 f scx contrasts、 vith an attentiveness to convcntional ln。

ral codcs。 f

bchaⅤ i° ur,、・ ith sPcakCrs oftcn aⅡ uding to thc Principlcs of deccncy and rcctitude t0、 vhich thcy fcign to adhcrc(for cxan.PlC Prior’ s suggcstion that Behzc c。 uld n。

‘

P° SSibly‘ bctray”

interest in thc mcchanics of sex、 vith a trumPetCd adhcrcncc to traditi。 c。 dcs

t

hilu) Thc inc。 ngruity inhcrCnt in thc juxtaPoSition of a dctailcd

nal moral

is One of thc chicf s。 urcCs ofirony in camP.

Turning to tllc忆 rmal lcⅤ cl,this agc is rich with camP traits.Thc m° st °bvious is thc inversi。 n of gcndcr~sPcci丘 c tCrms, thc‘ ‘ girl-talk” that Behze refers t° , Thc Practice of gh1-talk ovcrlaPs 、 Ⅴith thC camP stratcgy of rcnaming that includcs thc ad° Pti。 n° f malc nalncs lnarkcd as“ quccr” ~Quentln C11sP’ s naluc xxas Dcn1s bcf° rc he“ dyc(l” jt(CriSP1968:15)— and thc disturbance ofthe arl)itrary PracdcC of attHbtlting ProPσ

304)clnd△为ss

C9纱

names_br cxamPlc,RCchy’ sI帖 oh刀 d(RCChy196⒊

nlsr cbld:336)Luc灬 (1” ⒋ 132)gi【 SC“ dcncc

quccr rcnan1ing11as a hist。 ry that datcs back at lcast t°

of h。 w stlth

thc ei思 htCenth

ccntury in

406

KEITH HAR∨

EY

Britain,、 :h"c Pastrc(1997: 372)sh° ws h。、 v siluilar PracticCS arc at、 Ⅴ ork in con_

tcmP° rary quecr In thc Kushncr cxtract, thc、 malc con11)inc、 :ith thc usc of Frcnch and are rcalizcd by kmininc a内 ccti`=cs in Ⅴocati、 c cxP1・ cssi0ns (n】

‘ lb誉 b芒 ,m口

bc`/t・

N心 grc) ThC effect of such rcnaming is to signal thc sPeakcr’

s

critical clistancc fron△ the Pr° ccSSCs that Producc and naturahzc catcgories of idcn~

tity Bccausc this oPcns uP disjuncturcs l)et、 vcen aPPCarancc and rcahty,thc cffcct

to undcrn1inc thc schemata Ⅵ:ith、 Ⅳhich thc addressec is oPeratinε

is als°

ThuS,Cvcn

a gay rnan has hs Perction。 fthc、 Ⅴorl(l disturbed by a lnan、 vho intr。 duces hilnsclf

as” c炒 (NaⅤ 犴k1976),or〃 iss

Ro/Jd″

Frc(Kmmσ 1978)

H。、 vcvcr, fcΠ 】 ininity is not only signallcd in thc tcxt by such。 bvious lcxical de、 :iccs

as namcs Thc cxdamative sentcncc Oh n丿

is multlPly dCtCrmincd as camP ∫ style and constitutcs an cxamPle Of′ Ⅴhat I“ oukl call thc cmPhatics。 fcamP,all° f 、 vhich c。 ntributcs to camP’ s construCtion of thc thcatricahzcd、 :oman Alongsidc cxclamations,thesc cn△ PhaticS includc a tastc for hyPcrbOlc as、 Ⅴell as thc usc of thc “ uninⅤ olvcd” ° r“ out。 fP。 wcr” adjcctiⅤ cs(mdrve``。 us,口 d。 rdb`c)that Lakof(1975∶ 11-14) dalmCd werc tyPical 。f womcn’ s languagc Thc imittlt卜 c ntlturc of CmPhatics is madc clcar by Crisp vchcn dcscril)ing a pv】 rs Longhurst he knc`、 'as a

bccamc an adt Ⅵ=ay at this n1odc。 f talk and, 、 vid1thc ing of thc ycars, camc to sPCak in this child:“ This、 voman clid n° t lly to cxtrcmes∶

shc liⅤ

cd thcrc I als。

unconsciously” (CrisP1968: 24) In thiS c° nncction King(1994),citing thc Polcn1~ icd b。。 k「/lc Phocnix?fs°

d°

m(1813),nOtes h。

w气 dking

likc a womclll” has bccn

a fcaturc of hOn10sexual can△ P at lcast sincc London’ s cightccnth-ccntury MoⅡ y H。 tlscs(where h。 mOsexud mcn mct in secκ t to h灬 c scx) 0n∝ ar。 Ⅴcd h a

M° lly H° usc,men a∏ 、cstc〈 l“ t° sPeak,wdk,talk,tattlc,curtsy,cry,sc。 all manner of cHtminacy”

(qu° tc(lin

King199⒋ 42) FurthCrmorc,“

ld,&mimick cⅤ cry。

nc was

to talk。 f thcir Husbands&Children,one estolling丨 sicl thc Virtucs of hcr Husband, an。 thcr

thc gcnius&、 Ⅴ it of thcir ChⅡ drcn: 、 Ⅴhilst a Third、

v° uld

exPress hllllsclf

sorrowfully undcr thc character。 faˇ Vid° v/’ (ibid) Thc construction of a“ 、 voman” is clearly achicvcd througl) the Par。 featurcs,such as th。 sc

I tcrll△

“

dic accumulati° n 。f stcreotyPical lan思 uagc

cmPhaticS’

’

Howevcr,thc brm ofthc cxdamati。 n“ Oh mⅤ ”in thc Kushncr cxtraCt docs

morc tlaan just suggcst a gcncralized kmininity For a gay rcadcr,ke、

okes a sPeci⒔ c

culturally situatcd and thcatricahzed tyPc。 f fcmininity,namcly thc“ southcrn Bc1lc” mtaclc hm° us by V卜 kn L0gh h GoI,c"△ J,rhe肋 nd~scc also John RCchy’ s quccns ∝Southcm acccnt⒌ As such, σ№Jhr(1963∶ 48,287,328),wh。 oftcll a仔辶

ho〃

the Phrase b“ lds into thc tcxt thC typc ofintc⒒ cxtual rc托 rcncc t。

a mt△ lor

cxamPlc

f gay talk Lcap(1996: 15),R)r examPlC,traccs ‘ a rcfcrcncc to丘 lrn star Mac Wcst’ s famous linc‘ Why(lon’ t ya comc up and scc of P° Pular culturc that is tyPical°

mc some ti1nc” in an °verhcard discussi° m bctvcccn a maitre d’ and a Potcntial customer,b° th of wh° m LcaP assumes to bc gay,In an。 ther rc、 rcnce to a hmous nlm hcr。 inc,Matlp1n’ s(1980)n。 Ⅴ el lc,Ⅴ

rdF召 s。 frJ,召

0⒐ includes this cxchange l,ctwcCn

crs Michacl arld Jon(Mau9n1980:119): Michacl shruggcd.“ I want to deceivc him just long cnough to makc him vvant mc” “

What’ s that壬 r° rn?’

“

’

Blanchc Dub。 is.In sFrccFc￠ r”

TRANSLATING CAMP TALK

、

Such intertextuahties haⅤ c at lcast t、

407

・ °effCCts First,thcy crcate ironic distancc n” (F° wler

around all semiotic pracucc,c。 nstituung devices。 f“ (lchmiliarizau。

1986∶ 40-52) and, in Particular, signal a susPicion of all cncodings of sinccrity second, tllcy rcinFc)rcc gay sohdarity bCt、 vCen intcrlocut。 rs To undcrstand the

slang or catch on t° (Nc,tc h°

the allusi° n is also to fccl that onc bcl。

wJ。 nh1mc(liatt・

ly i(lclltiHcs Mich涎

l’

ngs to thc community

s scntcncc ab a qut,tc in thc cxtract

ab° Ⅴ c,) Pri。 r’ s llllcs“

Commc gF tlt1d勹 et’ ad° re mal)cllc N亡

grc”

drt△

w on anotlacr of

Ⅴcrbal camP’ sm。 st consistent(leⅤ ices in Enghsh, thc usc°f French (△ carly, this accon△ 1,hshCS a hum。 r° us nod tO s。 Phisticati。 n and c° sm° pohtanism, Frcnch vorld、 ith the quahties vvn Hrst and f。 re_ of stylc and urbanity What is morc, Francc is PoPularly kn° m。哎忆r its consumm敲 c sklk h thcx盯 “ 。f su吵 cc re血 cmmt(h曲 it,ln,Pcr九 mC)・ languagc and culture l)cing saturatcd for the Anglo-saxOn、

Thc usc of Frcnch,thcn,docs n。 t just clcc。 ratc thC tCxt linguistically, RathCr,】 t ・ alludes t。 a con△ Plex 。 f cultural 、 alucs and stcre。 tyPes that carry dccoratiⅤ cncss as an attributc It is intcrcsting to notc that Frcnch camP, in a ParallCl gcsturc, rcsorts to thc usC of Enghsh`、 0rds and PhrasCs∶

… ”(Camus198⒏

“ 盯eFJ,

rflclnk丿

° uv召 rv n,t`cJl, k・ ind s'

64,itdics in original);“ C’ est exciting!” (NaⅤ arrc1976:177)

严、、 hⅡ c thc Enghsh usc of Frcnch signallcd a kind° f tongue in-chcck soPhistication, thc Frcnch usc。 f Enghsh hcre P。 ints(PerhaPs`vith equal ironic distancc)to the sPrCad。 f Enghsh languagc PoPular culturc acrOss thc vvorld in the latc tⅥ `cnticth ‘ ’ jr,cf sˉ ccntury Indeed,a Phrasc likC‘

lli纟

FF, rJldnk丿 @u vclJ much,如

jr’

suggcsts thc intcr~

tcxtual rcfcrcncc to Hollyxsˉ °°d her° ines alrcady n。 tCd In。 thcr、 Ⅴords

Enghsh in

Frcnch can△ P also functions Pri11ciPally as a cultural, rather than mcrcly linguistic s1gn,

Languagc gamcs such as thcsc may l)e charactcristic of a typc of critical semial° ng otic avcarcncss that is csPecially hcightcned in gay pcoplc, rcsulting fron△ lll、 inε also“ o1um“ 灬trcam cxclu“ on11・ s唿 gnal a mOK Practkcs :tIt thcy m叮 dcHant attitude to cultural norms, as sullivan has suggcstcd vvhcn noting that gay :“ Pe。 Plc Sh° Ⅵ in thcir ir。

thcm厶

ul伍 mately

vith nic gamcs 、

immunc to止 s

thc (l。 n1inant culturc that s°

comtlc,l” (StllliⅤ an199⒍

mcthing in

71-72) ComParablC in

its cffcct is thc f° rn△ al asPcct of rcgistcr lllixing that Ⅴ crbal gay camp typically

dchghts in CamP likCs t° exposc thc1ncchanisms at、 vork in thc ch。 ices speakers

makc wid1rc思

ard t。 aPPr。 PⅡ atcncss

Camp spcakcrs,for cxamPlc,will tyPically ntcxt,or

use leⅤ els° f formahty/informahty that arc incongruous in a Particular c。

juxtaP。 sc dlffCrcnt lcⅤ cls。 f忆 rmality h a way that crecltcs ling“ stic incongrtll”

In Kramer’ s fdJ卩 ors,a chalac∞ r(rc lllamC(l而 °rhd juxtaP° Ses mockliter盯 y aⅨ l l°

Ⅵ广rcgisters to(Icscribc a scxual cncountcr、

vith anothcr llaan in a toilct:“

Hcimn1c-

datcly inq“ rcs,‘ how mucl△ I,n。 r cxPcc历 IlJ such b° unF夕 f冖山n孑 s,bccause I wcluld ’(Kmmσ 197⒏ 17⒐ my italics) llaⅤ c donc为 jm`乃 i~frcc・ … Iam sa” ng‘ My Pleasur卩 ?’

And Pri。 r’ s rhct° llcal

fl。 urish C‘ And

w。 uld you(lcny n△ c

this litde s° lacc~bctray

’

my c。 ncupisccncc to Florcnce Nighdngale’ s stormtrooPersP’ ) contrasts with his

ncxt uttcrancc, an informal and unadorncd cxPrCssion of Potential disPlcasurc ’ (“ ThCy’ d changc thc drug just to sPoil the fun’ ),IndcCd,the、 Ⅴh° lc exchangc,bascd around scXual innucnd。 and、vordplay,could bC construcd as highly inaPPr° Priatc givcn Pri° r’ s raPidly dcchning hcalth Ho、 vcvcr, as thc last hncs sug思 cSt, this inapproPriateness als。

acc。 mPhshCS an act of critical rcsistancc.

408

KEITH HARVEY

2.2'mbiv曰

rcnr s。 Fidα r丿 {/σ nd

It is i1nPortant to add t。

PoFirencss rhc°

-/

。ur dcscriPtion。 f this agc a considcration of a n1icro-

hncu。 nd katurc thclt I would tcrm dmbivdfcnFs°

FΓ

This is a crucial intcractive

asPcct of gay camP that can bc

aPProach Broadly,ambiⅤ

alcnt

ìdd丙。bscurcd by an cxclusiⅤ cly formal and taxon。 ∏1ic s。 hdarity rev° lⅤ cs around thc mcchanisms of attack

and ,eithcr of、・ hich can bc coⅤ crt or on-rccord Thus,t、 vo Characters n1ight

⒒亠gn hr cach。 ther l)y surfacc Pr。 Positi。 nal and brmal mcans whilc in hct attacking thc other’ s scxual Pr0、 :CSs 。r Probity thr。 ugh innucndo and d。 ublc~ cntcndre, as in thc conⅤ crsadon bet、 /ccn t11c transⅤ estites Divine and Mirn。 sa in N。 r″ -Ddmc

des f`c1I^(Gcnet1948: 177-8) Crisp(lcscribes thc stylizcd cattincss

that、Ⅴas characteristic of gay get-togcd1c rs、 vhen11c、 Ⅴ as youngcr as“ aR,rmal

。Finnucnd。 cs

ab° ut。 thcr

gan1e

pcoPlc bcing oklcr than thcy sai(l,about thcir tceth bcing

falsc and thcir hair bcing a、 vig Such convcrsation、 vas thought to be smalt and very

kminhc” (Crisp196⒏

29)・ In thc Kushnc1ˉ P“ Sagc,tllcrc arc clcmcnts of covcⅡ atttlck(c.g Bellzc’ s mock coml,lalnt at Prior’ s sl° wncss at gctting an erettion)

alongsi(lc nulllcrous On_record assuranccs of and trust、 Ⅳorthiness (cg ‘ ‘ ’ Bchzc’ s Pcrish thc thought’ ) In c。 ntrast, gay charactcrs 1η ight dloy thc put~ d°

wn as an on-rccord attack White(1988∶ 42)giⅤ es

Wc、 vere i。

the folloⅥ 1ng exa111Ple∶

all sn1ihng Ixs'asIη utc and PondCrous bcsi(lc1ny nc、

・compan-

ns I assumcd cach bit of rePartce had bccn coined on thc spot ()nly utincs rnade uP a rePcrt。 ry,a sort of Fl)lk

later di(lI rccognisc that thc r。

’ ‘ 、 visdon1con△ 1uon to‘
h。 nc

‘

’

notion ofthc‘ facc~thrcatcning act’ ,Could usefully l)c brought t。

bcar on this asPect

of camP talk According to PohtCness theory,all sPcakers havc b。 th ncgatiⅤ e and pos止 iⅤ e hce~wants which thcy stllvC mutuany to resPect Negati、 ,c hcc-Ⅵ ・ ants are bascd uPon a desire n。 t to bc restricted in。 nc’ s frccd。 m。 f action As a result,a SPeakcr will mitigatc the imPosition imPlicit lll thc lormtllation of a requcst(the

“ Facc

threat”

)by the cncoding of an uttcrance d1at仟 °nts dckrcncc Camp tdk

thrcatens an addresscc’ s negatiⅤ c face-、vants 、 vith its on~rccord rcquests for soh~ darity and PoSitive facc~Ⅴ cants, in contrast, arc bascd upon the(lcsire to

bc apPrcciatcd and aPpr。 Ⅴed Of, In Br° vvn and LcⅤ insOn’ s tcrn1s, camP can° Rcn be secn to involvc thrcats t。 an addrcsscc’ S PositivC facc-、 vants by indicating that

thc spcakcr docs n° t carc about thc addressec’ s PositivC sCIfLimage, hence, the insults,ridiculc,Put_d° Ⅵ 厂 ns etc One small examPlc vvill suf6cc t。

sho、Ⅴthe P。 ten^

tial° f this approach to thc analysis and its uscfulncss in descril)ing translations,Aftcr

a nocturnal sexual encounterin a pubhc garden,the narrat。

r of Camus’ Tricks(1988:

70)mCets an acqualntancc on thc cruising gr° und This1nan con11ucnt⒌

TRANsLATING CAMP TALK

、

~Tiens,Rcnaud,mais v° us Ⅴous

d芑

409

vergondcz!Qu’ CSt ce quC Ⅴ。us%ites

lΔ

' II△

ays!What arc you doin8 ey,Rcnaud,but you arc gctting into bad、・

hcrePj

This remark c。 nstitutcs a clcar thrcat t°

the addrcssee’ sP° sitivc facc~Ⅴ cants by cast~

ing asPersions。 n his behavi° ur Yet it is Overloadcd、・ ith s°

t11c ir° nics of ambivalcnt hdarity: ⒔ rst,thc sPeaker c° uld just as easily addrcss thc rcmark t。 hhnsclf(hc,

’

too,is on thc cruising ground)∶ second,the noti° n of“ getting into bad、 vays’ is。 nc 、 Ⅴhich b。 th addrcssor and addrcssce kno、 v bcl° ngs to d1cm。 ral codc。 ft11cd° n1inant culturc Thr。

u思 h

such a comment,this c。 dc is thus bcing rnocked f° r thc benc⒔ t 、 vard

°fboth addrcssOr and addrcssee Itis intcrcsting that thc Enghsh translation(H° ants of thc addrcsscC: 1996∶ 30)cxaggCratcs d1c thrcat t。 thc PoSitive facc-、 Ⅴ ‘ ‘

Hcy, Rcnaud,you、

vh° rc|

What arc you doing hcr’

’

vhereas the sOurcC Here the facc_threatening act is intcnsihcd l冫 y sevcral lucans∶ 、 teXt encoded a c。

n△ 1nent

on thc lln° ral bchavi。 ur。f the addressec,thc sPccch act

odlcss)insuk∶ lll the French,thc sPcakcr ir° ni-

hcrc is a cletar(grammatically m。

cally Jkcts m° ral suPeri。 rlty through thc use ofa term(se dJv召昭ond召 rl morc usually ith associated、 Ⅴ

f°

rmal rcgistcrs,、 Vhilc in thc Enghsh the

∴ Ⅴulgarity of Π h。 rc(lin1in~

ishes the sPcaker’ s claiIns to a suPCri° r moral stancC∶ furthcr, the use of".J,@rc CXClllPhnCs thc tyPical camP111。

ⅤC

of CnnPl° yiug a tcrn1usually reserⅤ cd f° r、v。 n△ cn,

The target tcxt,thCn,a1nPh丘 cs thc camP in SCⅤ eral、 Ⅴays,but in cloing so arguably loscs s° mc

。f

thc ir。 ny prcscnt in thc s。 urcc tcxt’ s (feigncd) cnc。 ding of rn° ral

cxact圩

ccnmK Polittxncss tl△ Cor)i can bc uscd to hell,ltlenu、

h。

w曲 iRs。 f tllis

tyPC might occur

3 camP,gay sensibⅡ ity and quccr radicaⅡ

s1m

From sontag(1964)to quecr thc。 rists of the 1990s, much of thc、vork on camp has takcn Placc、 vithin cultural studics,⒔ hn studics and gay and lCSl)ian studics It has n° t, thcrcf° rc, Paid n△ uch attenti° n to the dctailcd mcchanislus of languagc,

H° 、 /c vcr,its insights arc rclevant to Our Purposcs In‘

‘ Notcs。 n Camp” ,sontag conccivcs of camP as a tyPc of acsthetic scnsibⅡ ‘ ’ ‘

that is characterized l)ya(lChght in‘

failed scriousness’

ity

and thc‘ thcatricahzation()f

exPericnce” (1964: 287) In° rder t° cxPlain thc link bcⅡ Ⅳecn camP and h° m° _ scxuals sontag suggcsts that the camP scnsibility sCrⅤ cs a Propagandistic agcnda for thc h° n1° scxual cause:

‘ ‘

I△ o】

ηoscⅩ ualS

haⅤ c PinncJ rJ,cir inFgε r〃 Fi° n

h)to socicty on

m。 ting tllc acsthetic sensc CamP is a sdrcnF of m。 rJity It ncur阳 Prc〉

’

`jz6mord indignation, sPonS。 rs Playfulncss’ (ibid: rny cn△ Phascs) It、 v° uld sccn1rcasonablc vas Pohtical by to suggcst that a l)id f° r s° cial intcgration by a lninority :r。 uP 、 naturc Howcvcr,l)y insisting that camP iS丘 rst and brcm° st“ an acsthedc Phenom~ ic、 Ⅴ。 f it as“ discngaged,deP° hticizcd or at lcast cnon” (il)id), S。 ntag lnakcs hcr Ⅴ aP° htical’

’

(ibid) Prc、 aⅡ

d° 、 vnPlaying

t。

thc dctri1ucnt of any Pohtical P。

its Pohtical Potential,Bo°

tcntial

、 VhⅡ e

th(1983: 17)nonCthClcss brcaks vvith S。

als。

ntag

by asscrtlng that“ CamP iS Ph∏ larily a mattcr of scl∴ 丨 )rcscntation,” Hc is thcrcby

410

KEITH HARVEY

erbal stylc of camP PcoPle in hiS acc° unt, noting charactcristics that cxtcnd△ om thclc、 el oft° Pic(manˉ iage,“ ma111y” sl)orting activitics,etc)t。 a sPeciHc rnanner ofòcal dehvcry(il)id:67): ablc t。 includc a characterization of thc、

thc tyPical (hcti° n 、 v al1nost to thc point °f cxPirati。 n, 、 vith hcaⅤ y cn11)11aSis ° n inaPProPriatC 、 vords (l。 tS 。 f caPital lettcrs and itahcs) rising Painfully t° a chmax,to bc foll° wcd by a series of swiR cadenccs~a sort of r° llerc。 astcr e汉cct,、 vhiCh in Rcgcncy tirncs was kn° 、厂 n aS the“ dra、 ing

A can1P quahty of voicc111ay also cxPrcss lassitudc∶

is sl°

roon1draⅥ d”

,

‘

’ is intcrcsting hcre B。。d1is ostcnsibly ‘ talklng about no11-、 Ⅴ rittcn camP‘ PCrfOrn1a11cc” ,yct thc litcrary quahty of this stylc suggcsts thc presencc of、 ˉ ritten~tcxtual (lcviccs of en1PhasiS This c° nfusi° n °f Thc rcfcrcnce tO‘ caPital lcttcrs and ita"cs’

(liffcrcnt hn::uistic channcls is in itscll a tcstirnony to thc succcss of cala△ l)’

S dCcon_

struction of the l)inarism“ sPokcn/xxⅡ rittcn” as an analogy of“ natural/constructed”

As hrl)ack as thc1970s,8ay idCntihcd con)lnlentators argucd that there wcrc ns to an cxclusively acsthctic and dohticizCd rcading of camP Practice

hn1itati°

(DyCr 1977, Babuscio 1977/1993) Babusci。 , a historian, suggests emcrgcd as a gay response to contcn11)orary sOcicty’ s pcnchant for of labchng [thatl cnsures that individual typcs bccolllc P° larizcd” 1977/1993: 20_ˉ 1) Thus, camP’ s critical n1cchanis1ns arc sPcci丘 caⅡ y

that camp

“

a mcthod

(Babusci。 dc、

,

cloPcd

isms in 。ur sOcict) d1at stcn1

to mock, dodge and dcconstruct thc multilDlc l)ina1・

fron1the P° stulation °f the catcgol~ics natural/unnatural tIsing⒔ hn 1exts∫ or his cxalllPlcs’ Babusci。 suggests that gay can、 P dl° ys four linkcd stratcgics: irony; ‘ acstheticisn1; thcatricahty; humour Irony is l)ascd uP。 n thC PriI1ciPlc Of‘ incon・ gruous cont〗 ast bct、 vcen an indiⅤ idual or thing and its contcxt or association”

Babusci。 suggcsts

Ⅴarious cxampIcs of gcndcr crOssing through masqucradc (cg

Garb° in Φ ccn chIi虻 ind) In。 rdcr t° be cffcctivc,irony n△ ust bc shal)cd This is

whcrc thc stlatcgy of acsthcti0sm comcs i11to Play Thc camP cmPhasis on stylc dclibcrc△ tdy“ sig11iHcs Pσ formancc rathcl tllan cxistcncc”

(ibid:23) Xllrllat is mOK,

it lcads tyPically to a dehl)cratcly cxaggcrated】・ chancc° n qucstions of(sclf-)Presens likc;∴ ôn1 tation:“ thc cn1Phasis shiRs from、 vhat a thh1ε or Pel^son is to、 `hat itò cl大 2ris bei1△ g

donet。

ht,″ it is bci11g donc”

"`,‘

ineⅤ itabl) liom its aesthcticis1u Babuscio、

(ibid

∶24) ThCatricahty in can)p dcvcloPs

s cxPlanation for thc gay dePl(〉

theatricaht) takeS its Place in a long lh1c of fe∏

1inist critiqucs

ymcnt of

。f thc constructcd-

ness of gender r° lcs(c8 Millct1971,Butlcr1990)∶

‘

If‘ r。 le”

is dc⒔ ned

as thc aPPropriatc bchaⅤ iour associatcd、 Ⅴ ith a givcn

ays PoSiti° n in sOciety,thcn gays do not conf° rrll to socially cxPectCd′ Ⅴ

of bchaving as n1cn and

、 v。 n1cn Can1P, by focusing on the

。ut、 vard

aPPcaranccs of rolc,ilη Phes that rolcs,and,in Particular,scx roles,arc suPCrⅡ cial~a1uattcr of stylc (BabuSci。 1977/1993∶ 24)

Hum。 ur,b° rn

ofthe ir° nic aPPrCciation c〉 l incongruity,iS thC f° urth of thc fcatu1・ cs

Babusci° mentions Intcrcstingly,it is、

vid】

hun1° ur that Babusci。

cxPlicitly points

・


411 ‘

・ uP thC Pohtical potcntial of camP, HC 、、 rites of camP hun△ °ur‘ undcrcuttiI1g ragc by its(lcrisi° n of conccntratcd bittcrncss” (ibid :28),Callin:camP a“ protoPohtical

Phcnomcn。 n” ,hc n。 tcs

rnorcoⅤ cr that it“ stcadfastly rcfuscs to rudiatc Our l°

heritagc of gay思 hetto life” (ibid) This giⅤ cs risc to thc tyPical invcrsion°

‘

f、

ng

・ alucs

、 vhcn this takcs thc lc,rm of⒔ ndi11g bcauty in thc sccn1ingl)bizarre and outragcous,or cliscovcring thc`Ⅴ orthiI1css in a thin8。 r pcrson that is supPosedly`vithout、 aluc” (ibid,),

that can1P I・

C、

Cls in‘ cⅤ cn

If Babusci° rcco思 ni'Cd camP’ s Pohtical P° tCnual, thcn 1990s’

queer CamP~ ’ ‘’ ‘ 、 vritten、 vith an upPcr-casc‘ C′ 、 vhcn‘ conctuahzcd as a P° htici7cd,s° lcly queer ” discou1ˉ 陡 (Mcycr199⒋ 21,n 2)~has g° ne much fttlthel Nc,t ol△ ly has queer criticisn1rcde6ned CallllD as a ccntral strategy in its cxPosurc。 fthc hnctioning of

‘ ‘

straight’

’

institutions and valucs, queer thinkcrs have uscd it t°

“ ontolo8ical

challcnge”

(ibid.∶

f°

vider und the 、

‘ ‘ 2) of quccr: (2ueerness can bc sccn as an opPosi-

tional stancc not sirnPly to csscntiahst fc)rmations of gay a11d lcsbian idcntitics,but

to a n1uch、:idcr al,Phcation of the dePth modcl of idcntity”

(ibid,∶

3), Quccr’

s

ra(hcal indctcrn1inaCy rcsidcs in its concti。 n ofidcntity as a Purc Cffect° fPerf° rm_ ancc∶

‘

at sOmc tillac, thc aCtor must dL,sOn1cd,ing in ordcr to l>r° ducc thc s° cial

、 isibⅡ ity by Ⅵ 广 11iCh

(ibid ∶4) Languagc contributcs fidcntity FurthCrmorc,thc“ Perf。 rmancc at Mcycr inheri“ △°m Ju山 th Buder’ s thcory of gcndσ mcal、 s that pdacl唿 m” ‘ contcmporary scxual idcntitics ultilnatcly dcnd on ‘ cxFrcls召 Xud丿 Perf° r1nativc thc idcntity is n1anifcstcd”

activcly to this claboration of thc cffect。 tl・

gcsturcs” (ibid∶ 4,n1y cluPhaSis) This is an imPortant insight for undcrstanding the

‘ 、ˉ ay‘ gay”

functi。 ns scn1iotically in c。

acti、 ity itSClf bet、 veen

ntcn1Porary culturc F° r,if the fact of scxual

PeoPlc0f thC san、 c gcndcr aPPcars t°

thc(scⅡt)attIibution° f the labcls“ gay” or“ lcsbian”

,it is als°

is actually abscnt分 onl vie、 v and only Prcscnt through thc、 S唿 ni、

bC thc si/,c tltΙ

'non for

truc that such actiⅤ ity

v。 rk

of° ther ext1ˉ ascxual

ing Practices、・ich thcreby bccomc hnked to k mctonymicJly l△

IIl this Play °f surfaccs fcignin思 substancc, it is hardly SurPriSing that CamP occuPy a ccntral Placc as thC total b° dy of pcrFormativc Practiccs and strate-

sh。 uld

gies used t。 cnact a quccr idcntity NIcycr、 is achicⅤ cd thr。 ugh

a dePloymcnt ofˇ

s rcading of Can1P and itS Pohtical P。 tcncy ‘ ‘ Hutchcon’ s conction of Parody as an

cxtcndcd rePetiu。 n xsith c1Itical diffc1・ cncc” (Hutcheon 1985∶ 7), Thus, parody (and,f° rΛ 八 cycr,CamP)emcrgcs as an cssentially intcrtextual operau。 n。 n thc Ⅴaluc that is inⅤ cstcd in an original tcxt,Thc traditi°

an idcological position that cndoⅥ

nal denigrati° n ofPar。 dy stcms ll° vith suprc】 nc cultural imP°

m

ˉ 】 tancc

`s thc Original、 and suPPrcssCs a11y suggcstion t11at thc s。 urcc is itsclf thc Outco111C()f an intcrtcxtual Pr。 ccss.A rc-cvaluati。 n of par° dy as a Priluary and Pcrvasivc cultural。

cntaⅡ s a rcconsklcrati。 n of thc hicrarchy。 f

it Mcycr suggests that Hutchc°

n’

s

Ⅴalues that11avc hithert°

n△

Pcrati° n

arginahzed

Ⅵ,ork is particularly uscful for thcOrists of

caluP if thC hctor of proccss rather than fc,Hn is higblightcd;“ By cmpl。 ying a Perf° rlnancc_orientcd111eth° dology that PrivⅡ Cgcs Process,、 îe can restore a kno、 v_

lcdgeablc亻〃c召 r soCial agcnt to the disc° ursc()f CamP parod)” (RICyer1994: 10) ln

other、 Ⅴ ords,af° cus。 n the docr and thc〈 all° 、 vs

l° ing,and notthc伉 nishcd tcxtual Product, the quecr the。 rist to highhght thc ncglcctcd P。 tcntial for cultural agcncy in

thc par。 dic m。 mcnt:“ thc rclationsh】 P bet、 /een texts becomes si1nPly an indicat。 r

ofthc P。 Ⅵ,cr rclationships l)ct、 vccn social agcnts、 vho、 ˉ icld th° sc tcxts, onc vvho ‘ posscsscs thc orjginar,thc。 ther、 vho P° sscssCs thc par° dic altcrnatiⅤ c” (ibkl)

412

KEITH HAR∨

EY

ˇ1eyer’ s Can1P is thus a kind of'Tr° jan H。 rsc

l)Cnetratin思

thc othcr、 Ⅴ ise 11n-

brcachablc Prescrvc of straight scl91iotic l)lâctice, a ncccssarily Parasitic entcrPrisc

that managcs n° ncthcless t° cndoW the、 oicclcss quccr with cultural a8enc) ThC rcquired link t。 don1inant Practiccs is als。

hclPful in exPlaining ho、 v difFcrcnt cⅤ alu_

ations of CamP can bC adhcrcd to xl:ithin thc gay con1munity:“ Calup apPcars,on

thc One hand, to 。ffer a transgrcssivc vehiclc yct, on the othcr, siluultanc。 usly in、 okcs the sPcctCr of a d° n1inant idcology” (ibi(1,) FOr s。 mc,thc“ sPcctcr of domi~ nant idcology” clnbcddcd in Can△ P blockS its P。 tCntial as an instrumcnt of cultural critiquc and Pohtical action Pcncl。 Pc and w。 lfc(1979∶ 10,citcd in JacobS 1996: 62),R)r cxamPlc,clastigatc thc usc of dero:at。 ry tcrn1s for、 vomen in thc can)l)Put^ doxxˉ l、

bccausc it end。 rses“ thc Pohtics of Patriarch)”

thc transgrcssion inhcrcnt in CaluP founds quccr’ and c。 nstitutcs the ncccssary l)ackdroP f°

Ila c° ntrast,for A/lcycr hi】 11scll

s susPiCion of identity catcgories

r qucer cultural agcncy

4Translations,trans【 or1mations l、 ill n0、 f exan1inc t、 ˉ o eXtracts⒒ om n。 vels that c° nt“ n丘 cti。 nahzcd camp talk and sct thcrn alongsidc their l)ubliShcd tra11slations Thc hrst n。、clis Gorc Vi(lal`

rf,c Cj,dnd Fhc Pj``cr(1948/1965),trt△ I1slated into FJˉ cnch as t`n Cdrfon Pr&dc′ d crt’ s Pq厂 sd召 c dc RiΓ iJrc(1981)by PhiliPPc Mikriamm。 s T11e sccond is Tony Du、 Fdnr‘ lisie(1973),

I

translatcd i11to English as srrdnJ召

Ι口n(厶 cciPc(1975)by sam Florcs

、dl seek tO sh。、 Ⅴ that in the ⒔rst translation thc cal【lP is Cithcr I11inirnizcd or

dePrivcd。 fits gay co∏ 11nunal、 ˉ alucs h1contrast,thc sccond translati。

n fronts the

8ay camP clcll△ cnts and transforⅡ 1s the agc int° onc、 ith a clcar hom。 scxual ・ mcssagc.These tcxtual hcts xllll l,c rdatcd to thc cukural c。 ntcxts in、、 hich they

vvcrc produccd

亻.Ι

冫 1dσ F σnd Mikrfσ n,rl,os:Conlin孑 ou‘ in Λ佗Ⅱ v y。 r大 σnd PdⅡ s

In Vidars 1965ARcr、 vord t。丁h召 Cirr d冖 dF凡召P氵、e arc tokl that h° m° scxual “ behavi。 ur is cntircly natural sincc A‖ hulnan``dr、 bcilη 8s arc biSCxual” (Ⅴ klal

1948/1965: 157) Ho、

as a h。 moscxual’

‘

`cⅤ

Cr, Vidal insists that‘ of coursc therc is nO such thin思

vord is“ n° t a noun〈 Iescribing a rcc° 思 nizablC tyPe” (ibi(l)

Hc thus dePriⅤ cs11° moscxuahty ofits cla"ut° `thC、

constitutc a key clcn1cnt of idcntity in thc same gcsture as hc legitiIlli7cs it In one sensc Vidal’ s Ⅴ ic`、 is consistcnt hc1ˉ ° ,Jim,an。 r(lincaly Amcllca11malc xx h。 can,and oltcn docs, aS hctCroscxual r`。 ncthclcss, thc novcl contains a Portrait ()f lxˉ 1)ll_ 严 estabhshcd c° n1rnunitics of rncn vvho ccrtainlⅤ do idcntifv as h° m。 scxuals 、、 hde it

witl)the descriPtion。 f tl△ c

is truc that thc Picture of thesc connnunitics that cmcrgcs is far Fr。

n1positi、

c(d1c

n1cn Jim meets tlt g刂 pttltics arc oRcn htchy,jcalous and small mindcd),tllcy do cxist as a distinct sOcial grouP And thCir11sc。 f`:Crbal can1P is Prescntcd as onc° f thcir dcsnin:traitS:vidal n。 tcs that“ thcir c。 nversation、 vas often(ryPtic” ,a‘

’(ibkl∶

‘

sugˉ

46) Jin.,thc hcro,d。 cs not contril)utc to canlP1and is S。 Π1c~ gcstive ritual’ rn1adc t。 fccl uneas)byit C)n the n1icrocontcxtual levcl,thcn,calnP tin1cs borcd° rccci、 cs a ncgati、 cc`:aluation H° wcⅤ er,onc Of d1c kcy katurcs。 f camP is t11at it n cxPcnse built int° it Through this ir° ny,camP is oftcn ablc t。 has irony at its o、、


413

subⅤ crt thc negativc eⅤ aluati。 n that n△ ight be loadcd on to it As a rcsult,Ic。

can1p cmcrges in Vidal’ sn。 Ⅴcl— —and desPitc its auth°

r’

s aⅤ o、/ed

ntend,

intcntions- as a

macro-Contcxtual sign of an estabhshcd holllOSCXual idCntity and conwnunity Thc cxtract I wish to cxan1inc is ⒒o1u a agc dcscribing a Party hCld in Ncw Y° rk by Nich° lasJ R。 lloS° n(Rolly),a minor chamctcr Jim has bccn tclkcn thc Pa⒒ y by his cx lovcr,a⒔ lm stclr mllcd shaw By tllis ttmc in thc noⅤ cl,Jim has had two in1Portant h° m。 scxual affairs and gay so0dh%is not unhmilia1ˉ to t。

hin1 Mikriammos’ s translation of thc agc is rroduccd imn1cdiatcly aRcr Vidal’ s tcxt

“

’ said Rolly, t、 /isting an ‘ ‘ cho are veakness f° r mcn Ⅴ I have a Pcrftct ′

Y。 u kn0、v, I loathe thcsc scrcan1ing Pansics,’

cmcrald and ruby ring

butch I rncan,aRer all,vvhy l)e a quccn ify。

忆ll° w mLuc芄圩

Gn° wa(lays cⅤ crybody’

…

】

rc,,d夕

cRruo【 ly!№

claysap a hcnd d mine…

山腚

u likc othcr queCns,if you

s JclJ,ifyou know whatI mcan ,ju哎 a、 w

a垫 dW、

rmtwknIw灬

wdl,Iw° tlldn’ tgo

so hr

Ⅱtosay

a∫ icnd,

vas actually I think hc’ s rather s1nisrcr, but any、 vay this acquaintancc 、

actually kcing Will JePS° n,tlac b° xOr!Now,I

mean,real|,whcn

d1ings gct that far,things haⅤ c rcally g。 nc farr’

Jilll agrccd that things had indccd g。 ne hr Rolly rathcr rcvokcd

hin1but hc rcc。 gnizcd that he mcant to bc kind and that、 vas a good (lcal,

“

My,isn’ tit crowdCd h hcrIlovc br Pc° PlC to eⅡ y thcmSckCs!

I rncan the right kind c)fl)c° Ple、 vh。 aPpreciate this sort of thing You sc c,I’ vc bcc。 mc a Cathohc”

(Vicla11948/6⒌

—Je

d。 tCStC Ccs tantCs si voyantcs,s’

cxdama R° lloson

12O)

en t° urnant la

meraudcs qu’ il portait,son d。 igt J’ ai un grossc bague de rubis ct d’ 芑 faible P° ur lcs gargons qui sont c°

stauds Jc nc

Ⅴ 。iS Pas l’

int。 r♂ t qu’ il y

a, pour n° us autres tantcs, ’ ahner lcs tantcs!

厂、。uS mC suiⅤ ez?

Heuκ usemcnt,atllour(l’ hui,totlt lc mondc cn cs⒈

al)s。 lumcl△ t totlt lt,

m。 ndc

unc hllc!M° n cher,

Ⅱy

… Tdlcmcnt(lif倦 κnt

du temPs o山

j’

。 tals

a qulcqucsj° urs un dc mcs amis,je nc dcva^Pas dirc un ami c扩

lc trouⅤ c asscz sinistrc, n△ ais cn⒔ n

cet an1in1’ a aPPris d° nc qu’

jc il

cntrctcnalt、 Vill Js。 n lc b。 xcur!Quand lCS ch。 scs cn s° nt l;,c’ cst qu’ cllCs S。 nt d。

j⒊

aⅤ anc芑 cs!

Jim dit qu’ cn CffCt la situation a`:ait誉 volu忐 R° ll° s° n lc r。 v。 kak un Peu n△ ais il se(lisait que le b° nh° 1un△ c aⅤ ait(lc bonncs jntcntions ct quc c’

芒tait

tr志

s bicn comn1e ga

・ hulc j’ ai cc soir!J’ a(lorc、 oir lcs gens qui s’ amuscnt… Vous saⅤ ez que Ennn,je veux dire lcs gCns qui Ⅴ ibrcnt col△ lInc nous —Qucllc

jc vicns de mc converur au cath。 licim1

(Mikrhmm。 s1981∶ I

15⒉ 3)

、、ill cxan1inc t、 Ⅴo groups of fcatures in thcsc tcxts: Hrst, lcxical and Pr。

sccond,tcxtual and pra{::matic

sodic;

414

KEITH HARVEY In thc Enghsh tcxt,the lexis° fR。 lly’ s camP is rich、 vith subcultural Ⅴ alue,both

at thc level of individual itcms and that 。fc。 ll。 cation, For examPle, R° lly (hC

rc忆 nnal“ R。 Ⅱ°s° n” throughout the translati° n)cmpl° ys

rcn1alns the m。

P￠ nsics xl lth

a PCjoratiⅤ c lncaning to dcscribc othcr homOscxuals and quccn as an clcctcd(all)Cit

ironic) term t。 n△

describc hi1nself Such uscs c° ncord 、iith thc Ⅴ alucs that gay

cn、 vould stnl inⅤ cst in thcsc items today, Thc distinction,ho、 ⅤcⅤ cr,is rlattcncd

‘ ’ aunt/s’

in thc translation,、 vhcrc both tcrⅡ 1s arc translatcd by rdnrc/s(htcrally‘ ir° lllc

),a rcHcdon。 n

thc Ⅴ。guc for J9is historically intriguing Vidal coul(ln° t havc kn° 、 vn

in1948that

PCj° rathc

tcrm,cvcn amon箩 t FKnch h° moscxuals ROⅡ y’ s

this tcrm、vas to Play a crucial rolc as a dc6ncr of a(listinct idcntity HoⅥ

in thc translation(pubhs11Cd,let us rcn1ind ourselvcs,in1981)bcc°

广 CⅤ Cr,Jt「

n・ Cs

thc lar:cly

bC。 f it/tllcm勹 ,a tcrm which dso cfctˉ ti、・ cly cra父 s ・ thc sensc of an emcrging idcntity by cmPl。 ying a Phrase that is 、 oid 。f lexical contcnt, functi° ning cntircly through irnphcation For Frcnch rcadcrs, cn ε Frc is als° likcly t° carry a Proustian rcsonance,bcing emPloycd in￡ c,rccJ,crc/,召 dtΙ Fer12`s Pcrdu t。 dCsignate hon1。 sexual charactcrs(cg Pr。 ust 1924: 17-18) This litcrary ccho, far fr。 m rcinforcing thc idca。 f an idcntity/community across tilue, brings Pcj° rat卜 c cn

ε r招

with it Proust’

(litσ al|,`。

s hndamentd ambivalcncc with rcgaκ l to hom。 scxuality:

in

Ⅰ@rccflcrcllc hom。 scxual charactcrs rnight bc incrcasingly on1niPresent,but thcy arc noncthclcss judgcd to be un凡 ⒒unatc Ⅴictims of a moral Haw R° lly’ s stock。 f subcultural signs is further in△ ally,“ stocky,wcll

’

P。 vCrishcd by thc translati。

n。 fl・

1Ι

Fc乃 as c°

s芒

Czuds(htcr~

builΓ ),Bu∠ ch is a long stan(1ing mclη bcr° f tl△ c ga〉

lcxic。 n,

usually CmPl° ycd(ir。 nically)to dCSignatc thc surfacc fcaturcs of dcsirablc rnascuhn~

‘

’

ity,cithcr。 f an。 thcr εay man(Ⅵ 厂 h0is110ta‘ quecn’ )or° f a hctcr° scXual rnalc In contrast,cosr虿 udsis a1nainstrean△ Frcnch tcrm that fails to connotC thc ir。 ny accruing to the gay awarcncss of gcn(lcr Perf′ )rmati、 yity, Thc sourcc tcxt also fcaturcs collocations that arc gayˉ n1arkcd For cxamPlc, nsics is 8ay camP n° t Prirnarily bccause of the noun (、 Ⅴ hich c。 uld bc

scrctIminJ P日

CmPloycd as abusc by hctcr。 scxuals),but bCcausc ofits c。 an ironic/P句。rad、 :C term inclicating how out and

ll。

cation、 vith scrcdlllinJ,

Πamboyant a pardcular gay man

is DcsPite its PotCntid hrcc as critiosm,义 rcdmⅠ n‘

als° c° ntains

an elcmcnt°

aPPr° val、 vhcn used by a gay n△ an,suggcstin:as it d。 cs unn1istakablc gay

Thc translaj° n, c召 s

Fα nres si vo「

“ thcsc

dnrcs (hterally,

(Such) sh°

、y

f

Ⅴisil)ihty,

aunts’ )

uscs

rm,vq厂 dnres(“ 曲owy” )that,ag菹 n,is m“ nstrcam Frcnch and unambiguously ∝ P句 advc An。 ther coll° cadcl,n,P召 u%cr″ 召d大 ncss,dso hncdc,lls灬 CamP in R。 lly’ s a tt・

talk Thc・ “ e

d Pc吵 “

witl・叮c法 ncss is mall【 ed

hxl,Crbdc lll gcncr甜

En酗曲 ,its

quasi oxym。 ronic quahty suggesting ths sclfLc° nscious intcnsity of thc fcchng bcin: CxPressed The translator makes n° attcmPt t° capture this and translatcs it

抖ff1擀燕灿 lt艹甘 l拣fli兹嘏 J∶

liⅠ

tyPical of rrcscntations of vcrbal can△ P in Enghsh, It cxaggcrates (and thcrcby rcndcrs suscePtiblC to irony) the sPeaker’ s °、 vn inⅤ estlncnt in the Pr° P。 siti° nal content of his sPecch and hclPs to takc thc addresscc -、 Vilhngly or n。 t~into his

confidcncc It thus binds togcther sPeaker and addrcsscc in discoursal and subcultural s° hdarity Thc strcss pattcrns °f French, as a syllablc-tilncd language, d° not allo、 v this Pr。 s。 dic featurc(and its、 vrittcn encoding)to t11C samc dcgrcc,

RANSLATING CAMP TALK

…

415

Thc translator^thcrcf。 rc,has not uscd itahcs in this agc;ncither d° cs hc atten1Pt to con1Pc1、 satc亿 rt1】 c loss c)ft11is st)ˉ liStic、 aturc As a result,Rolly’ s ca1111)is dimin-

d⒒

∶ :many ￡ ∶ 打ll∷ ::以甘 ∶ ∶ JP1;⒒ f盅 ∶ 扌:l爷嚣 ∶ ∶ oPCmuve山 r∶

:∶

:st∶ :∶

:∶

:∶

sc。 urse mtarkσ s haxc i11thc℃ xt:忆 r cxamlDlC∶ № u女 n@";Vjòu k刀 o″ c° 叮h￠ r'n,cdn∫ 口crud`,亻 N° ″,∫ mc￠ n,itd′ 夕 … As wdl as ftlHhering d1e SPCakCr’ s

s act as a constant“ involving” 1ucchanisIη Pr。 PoSitional strcan、 such tcrlη

dircctcd

at thc addrcsscc, ThCy arc dcviccs that crucially contributc to thc gossiPy tonc

。fR。 lly’ s talk Nonc。 f thosc co-。 Pcrauve markers just cited is translated in nPlays the Vith。 nc n° table cxcti。 n, d1c Frcnch tcxt d° N1ikrian1111os’ s tCXt 、 ss・

vcrbal li11“ th菠 R° lly attcmP“ u。 n is dF trans|at0n ll±

R【

lll)'’

“’ make、

'ith his托 ll【 Dw h° mOsexud Jim TllC exceP

s exchmatory use。 f⒒ 廴 by=1fon汕 σ (litσ ally,“ My

∷ l犭廴T苔 ∴ ∶∶ 置》 “ ve br PeoPlc t° commcnt∶

k∶ r∶

wh° aPPrcciatC this s。 rt of thing

Υ。u sCC,Γ vc

f丨 ;|∶

::∶

:∶

J∶

甘 Jr∶ ∴ 嘿社汪∶ J刂 ∶ ∶ ∶ ;tT⒒叮 lta∶

J∶

:∶

e11joy thCmsclⅤ es!I mcan thc rig11t乜

Il。

:

i∶

bcc° mc a Cathohc”

1)〈

]of l〉 coPlC

The jokc is

cxccllent, Rolly suggcsting that d1crc is a causal link bct、 vccn his convcrsion to Catl△ olicism

and his dcs“

c忆 r

Pc。 Plc to Cl△ loy thcmsckcs at Pardes Thc lattcr 厂 ith you scc n1aking an act of Christian charity, Ⅵ

bcc° lncs thcrcby transformcd int°

the link As is typical、 ith camP, wc cannot l)c cntircly surc、 vhcthcr thc sPcakCr is intcntionally scnding hi丫 nsClf uP

vhCthcr thc jokc is at his exPcnsc At any °r 、

rate,it1na11agcs to ridiculc and tri、

iahzc Picty and the Church,a frcqucnt butt。

f

浪:∵ ∷ 溆热y戈 F揣 T铱熙耳找扛∷蛩J漯 1Ι 、浓 q1∶ 卩 :P∷ ∴ iP讠 f锚砝 ::lε 咒Ⅲ枝 11生 ∵ 投⒒ ∴ I11芷孔∶ ′ 甯L絮 ;烈 ∴ :;泓 r∶扌潆景 ∴丘 ∷熙l坩找扌:hJ⒊ ∶扌 i走

:∶

:∶

li∶

t。

;:∶ i芟 rⅤ :∶

;Ⅰ

t骈群热撬擀拙擗槲蝌谖 herc,Thus,in Francc there is a susPicion(c、

cn am° ngst thosc who PractisC“ hom° ~

it)” )of thC vahdity。 f a Subcultural labcl such as“ gay” ,Indccd,thc very rted nature of thc tcrm makcs its usc t111stal)lc,as is clcar Ⅱ°m aco111n1C11t

scxual aCti、 i1uP。

such as the R)ll°

wing:

‘ ‘ Ic can usc thc Enghsh sPcllin8 ‘ 、、 gay’

rt,srrcss

氵 rs cu`rtΙ r口

’

` s・ l,or tlnc Fl cncll屮 clling‘ g缸 ,witl△ tllc mmc mcanin迕 n,cuni叩 imPDⅡ cd~/IOm Fhc σˉ r’

(Gais et Lcsbicnncs Branchos,Wcbsite 1995,Enghsh languagc version;1ny itahcs). 厂 ikriarrl1nos’ suPPrcSsion of thc itcn1Jdy fron1his trans、、 e are rcrllindcd hcrc。 fpˇ Ι hu。 n,This lack° fac° m凡 Hable,h° mc groⅥ n label br the ctltc思 ory rc⒒ cdSa morc gcneral rcluctancc in Francc to recognizc thC uscfulness° f idcntity catcgorics as thc

Camus’ 「ri法 s(1988),Barthcs ’

sPrin璧 )oard hr P。 litical acu。 n,In his Prehcc t。 critiqucs thC SCll辶

catcgorizin8sPccch act PrCdicatcd。

n“ I

an1’

f°

r its in1Phcit submis~

sion to thc dcmands° fthe C)thcr Yct to Proclahn yoursclf somcthi11g is al、 va)s to sPCak at the behest of a vengc§ dl(Dthcr,t。 cntcr into his discourse,to argue、 vith hhl,,to sCCk l1ˉ

°n1hhn a scraP° f idCntlty:“ You arc

”“

Yes,I aln

”

Llltin1atcl)、

416

KEITH HARVEY ˉ rtance;、、 hat socicty should n。 tt° lcratc is that , 刀0ε hin卩 , or to bc111ore cxact, that thc s° mcrJ,in卩 that I am sh° uld be oPcnly CxPresscd as ProviSi。 nal,reⅤ 。cablc, insigniHcant, incsscntlal,in a word:irrclcⅤ ant Just say“ Iamà11dy。 uⅥ :ill bc so0ally thc attributc is of no i1111)。 I sh°

saⅤ

uld be

ed (Ba吨 hes,in

Howard199⒍

vii)

Advocatcs。 f Anglo-Amcrican attcmPts to thc° Ⅱzc and PrOm° te gay and lesl)ian visibihty 、 vould n。 d° ubt rcsPond that n° Fll汕 J PrccisCly idcnti⒔ cs the d。 n1inant culturc’

Ⅴ ancc” rclatlx・

‘ s goal 、 vith rcgard to holuoscxual sel【 =articulati。 n; “ not11ing” and‘ irrcle~

htll:cl°

ng becn the nulli=ing col)ditions against which we strugglc Thc

c rcluctancc° fFⅡnch hom∞ cxuals to scl∴ identi、 a∝ ol・ cling to thc v泸 iable

。f scxuahty has dircct ilnPhcations for the construction of a subcultural c° nununity bascd。 n scxual diffcrcncc It leads t。 sctiCism。 f“ la tentati。 nc。 n1n1unautahˉ e” C‘

the tCmptation ofthe conη

l`、

unity”

,Nlaltc1 1996:4O4),a symPton△

thc construction of a distinct gay community、

°f thC

fcar that

vould c。 nstitutc a regrcttable rctrcat

into saratiSm

Edmund、、/11itc

attributcs a Ⅴicvc such as Martcl’ st。 a sPcci⒔ c Galhc c° nc~

tion of thc rclationshiP l)ct、 cen thc indiⅤ

i〈

lual and the collcctiⅤ e∶

Thc Frcnch behcvc that a s° cicty is n。 t a fedcration° f sPccial intercst grouPs but rathcr an imPartial statc that trcats cach citizcn rcgardlcss of his。 r hcr gcndcr, scxual orientation, rchgion or colour as an abstract, univcIˉ sal indiⅤ idual

(XlVhite1997:343) Thus,although somc carly Frcnch thcOrctical vv。 rk in the丘 cld(eg H。 cqucnghem 1972) rna)'Stdl Strikc a cho1・ (lt。 day in Anglo-Amcrican quccr thinking, thcrc is c abscncc of radical gay (lnale)thcorizing in contcn△ Porary Francc lMcrrick

relatiⅤ

and Ragan(1996:4)haⅤ c notCd the c° nscquenccs thjs has had fOr rcscarch、 the Frcnch acadcrnⅤ ∶

vithin

ILlCSS、 °rk has bccn d。 ne on thc lnistory of honn。 scxuahty in

/cstern countlics . . The cmPhasiS On national than in somc other 、、

idcntity has led to the doⅥ /nPlaying of diffcrcnces in racc,scx,and sCxual

oricntation

.Figurcs likc Gi(lc and Yourccnar ha、

cl)cen trcatcd rnorc

、・ ho haPPCncd t。 havc scx、 vid1PCoPlc。 f thC san】 c sex,than as h° m。 scxual、 ,riters Pcr Se

as Frcnch、

vritcrs、

Thc rcsulting conscnsus aPPcars groundcd in thc vic、

that, cⅤ cn if onc、 :crc to

construc hom° sexuahty as a kcy factor 。f idcntity, hon1oscxuals

、 vould be 、 vcll

adviscd to lay thci】・hoPcs in thC gcncral l)rogrcss o丨 11uman rights that snd thci1ˉ origin in tl△ c uniⅤ crsahzin思

Rubhcan tcxts and cvents of1789,This has lcd t。

an

attitudc to issucs of思 ay idcntity, history and c。 mn△ unity that aPpcars conscrvati、

c Ⅱom thc PcrsPectivc of B1ˉ

it缸 n

and thc UsA,CamP,I have argucd thr° ughout

this Papcr,can l)c sccn as a tyPical(indeed,PCrhaPs aS thc kcy)scnli。 of gay men in thcir critiquc of straight s°

tic rcsource

cicty and in thcir attcmpt to carvc Out a


417

sPacC f° r thcir(liffcrcncc, I、 Ⅴould likc tO suggcst that、 Ⅴc see a signi丘 cant textual

conscqucncc/rcahzati° n of thc Frcnch rcsistancc to this Ⅴie、 v in Mikrian11nos’ 厂 ducing thc gay verbal can1P in、 idal’ s tcxt dccisi。 n to aⅤ oid rePr°

亻.2Du〃

r‘

σnd FForcsr Po勹 ″m“ Phous

PcrverJ钞 σ frI/scxP

‘

vs that thc n。 tions。 f If thc idcntity catCgory‘ gay” is Problcmatic in ,it foll° 、

gay、 vritinε and gay htCrature are also disablcd in the Frcnch cultural PolysyStCm Vhite recalls by a uniⅤ crsdli犭 ng tcndcncy in the Gallic c。 ncePtion。 f su匀 cctiⅤ ity 、 an intcrvie、 :hc gaⅤ c in thc early 1980s to a Frcnch gay maε azinc during vvhich

‘

。f course” hc c。 nsidercd hilnsclf ltcF Hc also remcmbcrs how in thc midJ980s aⅡ thc male French w1・ lters ‘

hc‘ astonishcd” thc journahst by telling hi1n that“ a“ gay w1・

indigˉ 、 vh° had been invitcd to an international gay literary confCrencc in London‘ nantly rcfused” t。 attend(WhitC1994:277-8) This is Put down to a rcsistancc on 'riters to thc pcrcciⅤ cd lirnitation that、v。 uld bc imPoscd uPon thC Part° f Frcnch、 Λ :Cll aS thcir litcrary actiⅤ ity,by such a label InstructlⅤ c in this thcir subjcctiⅤ ity,as`冖、 rcspcct is Renaud CaIη us’ rcjccuon。 f thc tcrm“ homoscxual w1ˉ itcr” in Norε s △cJ,r氵 c刀冖Cs(1982;translatcd and quotcd in Vcrcier 1996:7): ritcr” ,unless Nothing is so ri(hculous as this conct of“ homOsexual、 Ⅴ it’

s“ Catholic w1・ ltcr” ,“ Brcton

whtcr,“ avant gar(lc writeF,I already

‘ havc tr。 ublc bcinε a‘ 、riter” I’ (l ‘ more than agrcc to being a‘

rathcr l)c t、

vo or threc 。fthcm or

homOsexual vvritcr”

As a conscqucncc,it could bc argucd that thcre is indccd no gay ncti。

n in Francc∶

thc immcdlatc cultural an(lP° litical idenuty neccssary to giⅤ c it m。 mcntum(l)oth in tcr1ns of Pr。 ducti° n and rection)is undern1incd bⅤ thc resistancc inhc1・ cnt in largcr s° cial and cultural factors,Frcnch ncti。

n that treats asPects of homoscxuahty

and“ d△ c hom° scxual condition” cxists,ofC0ursc,Of this,t、 vcntieth~ccntury French Cr,this htcr荻 urc tcncls literaturc has many cxamples(SCC RoL,lnson1995) HowCⅤ

not to Contribute t。 thc articulation of a culturc, identity and sensibⅡ ity that is diffcrently gay In thiS c。 ntcxt,it is not surPrising tl△ at thc Hgures,say,of the trans~ vcstite and thc quccn c。 ntinuc to be mar8inahzcd or do、 'nPlayCd in c。 ntclη Porary

accrue Frcnch、Ⅴriting and that thcir charactcristic linguistic registcr,camP,fails t。 sitiⅤ c Ⅴ alucs it has gaincd in much Anglo-Arncrican、 vork Thc work of T° ny DuⅤcrt,though httlc commcntcd uPon in Francc(and barely

the P。

rcad 。r translated 。utsidc Francc), gives us an insi8ht int°

isi° n ofn° nthc Ⅴ

‘

’

ⅤritCrs mainstrcan1sexuahtics that has l° ng cxistcd am。 n思 st Frcnch‘ hon1° scxual’ 、 moscxuahty is 。nc of ne could disPutc that h。 rc丘 ttc N。。 such as Gi(lc and PcⅤ orks vever,in Duvert’ s noⅤ cls and the° rctlcal、 Ⅴ s chicf prcoccuPations H。、 ntcxt oF a largcr intcrcst (1974, 1980), homOSexual actiⅤ ity takcs Placc in thc c° in Pre-PubcscCnt and ad。 lcscent sexuahtics Ultin△ atclv, DuⅤ crt’ s tcXts sCck to

Du、

ert’

exPl。 re

and cxtcnd the human exPcricncc ofscx and scxuahty Pcrsc HC rCatcdly

returns to thc thcme° f scxual relati。 ns bctvveen Chndrcn and bct、 vccn childrcn and

adults, Although much。 f

this actiⅤ ity is sallnc-scx baSed, thcrc is a clear scnsc in it is thc° Pcnncss,Poly1u。 rPh。 usnCss and(to uSc a Duvcrtian、 :ord)“ i11n° _ ccncc” of childrcn’ s intcrest in Physical and scxual actiⅤ itv that is his ccntral thcmc

hich 、・

418

KE1TH HARVEY Ⅵ'hen considcring IDuⅤ ert that thc(listinct uniⅤ crse° f

It is i1nportant

rn° dern

French

拐芳 :r讠 1γ 理 t虽 Jll;1丫砦湍橇Jf;;;∴ 扌龆丁叫r衤 :∶

cnce of a gay literature as this is undcrst。

11;;∶

°d in both British and Amcrican litcrarⅤ

iS,aPPCars to takc placc in and around a boarding sch°

揖h襁耀筝l泓鞍涎拱下 J黻 ol/corrcction ccntrc/hidc~

cstablislamcnt bc忆 re tllcy can e” oy one。 f thc gids凡 r mlc This scenc诣 intcr

csting for its rolc~playing of scxual coll,lllCrCC,and als。 bccausc it givcs us a litcrary

γR搬

lii∶ 1∶

r∶ l∶

丨 :1茁甚尢拄疋扌束 ∶ ∶ 昱星u玎 ∶ :l;∶

;∶

;∶

to conccntrate on thc rePrcscntations of direct sPccch I havc als° itahcizcd thc spccch ofthc N1adam t° facⅡ itate readability Thc lack° f standard Punctuation and thc use ofsPace bct、 fccn Porti° ns° f tcxt is,hovccⅤ cr,an0riginal fcaturc° f sOurcc and targct tcxts,)

la1naqucrclle un Pctit baⅤ ard c。 mme uncI’ iC a chapeau dc paillc d。 f° nc。

lcur dit

JlV`ds mcs bt,虿 ux,,,cssieurs tzΓ C’

召 Z-ˇ 0us

tlLzε

F甲

uc cI~fenrP

cst Combien?dcmandcnt lcs gargons

。la

Fa Fa c’

召 sF

cJ,cr c/,er!

Hc la P’ titc damc z’ avcz unc Putain qui rnct lcs bouts!

oh杨 f″ “ eh丿 dc人厂Po″ 甲u。氵Fu`。 ucs

PFusP

C’

Cstla mCrdc aⅤ ec v。 sc0nnCHcs j’ vais(lchors m。

c’

Hllc~l⒊ eⅡ c a dcs c。

n。 s dcr,,ois召

FF召 s

uilles rnadame dit un chcnt

dcs cc,uiFFes`ds du r。

1Ι

i

,

r!protcstc la gorantc ct cllc c° urait

dc gamin en gamin soulcⅤ ant lcs juPcs bdisez ccFF召

d1ì,,iFicu se1Ièi,,cnF J,ein il lnc m。

ntrait

.

(DuⅤ e哎 197⒊ 102-3)

!ll器品:1宀搬蔓扌 ⒊∶ ∶ ∶ s丨

,;苠

i∶

}∶

}∵

s℃

t群

:∶

dF口 sⅡ

h° 、 v

岔芷f扩uc unn胡 ω

c丿ou cno1召乃mon⒐ P 少 Jood sJ邓乃虿Γ

much is it?asks onc ofthc boⅤ s ’

dedhe dcdric me″ s nor ch召虿

hn° ,,oF For d吵犭即

`°

HCy madamc y° u’ vc a whorc hcre who’

s!

d口 r山 n卩

'″ s cutting out!

…

、


oh rJadF birch乃 ⒐ rhσ 召 sⅠ mon"灯

419

口″n,r丿 uP′ ⒐ in卩 /m@rc? vhat you arc、 vith all your stuPid assb。 lc s、 re all full of shit that’ you’ R蛀

ll jrll“ d】

`。

ry games rm going° ut忆 r a walk hey this floozy here has got balls says Onc of thc chcnts to the twit~

tcring madam °n召

o/勹 `丿 òun召

i“ rdnr夕 ∫ thC

FoΓ eìcs

Ψ oFrinf b￠ //s・〃口炒 sjr/ou mu虻

madam gi、・ es a

tr,ss t【

c召 dse

F南 Ⅰ s vu匆召rⅠ

⒐

,her hmd thcn runs Rom lady tc,lady

hRing ski】 ˉ ts thcn I’ ll

fuck that onc lying there in thc middle

hc P° inted at lnc

(Florcs 1975∶

111-12)

Thcrc is eⅤ ident camp here in thc sOurcc tcxt lXIadam’ s uttcranccs Thrcc main

camP katurcs can bc mcntioned:(a)a rCa【

ith%igncd outra思 c,cxPrcsSCd

lincss、 `・

through exclamati。 L1s(oh)and tlle PresCncc of cxdamauon m泌 with archaic hnguistic rcgistcr,asin h舀

alas my hand~

i11tc・ rrogadVc hverqon of日 vcz vous an(l tl△ cu陡。f qucFquc,in虻 cad C articlc,t° modi、 d昭 εnF(“ m。 ncy” ).ThiS c。 ntlasts With dle coarsc~

somc s订 s勹 ,thC 。f thc PartitiⅤ

h;(b)a Playhlncss

mess氵召 urs(htCrally,“

zs J,,cs bedu、 `。

’

ncss of F口 JtIrcc(“ thc bitch” )and thC SCxual cxPhcitness of dcs c° uiFJcs(“ balls’ ); (c) thc scⅡ Lc° nscious tcasing and scductivcncss ofthc disPrcfCrred resPonsc to thc boys’

dicct qucstion c’ la la it’

csr con,bicn C‘

s exPcnsivc cxPCnsiⅤ

how much isitP” 》 o为 1) This rcsPonse°

ac’ 召 sF ch召 r ch召 r/(htCrally,“ 。h

nlyà氵 in fact rePhCs to thC questi。 n

c’

by Prc-cmpting thc outragcd resPonSC that thc lalen、 vⅡ l

Pr° bably ha、 c、、 hcn t° ld

ho、 v cxPensivC it is,Itis an acutc con1rncnt on thc diffcrcntial po、

vcr fact° r at、Ⅴork

in a(lialoguc that is part busincss deal,Part sCxual PohticS Fl。 rcs’ s translation transf辶 rs much ofthc camP It als。 signiRcantly transf° rms ’ DuⅤ cl丈 s tcXt in t、 o ways∶ 6rst,the N/Iadam’ s camp is intensiscd and made sull

more thcatrical;second,thc sccnc bccomes one of homOscxual seduction and lcss a Playing out of chⅡ dish curi。 sity vvith sexual roles and b° undarics,In sh。 rt,Florcs’

s

Ho、 v is this achicⅤ cd tcxtually7Thc mah1stratcgy is that of addi~ ti° ns t° sourcc text lnaterial For cxan11)lc9thc N1adam is intr。 duccd in the Frcnch tcxt as wcaring un ch口 Pedu dc P虿 Ⅰ F′ c dt・ fonc舀 (litCrally,“ a bashc
translation carrics Out a transformati° n hcrc by suggesting that thc s。 urcc tcxt’

“

Pie”

(‘

’ ‘ 1nagPic’

) is itsClf“ PiI1ned t。 , ,

al Stra、丨

` b°

atcr”

s

, N1orc cant is thc

PrcsCncc in this scntcncc of t、 vo addcd details,ncither of、 vhich aPpcars1notiⅤ atcd

by thc⑽ uκ e

tcxt∶ (a)s。 mC° Fd d口 mc(m。 dⅡying srIcI″

bodrcr)ftlnctions nKtonymi cally to rcinforcc thc clcmcnt of gcndcr Parody; (b) J9 nincFics・ through the PrCScncc of thc dangcr° usly hom° nyn1ic卩 dΓ , sets ofF a subthcmc that bec° m cs CxPlicit by thc end。 fthc agc The gcndcr roles Par。 dy is furthcr rcinforced by thc a【ltIldon olˉ oh n° n@F少 r dr∫ 几 to tl△ c Ma【 1am’ s dcdHc d召 dhc m召 σ 1I=ddr】 n男卩Ⅰ ir’ s noF chedP,L蔽 Cr ad山 ti° ns i11cludc,Fcd0"r丿。u musr tc,口 sc rhis vu灯口ri:!jnsrdnrJ, ‘ furthcr dcvcloPing thc feigncd outrage of thc‘ 、 voman” , and rhc m口 cldirlìΓ es d Foss hc'乃 rP,or召 rotC虻 ess” )bc%le r为 cn/IJns cdd(凡 sε c杨抑 nF召 :htt。 r创 s the mala嗯 c】 ˉ 刂 J犭圩Ⅱ '冫

“ ・尹。i,,′ d刂 ro F口 ◇ (f0r cJJe c° urdir dc J￠ min dn Jdmin:hteralI)、 s11e ran Fl()lu boy to ’ boy’ ) ^Γ hc cun1ulativc cl辶 ct of these additi。 ns is to hcightcn thc fact° r of Pcrf° rn1~ allcc h tllc gendcr r。 lcs and to intensi、 `tllC thcatricdity of tl△

C Madam

420

KEITH HARVEY Thc。 thcr trcnd I mcnti° ncd is that。 f

the fr°

nting of hom° scxual scducti° n n °f thc

This is c° ntcxtuahzed and facilitated bⅤ thc intcnsiHcd theatricahzati°

Madam’ sdmg,Indccd,lll tlnis connCction tllc t△ tiⅤ c

cIdid° n to thc tar8et tt xt。 fthe ac幻 cc

rΠ =irFerin召 to dCScril)c thc p√ 1adanl is signi⒔

cant, as thc mctaPhor of l)ird (and

sCXual1ncn~csPecially camP oncs~in both s° urcc and targct cultures(cf CrisP1968∶ 84,Duvcrt1969∶ othcr anilnal)noisCs is oRcn apPhcd to thc sPecch of hoIll。

52, Grccn 1974∶ 45) The Prescncc of r叮 iFrC,,nJ, like that° f Jd厂 , SCtS of sugges_ csonanCes of homOscxual idcntity that arc n。 t Present in thc source tcxt The manifcstation of this idcntity bCcomes cxPhcit、 ⅤhCn° nc。 fthe b° ys refuses t° Play, c。 mPlaining:丿 ° u’ 饣F`JhFòfshir F为口r、 ″hdr丿 ou czrc llIrh丿 our sruPid dss乃 oFe`加 i9`Jdmcs tiⅤ e1・

(九 rc’ esr F'mcrd召

`召

d

Γcc【・ os C0nnCries∶ hterally,“ it’

s shit wkh your cunt stuPiditiCS”

)・

Thc addidcln of止 u〃 d dssh。 ′ c fdi丿 Jdmcs makes dcar Florcs’ s homoscxud read℃ of thc sourcc tcxt Thc rcfcrcnccs to anahty and tO sexual deviancc suddcnly trans— forn】 thc sccnc into an claborate cxcuse for malc~malc intcrcoursc, and thcreby deHect fro∏1a rcading that prioritizes thc Polymorphous cxplorations of chⅡ This gaying of thc tcxt culIninates in a decisiⅤ thcn I’ ll fuck that。

nc lyin8therc in thc n1iddlc

hc pointed at rnc

Hcrc, a crucial clc1ncnt of agcncy is attributcd to thc boy`Ⅴ (bCginning‘

‘’ I’

dren,

c transformation∶

h°

uttcrs thc Phrase

) and thcn P。 ints at thc narrator (an。 thCr b。 y) This rc、 vritcs thc

source tcxt’ s∶ baiscz ccllc(lu n△ ihcu seulement hein il rnc montrait

(lit:just hck tllc° nc[ft・ malcl in the mi(ldle heyP hc Pc,llatcd at me)

In thc sOurcc tcxtitis thc Madam Ⅵ 广 h0giⅤ es

an in△ PcratiⅤ C and nàintains thc⒔ ction

°f thc hetcrOscxual role~Playing、 vith cc``c(‘ ‘ the° ne” Ifemalel), LatCr in this sccnc, vhen t、 vo b。 ys actually do sncak° ff f° r gay scx,their activity apPcars in thc sOurcc 、 tCXt to be yct anothcr exPcrilnCnt in prc-adult sexual activity In the targct tcxt, thcir samc~scx aCtiⅤ ity is already c。 ntcxtuahzed and PrePared f。 r by the hom° ~ croticislll in Flores’ s reading of thc rolc~Playing,

In thc light of thc transformations in Florcs’ s tcxt,it rnay l)c considcrcd unlikcly

that Duvert hiInself Playcd any r。 lC in Producing thc translation, I1° 、广 eⅤ er, in a

sN。 tc at the front ofthe b。 °k Fl° rcs、 vritcs∶ “ I Ⅵould like t。 thank thc auth。 r,T°ny Duvert,hr his J° b like PatiencC in dcalhg Ⅵ,ith my many quc1・ lcs Translator’

conccrning his tcxt,and also f° r rlying s° len8thⅡ y to thcm” Alth。 ugh this(l。 cs ve that Duvert rcad(or undcrst。。d)the、 vholc。 f thc translation,it ccrtainlv

n° t Pr。

,arrantcd Puts us。 n our guard agaiI1st conCluding that Fl。 rcs Ⅵ'as able to takc unⅥ and unsanctioncd libcrtics 、 vith thc tcxt. 、 Ve arc pcrn1ittcd thcn t。 surn1ise that

PCrhaPs DuvCrt b° th undcrst° od and aI)pr° Ⅴed。 fthc Enghsh Ⅴcrsion Onc n】 ight suggcst that this is l)ccausc DuⅤ crt, as a rclatiⅤ cly marginahzcd and untranslated author, 、 vould be plcased、 vith any translation into another languagc of his、 v° rk, Ⅳould l)e that Duvcrt、 :as 、 vhatevcr thc quality.Pcrhaps a morc scrious suggcstion、 a、 Ⅴ arc ofthc cmcrging moⅤ cmcnt of homosexual hberati。 n in the usA in the n1id_ 1970s, and als° °f the c° ntributi° n that a gay hteraturc could make to such a lη oⅤ emcnt Through gay libcrati。 n DuⅤ crtl,lay haⅤ e hoPcd that thc luessagc in his


‘

b。。 ks

421

Ⅵid1rc思 a1・ (l to chⅡ d sexuahty、 voukl reccivc a bcttcr rcction in thc uSA

by bcc。 n1ing caught uP in thc gcncral s、

vc of a SCxual rcvoluti。 n that、 vas lcd by

.sillh、 g for 11is adult h。 n1oscxuals h1 this contcxt, it 1uay bc argucd that hc `vas ・ r(lcr hr it t。 w° rk t° undcrgo thc tcxtud intcrvcntions dccmc(l suitablc in。

‘

d1is inciPient s° cial,cultural and litcrary ll,ovcmCnt(to bC‘

gaycd” ,in short) It is

als。、 Ⅴorth notil`g that Gr。 Ⅴe Prcss, “Ⅱ bo Pubhshcd srrdn卩召LdncJsctz`c, has c° nsistcndy chamPioncd gay writing ovcr d1c years(Pul蚯、r1994:216) By1975th0r

gay list11)ay alrcady haⅤ c bccn taking shapc, A gay tcxt, in thc American scnsc,

om DuⅤ crt’ s wriung Flores,in

would ha、 'c bccn just what thcy wcrc looking for⒏ sh° rt,

、、as l^csPonding t。

thcse c°

mbincd(sub)cultural and c° mmcrcial prcssurcs

5 ConcIuding remarks:texts and contexts in translation studies v a vcrbal stylc, can11),is linked、 vith thc dchncati。 n cs° ugbt to cstabhsh h° 、

I ha、

ofhom° scxual rnalc charactcrs in French-and Enghsh_languagc ncti。 ho、 v thc translati°

n and,furthcr,

n of this stylc in its Hcti° nal settinε s rcveals the cffccts

constraints and Prioritics of diffcring cultural scttings sPccihcally,I haⅤ

°f

c suggcstcd

that thc changcs, on1issions and additi。 ns prcscnt in t、 vo translatcd tcxts Can bC illun1inatcd bⅤ recoursc to debates on scxual idcntitⅤ

sⅤ stems

and t° the literarⅤ

nal in Frcnch and Anglo-Amcrican contcxts 、 voukl bc disingcnu。 us of mc to say at this Point that an) unccrtah1ty ・ (lisccrniblc in m〉 ccCding paraconclusi。 ns(d】 C hCdges,n,iJlDrs and mdlbcs of thc l)】 ’ ‘ grcss’ naturc of this paPcr The graPhs) is duc prirnarily to thc ′ opcI・ ati°

It

òrk in-Pr。

uch lllorc fundamental and threaten to disablc 、 djn(as。 Scd to mcrely dcsσ jbt,lthe data offered Thc)are a c° nscattcmPts to ε pp。 P氵 Pr。 blcn1s this unccrtainty raiSCS are n】

qucnce, I bchcⅤ c, °f crucial theoretical and n△ c° nfr° nting translati° n studics, namely thc nCcd t°

cth° dol° gical issucs currcntly

makc cxPhcit thC imbricati° n

。ftexts and c。 ntexts Translati° n is notiuSt about tcxts:nor is it only about cultures and poⅥ er, It is ab。 ut the relati。 n。 fthc Onc to thc othcr,In this rcsPcct,translation studics is11ot unhkc critical linguistics, thc branch of contcn△ stud) that has g1ˉ

o、

vn° ut

1,orar〉

|anguagc

of thc fklsi。 n of functional-systcnìc linguistics and critical

tbc。 ry Critical linguistics is also st】

・ ugghng to Producc Paradign1s that、 vjll

allO、 v it

to rclatc the n1inutiac of tcxtual analysis to thc intcractional, sOcial and p。 htical fhich those language forms。 Pcratc contcxts that Producc languagc fornns and upon、、 As Fovdcr has rcccntly Putit,it is no、 ti1nc for thc criucal hnguist“ to takc a Proks~

’ id an in order t° aⅤ ° ‘ and on‘ informal acc。 unts of relcvant oⅤ crrchancc on‘ intcrsubjcctiⅤ c intuitions’ ’ contcxts and institutions’ (Fo、 vler 1996: 10; see alS° Fairclough 1992: 62-100) A/1uch thc san1c could bc said t。 thc sch。 lar of translati。 n sionally rcsP° nsible attitudc to、vards thc analysis of contcxt’

’

‘

What is rcquircd, then, in translation studics is a n△ ith Pri。 ritiZes l)road conccrns、 Ⅴ

Ⅴcr, l)。、

ethodol。 gy d1at neithcr

i(lcology and Patr° na8ct° thC dctri111cnt of

thc need to exa111inc rrcscntatiⅤ c cxan、 Plcs 。f tCxt, n° r contents itsclf 、 `jd) vith skctcby and generahzed dctailcd text-hnguistic analysis `、 hilc n)akil)g do 、

notions of contcxt SPeCiHcally“ :ith regard t。

n△

ork, many n1° rc instanccs of y“ ・

camP ta】 k can f° r descriPtion in° rder to l)ring out the trcnds not°

nly bct、 vcCn

422

KEITH HAR∨

EY

Frcnch,British and American tcxts,but als。

bct、 veen

texts from different pcriods

(Cg Prc- and Post~ thC AIDS crisis), bet、 vccn tcxts that ⒔cti° nally rrescnt diffcrcnt social strata,and alsO tcxts that demonstratc(liffcrcnt litcrary aspirations

It is i1nportant, in othcr、vords, to maintain the noti° n °f calllP as a P° tCntially Plural。 nc,rcmaining alcrt t。 its tcxtual inHccti° ns and Ⅴariati° ns This is thc cl。 se teXt-hnguistic branch of thc

、 v。 rk I△ 。、 vcvcr, n△ aCro-cultural trcnds alsO crucially

nced t° be kt in Ⅴ ic、氵and rclatcd t。

跎us1hg m汕 nc⒈ uⅡ matcly,thc随

thc tcxtual dcscriPti° ns in a hcuristically

JclⅩ k d° nc arc abk t。

。跤r

uq c° n“ no℃

cxPlanati。 ns ofh° Ⅵ厂a tcxt comCs to rncan in its contcxt,of、广 hat valuc a text accrucs

as a sign, bc it of a Postulatcd universal subjcctivity or an irreduciblc subcultural

diffcrcncc The Challengc is to hnd a、 vay not just t。 actional and cultural scttings, but to give thc rclati。

s丿

Fudr召 disc。

urse in its intcr_

nship betxx`ccn SCtting and

discoursc the forcc。 f causahtⅤ

Acknowledgements I am vcry8ratcfu1t。

the f° llo、 ving

PcoPlc f° r thcir cnc° uragcment and criticisn△

during thc、 Ⅴ riting of this PaPer,as′ Ⅳcll as f° r° Pportunitics to(hscuss thc matcrial in 、 vorkshops and scnⅡ nars: N1ona Bakcr, Jcan B。 asc~Bcicr, Pctcr Bush, R° gcr F° 、 vlcr,La、 vrcnCC

VCnuti I、 vould likc t。 thank Christ° phcr Robins° n for Pointing out thc Proustian rcsOnanCc of cn苕 rrc,discusscd on Pagc414,

Chapter 29

Jacques DerrIda

WHAT IS A、 ′RELE∨ ANT〃

TRANSLATION? Γra刀 s∫ a古 eC/by Layyre刀 ce l/eny古 `

「 Flcn

rnusr Fhc/e″ bc mcrcy△ F

(I leaⅤ e

untranslated this陡 ntcncc

Ⅱom

Portia h rfl召

〃crchdnr

gf‰ nicc,)

P° rda will alsO say,"勹 bcn ila″ ⒐ scds。 ns∫ usri“ ,which I shall htcr Pr° P。 sC 召F￠ JusⅡ c召・ to translatc as Q〃 dnd F召 Pdrdon rt・ J氵 Γ

oW DARE ONE sPEAK oftranslati°

n bcforc y° u who, ln your v1gl—

lant awarcncss of thc immcnsc stakes~and n°

t onlⅤ

ofthc htc 。f

~makc this subhmc and imP。 ssiblC task your dcsirc, your anxicty,

litcraturc

your travail,

ving skillP1 your kn° vdcdge,and your kn° 、

H。、/darc I Pr° cCCd bcforc you,kn° Ⅵ:ing myself to bc at。 nce rude and incx_ PCriCnccd in this d°

main, as somconc、 vho,fr。 n1thc Ⅴery丘 rst rn° mcnt, from his ω ” u,灬山 CE则 “hSⅡ ℃ pcS,orfrJac

vcry6rst attcn1PtS(飞冖σkhIcodd Kcc,tlm recoi Jl,此 unncd thc translattDr’

sm忐 dcr,his bcatltihl and tcrri灯 ing℃ 叩° ns山 ility, ‘

his ins。 lvcnt duty and dcbt, vvid△ out ceasing to tcll hilnsclf‘ ncⅤ cr cvcr again”

“

n° ,Prcciscly,I、v。 uld ncΓ cr

t°

Pull it of”

:

darc,I should ncΓ cr,could neΓ cr,xX ould nc`召 r1nanagc

P

If I dare aPPr。 ach this subjcct bcf° rc y。 u,it iS bccause this very discourage~

mcnt,this Prcmaturc rcnunciation of、 Ⅴhich I sPcak and fron1、 vhich I sct。 ut,this dcclarati° n ofins° lⅤ cncy bCf° rc translation vvas al、 jeal。 us

Ⅴays, in mc, thc Othcr facc of a

and adn1iring loⅤ c,a ion f。 r、 vhat sun1mons,loⅤ cs,proⅤ 0kcs and dcHcs

hdc running uP an in丘 nitc dcbt in its scrvicc,an adlaliration for th° translation、 Ⅴ

lncn and Ⅵ广 omen 、 vho, to my n1ind, arc the °nly ones 、 Ⅳho kn0、 f 1999

h。、 v

sc

to rcad

424 JAcQuEs DERRIDA and、 vritc~translators Whic11is an° d1cr、 vay of rccogni7ing a sumln。 ns to translati° n at the、 :cry threshol(l° f aⅡ cadi11g一、:riting Hencc tbc in⒔ nity of thc loss, the insolⅤ ent(lcbt, Much likc vvhat is oⅥ cd to shylock,insolⅤ cncy itsclf SPcaking, 1・

my ProRcssi。 n and Ⅵ・ l⒒ ch, aftcr aⅡ , hkc n△ any here am。 ng you,cngagcs lnc l)ody and s° ul ahnOst constantly)~I kn。 v旷 that tcachin思 , writln:(which I als。

c。 nsidcr

thcsc actiⅤ itics arc1ncaningful in my cycs only in thc Proof。

an cxPericncc that I、

`dl nevcr distinguish fiolu exPC】

f translation,throu思

1mcntation As for thc、

h

v。 rd

r thC、・ vdl l)e111y themc)~ncither思 ran1n】 ar nor lcxicon11〈 Dld an intercst 。rd 、 for mc~Il,chc、 c I can say that if I loⅤ e thc 、 v。 rd, it is° nl〉 in the b° dy of its (f°

、 Ⅴherc a l)assi° n for translation c° mcs to lick it as a ・ aPPr。 aching as closely as PossiblC′ Λ hilc refusing at thc last rn。 mcnt to tlarcatcn or to rcducc,to Consume or to c° nsun1mate,lcaⅤ ing thc Other b。 dy intact but not、 vithout causing the othcr to aPPcar~。 n thc Ⅴcry brink° f this rcfusal or、 Ⅴithdra、 val~and aRer having ar° uscd o1ˉ cxcitcd a dcsirc )r thc idiom,R)r thc unique body。 f thc° thcr, in thc naluc,s⒈ lickcr or thr° ugh a tongue’ s carcss I don’ t kn° 、 Ⅴhoxx、。rin ho、v many lang11ages, you can translatc thjs、v。 rd`JcJacr、 Ⅴ hcn〉 °u、 vish to say that onc languagc licks anothcr,likc a Πamc idi。 matic

singularity, that is,

Hamc° r an amorous tonguc1night∶

l【

c)r a caress

’

But I vvon’ t Put or any longcr saying“ mcrci’ to you,in a、、 0rd,addressing this f,lCrcΓ

to you in morc than(and n。

l°

ngcr)onc language

dlI haⅤ e thankcd y。 u for thc hosPitahty、 id1、 vhich yOu hon。 r sooner、、 1uc dlan I will nccd tcl灬 ky。 ur凡 rgi`・ encss cttld,ll△ cxprcssin:my gratitudc lqr左 ccl F° rn°

to you,bcg y° ur paldon lclrJc钊 ,ask you t【 ,bc`″ c`c!∫ i汀 t【Dn1eF。 r youl Pa吐 ,忆 r妒、e mc9om d1e outsct忆 ra、・ alhng mysdf of tllis、 0rd n,crcy1às if it、 σe a citation n△ m召 nrion丿 n召 it as much as I’ m‘ Ι sin卩 it,as a sPccch act theorist might say,a bit too ConsdCnt in thc n0、 v canonical disth1ction bct、 'cen mcnrion and usc I’

In 。thcr、vords, I certainly、 von’ t dclay in thanking you f° r thc signal hon° r you haⅤ c accordcd n1c,but also,Ⅴ

ia this、

ôrd。

f gratitudc and,,2c】 cr,in asking your

forgivcncss for all thc ltrnits, sta1・ ting、 ith n1y° 、 Ⅴn inadcquacics,

、 vhich hindcr me 。m mcasuring uP to it As f° r1ny inadcquacics,I will n。 (l° ubt nlakc a、・ ajn cffort t()dissennblc then△ 、 el) PcrⅤ crsc ìd`contrivanccs more or lCss l)aiⅤ Bcf。 rc thcsc thanks rcndcrcd,this Pard° n bcgged, In1ust hrst ackno、 vledge a dcfcct° f languagc that could、 Ⅴcll be a l)rcach in thc laⅥ fs° f hosPitahty In cffcct, fi・

is it not thc6rst duty of thc Jucsr丨

J,犭 rε

l that I an△ to sPcak a languagc that is intcl~

hgiblc and transParcnt,hencc、Ⅴithout cquivocati。 nP And thcrcf° rc lan思 uage,namcly

t。

sPeak a singlc

that° f thc addrcsscc,hcrc of thc/,os∠

/,JF召 ⒈ a langua8c cSpccially 丨 dcsigncd士。r、 vh° cvcr I1△ ust and can undcrstand it, a languagc that is sharcd, likc

the vcry languagc ol thc。 thcr, that ol thc othcr t。、 vhom 。nc addrcsscs it, 。r at thc vcry lcast a languagc that the hstcncr or rcadcr can n1akc his or hcr 、n7 °、 A languagc that is,in a、

òrd,tramslatabl

N° Ⅵ△ herc js onc ofthe adn1issions that I o、

vc you on scveral sc。 rcs First,° n

thc score° f rny titlc and° n thc sc。 rc of sPeaking,as I shaⅡ

(l。

in a rn。

mcnt,about

my title in an cntircly untranslatablc manner A(lFnitting n1ore than onc failure, I c。 nfcss

this doublc inadequacy that is all thc morc imPossiblC t。

avoid bccausc it

bcars a sel∴ contradiCtion: if I need t。 address y° u in a singlc lanε uage, Frcnch (thereby rccogni7ing that evcry s。 -called(liscoursc on translati。 u, evcry 111ctalan~

guage or mcta-theorem 。n the topic of translation is fated to inscribc itsclf、 Ⅴithin

/VHATx1sA、

、

TRANsLATION?

RELEVANT〃

425 ays alrcady

thc hn1its and P° ssibilitics of a singlc idion1), I am nCvCrthclcss allx∶

inchned to lcaP° vcr this language, rny o、、n, and I shall d。 it again, thus leaⅤ i11g undccidcd the questi° n of a si1uPle choicc l)ct、 ècn lan8uagc and n】 ctalanguagc, bet、 veen one language and an° ther At thc、、。rd go`Ⅴ c arc、 vithiL1thc n1ultiPhcity of languagcs and thc jmPurity of the li111it

厂、、 11) 、、。uld n1y titlc rcn1ain f° rever untranslatablc?In the Hrst Placc, bccausc

庀vc];n° r,thcrc~

onc can’ t dcode thc sOurcc hnguagc to which it is answeral)lc Ir召 forc, in、 vhat sensc it traⅤ ails, FrtIvcFs,bctvvccn Jlε

rc and乃

。r召 ,JLIcSr

It is hnPossiblC to dccide thc s。 urcc lan思 ua:e to′ vhich,for

“

and h°

sr,

examPlc,thc、v° rd

rdc、 ˇ ante”

w

answcⅡ [昭 f爸 v召 l,aw。 rd that I leave within quotau。 n malks lc,rn° N。 r tbe languagc to、 vhich it bel° ngs at thc】 u° nη cnt、 vhcn I use it,in thc s)ntagms 。r the Phrascs、 vhere I n△ oⅤ e to rcinscr")c it D° es this、 vord sPeak onc and d1c saluc languaEe, in onc and thc san1c languagc⒎

At the san1e ti11△ c,

、 vc

(l0n’ t cⅤ cn

kno`v if it is really one、 vord,a si11g丨 c、 Ⅴ ord、 vith a single Inea11ing,or if,h。 m° nyn1

。r llon、。phonc° F itsclf,it c° nstitutcs lnorc than onc、 `'ord in onc ‘ Ⅴ Vhat I shall ProPosc to you undCr this titlc(‘ Whatis a‘ rclcⅤ ant’ translati° n?’ ’ ), und° ubtcdlⅤ short of anv rcflccti。 n、 Ⅴorthv。 f this、 vord about thc、 vord,about thc unity of thc、 v° rd in gcncral,、 Ⅴ ill PcrhaPs l)Can1° rc modcst and`cIb° rious aPproach, °n the basis of a singlc、 vord,thc、 Ⅴ。rd‘ ‘ rclevant” I undcrhnc`口 ri° us to announcc ln。

scⅤ eral

xxords in rr and t°

indicatc that thc Π1° tif° f

Fd‘ oLIr丨 FI虿 ydiF⒈

thc rraⅤ

aⅡ °f

childbⅡ th,but also thc r阳 nJ汪 m冖 d′ and rransbrmatiomal Fr灬缸 l,h all P。 ssiblc co(lcs

and n° t only those of Psychoanalysis, `vill cntcr into comPctitic)n、 Ⅴith thc aPPar^ cntlⅤ lnc〉 rc ncutral 111° tif of rranslati。 n, as rr口 ns‘ zcrjt,力

and as rransfcr Wc shall thcn

、

lving around a si11glc cxatγ 1Ple, a Punning exan△ 1DlC,if therc is such a ìnd uP rev° thing,and ifthe word、 cleⅤ anΓ n1ay bc。 nc,unique,solitary,at oncc a11a【 ljccti、 àl

andèrbal f。 rm,a sort of PrCsCnt Pa1・ ticiPle that bcc。 mcs an id1Ct or Prcdicate

’ 、 Vhat。 f this Ⅴ。cable“ rclcvant’ ?It PosSesscs all thc traits of the li11guistic unity that 。nc f11nⅡ iarly calls a word, a vcrbal b° dy. Wc oftcn f° rε ct, in thiS same fan1iharity, h° 、 v。 rd remains a v thc unity 。r idcntity, thc indcndCncc °f thc 、 mystCrious thing,Prccarious,not quite natural,that is to say hiSt。 rical,institutional, and c。 nⅤ entional Therc is no such thing as a vvord in naturc Wcll, this xx=。 rd

“

rclcⅤ ant”

ca1ˉ

rics in its body an° n-going Proccss of translation,as I、

as a translati、 cl,。 dy,it

、

il丨

try to sho、 v;

endurcs or cxhibits translati。 n as thc mcnn。 ry or stigllaata

of sufkring[Po” it,`2丨。r,h° Ⅴ cring abovc it,as an aura or halo This translatiⅤ c body is i11thc Proccss0f bCing in1portcd int。 thc Frcnch languagc, in thc act。 f cr° ssin思 b° rdc1ˉ s and l)cing chcckcd at scvcral intra~EuroPcan custon△ s Po"1ts that arc n° t only Franc° -English,as。 nc n1ight in△ 。nn thc hct that this、 Ⅳord。 f Latin origin Iˉ

is no、

Flˉ

v rathcr Enghsh(re′ cy口 nr/irrcè,dnF)in itS currcnt usage,in its usc-valuc,in its

circulation or its c1Ι rren9、 eⅤ Cn d△ ough it is also in thc ProccSS 0f Frenchi丘 cati° n. This acculturation,this Frcnchi丘 cation is not sFricru scnso a translatl。 n Thc、 v。 rd is not only jn translati。 n, as Onc 、 vould say in thc 、 v° rks ° r in transit, rr口 vcF1n卩 ,

Fr口 ,口

t。

氵 ′ 氵 ,,J, in`db° r Inm),ProPosed title, it serves, thr°

quali丨 ;translati°

ugh a suPPlemcntary fokl,

n,as wcll as what a translati。 n might bc ob为

∶ dnr

cd t。 bC,namcly 卩

r‘ :丿 c1・

ThOse 。f)ou 、 vh。 arc ∫

、 vid1 English Pcrl)aPs alrcady ul、

`n1ihar Frcncllihcad。 w。 I【 lc△ sa(lomcstication,aIl in1Plicit a nloκ

°

r lk・

n夕

ss tacit and dandestille enianchlsement IF’

dcrstand the

dnosdrj。 nl or~(hκ ISayP~

q6。

nchisscmcnrl 口

ofthC Engi曲

426 JAcQuEs DERRIDA a内 cctiⅤ e rd召 Γ nr,which ￠

Ⅴith baggagc, 、 f this 、 ° vord

w° uld have thus P灬

°ur language with bag and

scd int°

its Predicatcs of dcn。 tation and conn° tation, The Frcnch fcn1ininc

C‘ unc traduction rc`cv口

nre’

’

) sounds cvcn m° rc Enghsh and takes us

back t。 thc signaturc and the sexual differcncc at stakc、

VhcrcⅤ cr translation。 r trans-

lat0姑

on thc masctllhe or kmininc)arC inⅤ olⅤ c(l, 、 Vhat is m。 st oRcn callcd“ rclcvanFP Wcll,whatcⅤ cr炙 cls Hght,whatcⅤ cr scems Pe哎 inCnt,aPropos,wdcomc,aPProPriatc,oPPolˉ tunc,justinc(l,wcl⒈ sui∝ d

。r adustcid,cOmhg hgl△t at thc momellt whcn you exPcct lt~° r CorrcsPon(ling as is ncccssary t。

the° bjcct t0、 vhich thc s。 -called rclevant action rclatcs∶ thc rclc~

vant discoursc, thc relevant proposition, the rclcvant decision, thc relcⅤ

ant translauon,A rclcⅤ ant translation、 Ⅴoukl thcrcf° rc be,quite si1nply,a“ good” trans~ lati° n,a translation that docs、 vhat onc cxpccts ofit,in short,a、・ crsion that Perf° rms

、 vhilc inscribing in the

its n1ission, honors its dcbt and docs its job or its duty rccciⅤ in81angua思 c thc m。

St reJ召

Γ tInr

cquivalcnt f° r an。 riginal,the languagc that is

Fhc mosr right, appropriatc, pertincnt, adcquatc, °PPortunc, P° intcd, uniⅤ °cal, and so。 n, TJle j,,osr p。 ssiblc, and this supcrlatiⅤ c Puts uS° n thc trail of

idi° matic,

an“ cconomv”

、 vith、 vhich、vc shall havc to rcckon

Thc vcrb rcF召 ver brings1nc back to a modest but effcctiⅤ c exPeriInent in trans-

in 、 vhich I haⅤ c f° und mysclf cngagcd for morc than thirty years, ahnost continuously, 丘rst bct、 /ccn Gcrman and Frcnch, thcn morc rccently bct、 vccn lati° n

Enghsh and French, That this samc Frcnch word(the Ⅴery same、vord, assun1ing Ⅴcry跎 mc w° rd,an(l tllclt hcnce忆 rth k is Frcnch thr。 ugh and thr°ughl,

tlaat k is tllc

that this samc、 vord could havc thus° Pcrated,in a singlc language, bct、 vccn thrcc ’ 'ork Chffcrcnt、 v° rds bcl° nging languagcs,so as to“ translate,’ orin any casc to putto Π t°

aPparcntly(liffCrcnt c。 ntcxts in at lcast t、

vo othcr sourcc languages(German and

Enghsh)— —ths fact seems an incalculable strokc° f luck,an invcnti° n or neccssity for、 Ⅴ hich I、 Ⅴ ondcr、 vh° can bcar thc rcsP° nsibility,cⅤ en if it、 vas aPParcntly n1ine at衔 rst and ll△ ine tO sign.I harb。 r no illusion or PrctCnsi° n in this resPcct∶ if I took thc initiatiⅤ c in thcsc quasi— translations, I could d°

s°

°nly to hcar, in order t°

scmantic and formal~alrcady inscril)cd in ‘ ‘ this family of lan8uagcs and, srst and f° rem° st, in rny” languagc. In any case,

rccord, Various possibilitics。 r

Ia、 vs_—

bccausc thc haPPy c。 incidcncc in qucstion has since thcn bec。 mc some、 vhat lu。 rc

hmiliar to mc,bccausc I kcl lcss exPosed~in my incompctcncc~to thC Hsk°

F

saying highly irrClCⅤ ant things about translati° n in gcncral bcf° re thc exPcrt scholars

and accomPhShCd Professionals that you arc, I haⅤ

c thcrcf° rc PrcfCrrcd t。

that we Prowl ar。 und a small w° r(l an(l follow it hkc a“

g。

suggcst

bctwccn” rathcr tllan

engage anc、 v, on the lcⅤ el °f gcncrahty, in thc。 rctical or m。 rc 。 bⅤ i。 usly PhilosoPhical ° r sPcculatiⅤ c re∏ ecti° ns 、 vhich I haⅤ c else、 vhcrc vcnturcd °n Ⅴ arious

un卜 c邱 al ProblCms° f Trallshtion,in thc wakc。 f Xll/altt,r Bcnlamin,Jamcs J° yce, and scⅤ cral。 thers

And PcrhaPs I sh。 uld thcn confcss undcr this Ⅴery heading,thus Plcading guilty Ⅵ/ith° ut cxtcnuatin8circu∏ 1stanccs, that I Ch° se my titlc PrccisCly bccause of its vay, consPiring to insurc thc untranslatability, Prcmcditating my cri1ne in this 、 apParcnt untranslatabihty of⒈ ny titlc through a singlc、 vord,a、 0rd、 vherein I si思 n, ⅤhiCh in an idion】 that is s。 mcthing likc my signaturc, thc themc° f this lccture, 、 Ⅴnl thcref° rc rcscmble a seal that, c。、:ardiCc Or arrogance, xs ould abridge itsclf 、 into nnⅤ initials.

XAlHAT Is A′ RELEVANT〃

TRANsLATION?

427

What remains is that~ trust me ~ I don’ t transgrcss a c° de of decency or modcsty through a ProⅤ 。cativc challcngc, but thr。 ugh a tria⒈ by subn1itting the cxPCriCncc of translation t°

thc trial。 f thc untranslatablc,

As a rnattcr of fact, Id。

n’

tt)chcⅤ c that anything can cⅤ cr bc untranslatablc~

or, LnorcoⅤ cr,translatablc,

H° 、 v can onc darc say that n。 thing is translatablc and,by thc samc tokcn,that nothing is untranslatablc?T° vvhat conct oftranslation must onc aPpcal to PrcⅤ Cnt d1is axiol11frorn sccn△ ing si1nPly unintclhgiblc and contradict° ry:“ n。 thing is trans-

’

latablc;nothin8is untranslatablc’ PT。 thc c° ndition of a ccrtain ccon。 n2r that relates thc translatablc to thc untranslatablc,not as the same t° thc othcr,but as same to sa1nc or other to othcr,Hcrc‘

”

cconoll△ Ⅴ Signi付 es

t、 v°

things,`roP召 rFJ and tlu￠ nrirr:

nd,whtRt conCCrns thc law° f ProPcr⒐ (oikon。 I,,id,the laW-nomos~of hat is proPcr,apPr。 PriatC to itself,at h° mc -and translation is al、 vays o氵 (° s,of Ⅵ ￠

n Fh召。 thc

‘

0nc h口

an attcmpt at apProPriation that airns t°

transPort h。 mc,in its languagc,in thc rn。

st

aPProPriatC 、 vay P° ssiblc, in thc m。 st rclcⅤ ant 、 vay Possil)lC, thc n△ 0st Pr° PCr mcaning ofthc original text,even ifthisis the ProPcr rncaning of a⒔ gurc,rnctaphor, metonymy,catachrcsis or undecidablc imPr。 PriCty)an(1,° n rhc° rher hdnd,a law of —、 vhcn° nc sPeaks of econ° my,one al、 vays sPcaks of calculablc quantity q1I口 nriFr— On co,,,Prc er 。 n rend c° mPFc, °ne c。 unts and s for A rclcⅤ ant translati。 n is a translation、 Ⅴ hose ec° nomy,in thcse tvv° scnses,is thc l)cst P° ssiblC,thc most aPProPriating and thc m° st aPProPriatc PoSsil)lc How(locs a P” nciPF召 gfccon。 r叮 Permit° nc tr,跎 ytwot△ PParel△ t|col・ tra山 ctory “ tllings at thc跎 mc ume(1 N。 thng“ tmnslataL,lc” ;2,“ EⅤ σythhg is“ anslatat,lc” ) 、 vhilc c。 nHrn1ing thc cxPcriCncc that I suPPosC is s° comlnon to us as to bc bcyond Cn translation, vvhethcr thc best or thc

any P。 SSiblc(lisputc, na1ncly, that any giⅤ

Ⅴorst, aCtuaⅡ y stands bctvvccn the t、 vo, bct、 vccn absolutc rclcⅤ ancc, thc most 、 appropriatc, adcquatc, uniⅤ ocal transParcncy, and thc m° st abcrrant and oPaquc 厂 hat this ccon° my ofin~bct、 vccnncss signi⒖ cs, it is irrclcⅤ ance? To undcrstand 、 ncccssary t。 irnaginc t、 vo cxtrCmC hyPotheses, thc f° llovving t、 vo hypcrbolcs: if t°

a translator、 vho is fully c。 mPetcnt in at least t、 vo languages and t、

v。

culturcs,

two cultural mcmorics with thc s° ciohist。 lcal knowlc(lge cmbo山 cd in them,y。 u 要 all tl・ C dmc in thc w。 dd,as wcll as thc w。 rds nccdcd tO cxlDhcate,d盯 i灯 1・

,

`℃

and tcach thc semantic contcnt and f°

r1η s

of thc tcxt to bC translated, thcre is no

rcason for hilu t° encountcr thc untranslatablc Or a rcmainder in his、

give somcOnc、 Ⅴho t°

is c°

mPctcnt an cntirc b° ok,丘 llcd、vith

exPlain cⅤ crything that a Phrasc°

ft、 v°

Frczns`dro'’

Ⅴ。rk If Ⅴou

s norcs,in ordcr

°r thrcc vvords can mcan in its Particu-

lar brm“ 。r cxamPlC,tllc he"dr分 om Finn昭 dns Ⅱ ∴ 口炎 c,whch has。 ∝uucd me in anothcr PlacC,2c,l dqe mcr⒐

sc口 sons丿 usF氵

cc’ 。m Tllc/Irerc为

shall dlscuss bclow),there is really no rcas。

~ 、 Ⅴithout

anⅤ

n,in PI・

￠nF犭

防

n1ce,whic・ h wc

lnciPlc,br him to hd t° rcnder

rcmaindcr ~ the intcntions, mcaning, dcnotations, connotations

and scmantic ovcrdctcrn1inations, the f° rmal cffects of、 vhat is callcd the original Of c。 ursc, this oPcration, 、 vhiCh occurs dailⅤ in the univcrsitⅤ and in htcrarⅤ criticislu,is not、 vhat is callcd a translation,a translati°

hist°

in thc strict scnsc, thc translati。

n° f

n、 vorthy

ofthc namc,trans-

。 rk, To makc lcgitin1atc usc of thc w° rd“ translation” (F阳 ‘ fucF氵 ° n,t/be邓召 Fzun召 ,r'ddu∝ 氵犭 n,rI4nsFdci。 n,and so忆 rth),in the rigor° us scnsc conferrcd。 n it° Ⅴ cr scveral ccnturics by a l° ng and comPlcx lati。 n

a TΓ

ry in a givcn cukural situation(morC Prc。 SCly,morc narro、 vly,in Abrahan1ic

428 JACQuEs DERRIDA and post-Luthcran Eu1・ oPe),the trcanslati。 n must bc qudnrird∠

1Ⅰ

c夕

eq“ Ⅴalcnt t。 the

original,aPart fr。 ll’ any paraphrasc,exPhcation,cxPlicitation,analysiS,and thc likc

Hcrc I an1n° t sPcaking of quantity in gencral° r° f quantit) in thc pr° s° dic scnsc (mCtCr,ll∵ thm,c岔 mrca,ll△ yme~all thc das“ c co灬 J“ nts and hmRs tllat are i11 lc and in fact insurn】 ountable by translati° n) I alsO dehberatcly set aside all

Princil’

ts0f PhCnomcna— —quite intcresting,as a mattcr of hct due t°

、 Ⅴhich this RDrn1 。f quantitative equivalcncc is ncⅤ cr rigorously aPProachablc It has been rccognized sC)1ˉ

that ccrtain languagcs、 vith a tcndcncy toˇ vard exccssivcly long c° nstructions take thcm lnuch fhrthcr in translation,No translation、 Ⅴill cⅤ cr rcducc this quantitativc or, in a Kantian scnsc, this acsthctic diffcrcncc, sincc it conccrns thc sPatial and tcmpo】・ al brms of scnsⅡ ,ilit) But thS will n° tbc n1cn10rc and today in Particular,in this quantitatiⅤ

m)P° int,No,what mattcrs to c la、、 , il1this cc。 non1〉 , is thC

unit。 f rl△ casurcmcnt that govcrns at oncc the classic conct of translation and thc calculus that inf° rms it 1ˉ his quantitatiⅤ e unit° f rncasurcn△ ent is not in itsel士

quan~

titatiè;it is rathcr quahtativc in a ccrtain sensc It is not a qucstion of rncasuring ah。 n1° gcncous sPacc。 r thc、 vcight of a b° °k,nor cven of yiclding to an alithΠ 】 ctic of signs and lcttcrs;it is】 1° t a qucsti° n ofc° unting the nun1bcr。 f signs, signi⒖ ers or signiHc〈 ls,btlt of c。 unung

tllc numhσ ∝ 吖01ds,° 士lcximl um‘ called``。 lds”

Thc1】 nit° f rncasurc1△ 1ent is thc unit of thc、

vord Thc PhilosoPhy° f

translati。

n,the

cthics° f translation~ if translation d。 cs in fact haⅤ e tbcsc things —Foddr asph・ cs to be a Phil° s° Phy。 f the、 v。 rd, a linguistics or cthics of thc、、°rd At thc bcginnin思

。f

translati。 n is the、 v。 rd

N。 thing is lcss innocent,Plconastic and natural,n。

t11in8

is rnorc11ist° rical than this l)roPositi° n, c、 cn ifit sccms too obⅤ ious Tllis has I10t alxxˇ

ays bccn thc casc,as you wdl kn0、' As it was hrmulatcd,am° ng od1c rs,b)

Ciccr。 , I1)chcve, t0 、 vatCh imively()vcr subsCqucnt devel° PmcntS, to 、、atCh a turbulcnt and cliFfcrentiatcd hist。 ry of translati° n, °f its Practiccs and its

oⅤ er

thc hrst impc1・ atiⅤ c of translati。 n was most certainly not thc con1n1and

nor】 ns,

°f‘

rd to word,” In Dc° Prii’ lo Jcncr召 0rdrorum, Ciccro llccd translatl。

`v。 obhgation to thc l`crb口刀 2, its debt t。、 v°

1・

(l-f°

n ion1its

r~vvord Thc oPcrati° n that c。 nsists

。f convcrting,turnh1g(ccln rcrrcr召 , Ⅰ ?rrCrC,rr召 ns1crrcrc)docSn’ t haⅤ c t° takc a tcxt at its 、、°rd or to takc thc、 v。 rd litcrall) It suf丘 ces t。 transn1it thc idca, t11c hgurc, thc lk,rcc And tllc sl。 gan° fst Jα ・。mc,who with Lutl△ cr was onc of tlle hthcrs of a ccrtain translation cthics, an cthics that surⅤ

m。 dc1ˉ nity,iS non

Γσ bv7,冫

iⅤ

cs even if it is c。 ntcsted in our

C/Crb° ,scd scnsun,召 xPrImσ c dc s召 nst`丨 to exPrCsS not lxˉ ord

l)y word,but sensC l)y scnsel He wassPcakI】

8just as much oftranslating tllc G】

as of translati11g the I1oly scril,turcs,evcn if hc llad bccn ternl,ted to】

tion for thc“ mystcrious ordcr of、

氵 °ds” 1ˉ

(,饣 r3oruj,,ortFo`,V‘

ˉ ceks

lflake an excˉ

reritIf,,)3in thc Biblc In

rccent times,for scarccly a fe、 v centur1cs,a so-callcd litcral translation that ailns t。 attain thc grcatcst p。 ssiblc relcvancc hasn’ t bccn a translati° n that rcnders lcttcrs

or cven only、vhat is Placklly tcrmcd tl)c scnsc,but rad)cr a translati。

n that,`、 hilc

rcndcring thc so-callcd Pr° Pcr1neaning of a、 v° rd,its litcral n1eaning(、 /11icb is to sa)・ an1caning that is dctcrn1h1ablc and not H:ural), Cstabhshcs as thc la、 v° r ideal

~cvcn if it rcmai11s inacccssible— a kind of translating that is not ccrtain圩 ,or Tvclrd~for“ o刀 ,btlt noncthclcss stays灬

Π 'tlr(`Fo“

ord,

doSc as P。 s蜕 bk tclthc cqmn_

lcncc° f“ onc wor(l句厂onc word” and tlacrcby rcspccts vcrbal quantity as a quantity 。f、 ˉ Ords,each of、 vhich is an irrcduciblc body,thc indiⅤ isⅡ )lc unity of an ac。 ustic

尢rm

inc。 rPomtin思 or“ gl△ l、 ing

tl・

C in山

l)lc ““

unity of a mcaning or conct This

Ⅵ/HAT

is、 Ⅴ hy,、 vhcncⅤ cr

whenσ er

Ⅰs

A\\RELEVANT″

TRANsLATION?

429

scvcral、 vords。 ccur in one or thc same acoustic or graPhic f0rm,

a h° moPh° 加c or乃 omo】 /mic g夕 cF Occu“ l1丿

,tn“ latlon

h tlac虻 hct,tr耐

i

tional and d。 n1inant scnse of the term cncountcrs an insurmountablc liFnit~and

the l)cginning of its end,thc丘 gure ofits ruin(but pcrhaPs a translation is dcⅤ oted

to ruin,to that form° f1nem。 ry or Con)lncmoradon that is callcd a ruin;ruin is cry outset).A hom。 nym PerhaPs its、 0cation and a dcstiny that it accts i° m thc Ⅴ °rh° moPh° nC iS ncⅤ cr translatable vv° rd_t。 ~、 Vord It is ncccssary cither t° rcsign omeself to losing thc cffcct, thc cc。

mous)。 rt。

n。 my,

the strategy(and this loss can be en°

add a gloss, of thC translator’ s note sort,

、 vhich ahⅣ ays,

r_

cⅤ cn in the

bcst of cascs,t11c casc of thc grcatcst rclcⅤ ancc,confCsscs thc imP。 tcncc° r failure

°f thc translation

严、 hilc indicating that thc l1,caning and formal cffects of the text 、

t cscaPcd thC translator and can thcrcf° rc bc br。 ught to thc reader’ s attcnhat I call thc cc° n° n1ic la、v of thc、vord, ithˇ￠ tion, the translator’ s notc breaks、 Ⅴ

haⅤ cn’

、 vhich de⒔ ncs thc csscncc of translati° n in thc strict scnsc,the normal,normahzcd, /hcrcⅤ er thC unity。 f thC、 vord is thrcatcncd or 、 PCrtincnt,or rclevant translation 、 vhich fnds itsclf Put into qucstion, it is not only thc oPeration 。f translation 、 cry axiomatics, thc c。 mPr。 n1iscd; it is als。 thc conct, the de丘 nition, and thc Ⅴ idca of translation that rnust bc rcc° nsidercd

In saying thcsc things, I havc gottcn ahead of Inysclf, f° rInahzcd t。 o quickly,

′ 、 hat I havc just said und。 ubtedly still procccdcd to an unintclligible econ° my. 、 Ⅵ/d° 、 Ⅴn,thcn, and start oⅤ cr

rcmains untranslatablc I shall sl。

vord rcèl氵 dnrc belon8s Itis° nc° f thosc Enghsh、 vords that, in a confused and irrcgular、 vay, is in thc proccss of、 Vinning

You n1ight ask to vvhat language thc、

b° th

usc-valuc and cxchangc-Ⅴ aluc in Frcnch、 Ⅴith。 ut cvcr having becn,to l11y kno、 v-

ledgc, ofHciaⅡ y Sanctioncd thr。 ugh thc institutional channels°

f any acadcmy C)n

Vhose use ∏。ats bctⅥ `ccn seⅤ eral it rrcscnts onc of thosc Ⅵ/ords 、 languagcs(thCre are m° rc and m。 K cxamPlcS ofthcm)aⅨ l tl・ t mσ i“ an anal” is this sc。 rc,

t△

that is at。 ncc linguistic and s。 ciolo思 ical, pohtical and cspccially historical, cⅤ cr

thc Phcnomena of hcgcmony thus con1c to inscribc thcir si思

、 vhcr~

nature。 n thc b° dy

oF a kind Ofidi°

n△ that is Eur° Pean or indccd universal in charactcr(that it rnay in thc⒔ rst PlacC be Eur。 Pcan,m° rcoⅤ cr,%r iom cxdudcs thc hct thatitis sprcading

uniⅤ crsally,and that it inv°

lⅤ cs

a

Ⅴast quCStion of translati。 n、 vith° ut translators,if

I cam put it this、 vay,although I must sct it asidc,likc s°

lη

any prcvious qucstions,

忆r want of dmc) ‘ ‘ ’ This 、 vord rclcvant,’ this prcscnt ParticiPlc that functions as a PrCdicatc, is hcrc cntrustcd xx=ith an ex。 rbitant task,N° t thc task of thc translator,but thc task of dc⒖

ning~nothing lcss— —thc csscnCC of translation This、 Ⅴ°rd,、 vhose relation

to Frcnch or Enghsh is not vcry cCrtain or dccidable and、 vhich I hoPe to sho、 v sh° rtly— also retains an obscure Gern△ anic nhati。 n,thus colncs to occuPy a Position th蔽 is doub‘ ⅠCmincnt

and exPosed

On thc。 nc hand,it extcnds and announccs the aCc° mPhshment of an an△ bi tious rcsPonse t° the qucsti° n of thc csscnCC0f translation (Ⅳ Vhat iS a translationP) T° kn。 w what a relevant t】 anslatl。 n

can mcan and bc,itis ncccssary to know what

thc cssencc of translation,its rnission,its ulthuatc goal,its Ⅴocation is, On thc Othcr hand, a rclcvant translati。

n is assumed, rightly or、

vr° ngly,

to

bc bcttcr than a t:・ anslati° n that is n° t rcleⅤ ant A rclcⅤ ant translati° n is hcld, ri思

htly or、 vrongly, to bc thc bcst translati°

n possiblc, Thc tclc。 l。 gical dc⒔ nition

430 JAcQuEs DERRIDA of translati° n,the dchniti° n of thc csscnCC that is rcahzcd in translation,is thcre_

forc imPhcatCd in the desniti。 n° f a rclcvant translati° n Thc question, V￠ hat is a rclcvant translation?、 vould rcturn to the qucsti。 n, XVhat is translati。 nP or, What sh° uld

a translation bc?And thc qucstion, VVhat sh。 uld a translation b imPhes,

as if syn。

nymously, 、Vhat should the best Possiblc translation l)

“ Put anothcr、vay(and Put an。 thcr Ⅵ:ay,thc cxprcssion‘ ‘ Put anothcr xl'ay/’ in ’‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’ 。ther tcrms,’ in 0thcr 、:ords,’ cn d’ autres m° ts’ is the Phrase that silentl) announces cⅤ cry translati。 n, at lcast、・ hcn it designatcs itsclf as a translati。 n and tclls you,in an autodeictic lnanner,look,I an)a translati° n,you arc reading a trans_

t an intcdin8uistic translation, to make usc 。 f Roman Jak。 l>son’ s n, but an intrahnguistic4 。ne and I am not surc 、/hcthcr 。r n。 t this

lation, n。 distincti°

in my dtle),Put an。 tllcr way,if thc qucstion, What is a rclcⅤ ant translationP si8nihcs nothing othcr than thc qucsti。 n, auto(lcixis acc° mPanics tl△ e wol【 l“ releⅤ ante”

What is a translati° n? or What should thc bcst Possiblc translati°

‘

nl)c?thcn 。ne

should jcttis° n thc、 vord‘ rclcvant” and forgct it,droPPing it vvith° ut delay

And yct I haⅤ c kt it・ vvhyP PcrhaPs t° try to conⅤ ince you of t、 /o things:on thc ()nc hand, this Ⅵ・。rd of Latin origin, cⅤ cn though I n。 longcr kno、 vto Ⅵ /hat languagc it bclongs, 、 vhcther Frcnch or English, has l)ec° mc indispensable t° me, in its uniqucncss,to translate sevcral、

v° rds

Originating in scvcral languagcs,starting

、 vith Gcrman (as if it in turn contained more than one、 :ord in a singlc()ne); °n dle° thcr hand,this translatiⅤ c、vord has bcc° mc in turn untranslatable f° r thc samc rcason And、 vhcn I say that this has haPPened to n△ e, as I try to relate it, I
、 vhat has haPPencd to IllC, or

ugh mc coming什 om lan:ua:es and returning to them,was

a Pr° jcct。 f institutional accrcditation and canonization in thc Pubhc sPhCrc・

My nrst c。 n ccrn, thcn, has ncⅤ er been to aPPropriatc tbis translati° nf° r myscl∴ but to lcgitimatc it,t° 1nakc it kn0、vn as thc ln° st rclcⅤ ant translati。 nP° sSiblC and

thcreforc, 。n thc contrary,to cxPr° PriatC it frona mysclf, to disPosscss mysclf of it,whilc Putting it on the markct~eⅤ en ifI c° uld sdll drearn。 f lcavin8my likc-

ncss on this comm° n currcncy and,like shylock,cxPcct an IOU亿

How can I汀 y

to justi、

r it

ns ,or in any∞ sc sIll)mit for your discussion,thc rc郁。

R)r which,scⅤ σal timcs oⅤ cr tl△ c space。 fthdy yc扩 s,I haⅤ c jud思 c(l κlCⅤ ant my usc °f onc and thc samc Ⅴcrb, r召 ∫ 召Γ 召 r, to translatc hrst a Gcrman、vord, then an

Enghsh onc7 Tlle En酗曲 lcn氵 cc

wOI・ cl—

lt・

t“

虻aⅡ

at tl△ e el△

The Privilcgc that I assi8n hCrc t。

d-ctan be允 und in孔 c∴防rchdnr犭

ShakcsPcare’ S Play docs n° t only dcnd

on thc PresencC of this、vord t。 bc translatcd In additi° n,by virtue。 f conn。 tation, everything in thc Play can bc rctranslatcd int° thc codc of translati。 n and as a t。 thC three scnscs that ProblCm 。f translation; and this can be donc accordin思 Jak。 bS。 n distinguishcs: interhnguistic, intrahnguistic, interscn1i°

cxamplc,bct、 vccn a Pound° f∏ csh and a su∏ 1。 f lation is as ncccssary as it is impossiblc It is thc la、

thc lavv bcyond thc la、 v,thc languagc ofthc imP°

rn° ncy

tic ~ as, for

At cⅤ cry momcnt,trans-

v;it evcn sPeaks thc languagc of Ssible la、 v,rePrescntcd

by a、 von1an

、 vho is disguiscd,transngurcd,c。 nⅤ crtcd,traⅤ csticd,rcad芒 r￠ nsftlretf,into a man of law Asiftllc su勹 cct oftl△ is play wcrc,in sho⒒ ,tllc task° fthc廿 andator,his imP∞ sible task,his duty,his dcbt, as inHcxil)lc as it is unpayablc At lcast f° r thrcc Or ur reasons:

f°

sA、、RELEVANT〃

、 VHAT二

TRANsLATION?

431

1,First thcrc is an odrh,an untenable pr° misc,with tl△ c risk° f PC勹 ury,a dcl)t

and an。 bhgation that constitutc thc Ⅴcry imPetus f° r thc intriguc,for thc PfoF,f°

r

thc conspir捉 y[c@rl,Pf。芒 ] NoW it would bc casy to show(and I haⅤ c tricd to do so else、 ˉ here)5 that all translati。

n "nPhcs an insolⅤ ent indcbtcdncss and an oath — _、 Ⅴ ith all thc paradoxcs of such a la、 v and such a rllise, ofa b。 nd and a c°ntract,of a pron1isc that is,1u orcoⅤ er,imP。 ssiblC and Pr。 asyIllmctrical, transfcrential and countcrtransfcrcntial, hkc an °ath d° °mcd to

°f⒔ dchty to a givcn original

trcason or Perjury, 2, Thcn thcIˉ c is thc thcmc of cc° n° my,calculati。 n, caPital, and interest,thc

unPayablc dcbt t。 shylock∶

hat I sai(l aboⅤ c ab° ut thc unit of thc、 v° rd clcarlⅤ sct `Ⅳ

uP a ccrtain cconomy as d1c la、 v of translation

3In孙 c lrcrch口 nF

σ 庀nicc,as in cvcry translation,tllcrc is also,at thc

Ⅴcry

hcart。 f thc。 bh8ati。 n and thc dcbt,an incalculable equivalcnce,an imPossil)lc but inccssantly allcgCd c。 rrcspondcncc bct、 vecn thc Pound

。f Ⅱcsh and m。 ncy, a

required l)ut imPractical translati° n bctvcccn the uniquc literalncss of a Pr° Pcr b。 and thc arl)itrarh1css of a general,m。 nctary,or⒔ duciary sign,

dy

4 This imPosSiblC translation, this conⅤ crsion (and all translati。 n is a convcrslon: rerr召 rc,rrdns1'crF召 rc,conⅠ =Cr'rc,as Ciccro s泣

d)bctwccn thc oHginal,htcral

flcsh and thc lln° nctary sign is n。 t unrelated to the Je、

冫shyl。 ck’ s

forccd conⅤ crsion

to ChⅡ stianity,sincc the trad止 i。 nd丘 gurc of the Je、 v is oRCn and c。 nⅤ cntionally situatcd on thc sidc of thc b。 dⅤ and thc lcttcr (from b。 dⅡ y circun1cision or Pharisaism,分 om ritual cOmPliance to litcrd cxtt,rioIlty),whereas aRer⒏ Paul thc Christian is on thc side。 f thc spirit or scnsc, of intcri。 rity, of sPiritual circumci_ sion This relation of thc lcttcr to thc sPirit, of the bodY。 f literalness to thc idcal intcrioritⅤ of scnsc is als。

thc sitc of thc age° f translation, of this c。 nversion

n As if the business °f translauon 、:ere Hrst of all all Abrahamic mattcr bctwccn tllc Jcw,thC ChⅡ 虻lan,and thc M邯 hm.Ancl thc昭佗ve,

that is callcd translati。

discuss、vith you,、 vill bc prcciscly⒖ ・ hat haPPcns

hkc thc rclcⅤ ancc I alll PrarCd t。 t°

thc ncsh ofthc tcxt,thc body,thc sPoken b。

the letter is mourncd to sa、

dⅤ

and thc translatcd b。

dⅤ

~whcn

c thc sensc

Shylock rccalls tbat hc Pr° n△ isCd undcr ocIrJ,to rcspcct thc original tcxt of the

contract,thc IOU,、 Ⅴhat is。 wcd to hirn rc、 rs,"tcrally,to thc Pound° f Πcsh This oath binds hin】

t°

hcaⅤ cn, hc rccalls,hc can’ t brcak it、 vithout Pe巧 uring hilnself,

that is t° say,、 vithout

l)ctrayin8it by translating its tcrms into monctary si思 ns In

thc namc of thc lctter° fthc c° ntract, shⅤ l° ck refuscs thc translati。 n or transacti°

n(translation is a transaction),Portia procecds t° ofFcr hiln thrcc tirnes thc sum

°f rn° ncy hC is。、 ved in cxchangc f° r thc pound。 f flesh If you translatc the P° und °f∏ esh into moncy,shc csscntially pr。 poscs to hiln,y° u vvill haⅤ c thrcc ti1nes thc sulla o、 /ed

shⅤ lOck then exclain△

An。 ath,

s:

an oath, I haⅤ c an oath in heaⅤ en,

Shall I lay Pcrjury uP。

n mys。 tllP

N。 not f° r Vcnicc6 Portia Pretends to takc n。 tc of d△ s rehsal and t° rcc。 gnizc that‘ ‘ ths b。 nd is brfcit” 、 Vith thc c。 n廿 act,thc bond,tllc IOU%lling duc,the Jew haS thC right to clain1a pound of ncsh that hc rnust htcrallⅤ cut out ⅤcrⅤ closc t° thc rncrchant’ s hcart:

432 JAcQuEs DERRIDA Why this bond is f° rfcit,

m

And law11111Ⅱ by this tl△ cJcw m叮 cl加 A Pound Of Πesh,t° be by hirn cut off

Nearcst thc mcrchant’ s hcart

〃Γ,41226-291 丨 P°rtia、 vill Press shyl。

ck one last tilue to Pardon、 vhilc cancclling thc dcbt,rcn1it-

“ “ Bc merciful,” she asks, Takc thrice thc m。 ncy,bid me tcar

ting it, forgiving it

thc b° nd/’ thc pr。 n1issory note,thc c° ntract shylock again rcfuscs;hc s、 vcars truly

。n his

s° ul that he cann。

t Perjurc hi1nsclf and rctract his oath, countcrg his

act。 fi心 th,sweaHng on what hc has alrcacly sw。 rn,hc rcfc,rs t° langua:c,to a

tonguc of man incaPablc° f bCing lncasurcd,in its rclatiⅤ translation° r transactiOn, against thc abs。 ti。 nally,bcf°

e cconomy,in the Pr° Posed

lutc Oath that binds his s。

ul, unc° ndi~

rc G° d:

by my soul I svvcar, Thcre is no Po、 vCr in thC tongue ofrnan

To akcr mc,~I stay hcre on my bond 「″Γ,41236381 Thus thc。 CⅤ cr,

ath is,Ⅰ

n the human tonguc, a Pron△ iSC tbat hun△ an languagc,ho、 v_

cannot itsclf und。 ,control,° bhtcratc, suojcct by lo。 scnin:it・

An。 ath

is a

bond in human languagc that thc human t。 nguc, as such, ins。 far as it is human, cannot loosen Jn human language is a bond strongcr than human language NΙ

tban man in man In human langua8e(the Clemcnt。 la、 v f°

that at oncc prohil)its thc translation°

r the original literalncss Or the giⅤ cn

lati° n giⅤ cn

f translt△ tion)is

f thc transaction l)ut c° n△ mands

、 vord,

rcsPcct

It is a la、 v that Prcsidcs oⅤ cr trans-

whilc c° lnmanding absolute rcspcct,without aI1y transacdon,忆 in its Original lcttcr, The oath, thc s、

orc

an inΠ cxiblc

v。 rn

r the word

faith, thc act of sⅥ 广 Caring is tran~

scendcncc itsclf,thc cxpcriencc of ing bcyond1nan,thc origin of thc divinc。

r,

°rigin of thc oatll This sccms truc of thc la、 v °f

trans~

if onc Prcfcrs, thc diⅤ inc lati。 n

in gcncral No sin is m。 rc scll0us than Pelˉ lury,and shylock rePeats,、 vhilc

sⅥ icalin8,that

hc cannot Pcllurc l△ lmscl免

hc tl・

crchrc c。 nnrms thc⒔ rst° ath bv a

sccond oath, in thc tirnc of a retition This is callcd6dchty, 、 vhich is thc Ⅴery essence and v° cation of an° ath:、 vhen I s、 vcar,Is、vcar in a languagc that no hun1an languagc has thc P° wcr tc,makc mc aL,jurc,tl,disruPt,that is tc,my,to makc mc PC勹 urC mysClf The0荻

hP邡 scs rhrOLJJh language,btlt it PaqsCS bcyol△ cl human

languagc This、 vould l)c thc truth()f translation In this fabulous talc of thc Oath,of thc c° ntractual bond,at issuc is an indcbt_

cdncss in 、 vhich thc cxchangc-Ⅴ alucs are inCon1Inensurable and thus cach is untranslatablc into thc。 thcr(m。 nCy/P° und° f flcsh) In4 1 Portia,(hsguised as a vycr,⒔ rst addrcsscs hcrsclf t° Ant° ni。 t。 ask hin1t。 acknovclcdgc,to confcss his ‘ ’ ‘ unpaid or unPayablC dCbt: Do you confcss thc b。 ndP’ Do you confess, d。 you recognize thc contract,thc promisc,thc bondP“ Rcc。 nnals tu le bⅡ letP” r‘ Do you la、

’

rccognizc thc noteP’ l iS thC flat rcndcring by Fran♀

t0n I haⅤ

e允 llowc【 l,c△ t

times mocl1、

ing k7D。

。 is-vict。 rI△ ugo,vvhosc you ac・ kn° wlcdgc

t1・ ansla-

tllc犯 kn° w~

Ⅵ/HAT

IS A、

、RELEVANT″

TRANSLATION?

433

lcd:cmcnt° fthc debt,thc IC)u?Doy。 uc。 nnrn△ thc signed Pledgc,thc bond,that vhich you arc in(lcbt or in dcfault,indecd at fault 、 vhich y° u。 `vc,that bccause of、 ’ (hencC d)Cw。 rd“ c° n%ss” )P Ant。 ni。 s rcsPonsC/‘ I do” (a PcrbrmatiⅤ e) Yes,I confcss,I ackn0、 vlcdge,I rccognizc,I con⒔ rlm and sign or c。 untcrsign.'do,A

scntcnCe

nomy and brcⅤ ity ofthc rcsPonsc∶ as si1nPle and ’ ‘ barc as Possible,thc uttcrancc imPhes not° nly an‘ ‘ I,’ an‘ I” 、 vho d° es xx:hat it says 、 vhilc saying it, connrn1ing that he hirnsclf is thc vcry pcrson 、 vho has alrcady as extraordinary as a“ ycs”

Tl△

c cc。

hcard, undcrst° od, mem° rizcd in its cntircty the mcaning of the qucstion poscd and integratcd in turn into thc rcsponsc that signs thc idcnuty bet、 vcen thc J、 vh°

’

has hcard and the r、 vh。 uttcrs thc“ ycs’ or thC“ Id。

”

But it is also,giⅤ cn this under~

standing and thc111cm° ry° f thc question, thc samc PcrS。 n as the onc P。 sing thc vhat you mcan by asking mc this qucstion: I say丿 :cs, 'd° ,Prcci:Cly in resPonsc t。、 /e think and mcan d1c samc thing(intrahnguistic 、。rP。 sing this qucsti。 n to mc 、 tl ansla0on),wc arc thc samc PCrson in the mirr。 r of tllis mcasurc This mirrorccl vork in all or transParCnt uniⅤ ocity, thiS idCal translation, is suPPoSed to be at 、 ‘ llrluativc utteranccs of thc tyPe‘ I Pardon” Pcrlˉ ARcr Ant° nio’ s conksSi。 n,the rcsP。 nse hlls likc a Ⅴcrdict “Thcn must thc

Jew bC mcr。凡 l” six bHd、 sh° rt

σ (ls namc rhcJt,盯 alld m″ ⒐

in thc陡 mc bleath This

scntcncc sirnultanc。 usly signs b° th thc ccon。 my and thc incon△ Parablc gcnius

。f Sbakcspcarc,It dcscrⅤ cs to risc abovc this tcxt as an in】 mensc aⅡ cgory;it PcrhaPs rccapitulatcs thc cntire hstory of brgivcness,thc cnt△ e history bctwccn thc Jcw and thc Christian,the entirc histo】・ y of ccon。 mics(I,lcr∝ s,markct,lncrchandisc,

ill

σC1,mCrcen盯 y,wage,reward,litcral

m“ tthc Jew bC mc∝

i±

or stIl)hmc)as a his“ )ry of translati。

n∶

“ Thcn

tll”

Then lllence,consequently,jJirur)thC JCw must be mcrcyjF He must bc cF犭 mcnF, jndu匆 cnr,say ccrtc△ in French tlandt△ t0ns,Ol)Ⅴ iousⅡ ,thiS means hc″

∶thσ cb父

,

1J1Fur,Fhcn,sincc you ackn° wlcdgc thc dcbt。 rthc huk,the Jcw(rh1sJcw,Shyl。 ck,

Ⅴ crdict f cⅤ cry 。 n a colossal syn119ohc and mct。 nyn1ic valuc, on the scalc ° “ lod∶ thc Jcw” als。 rrcscnts cⅤ cry JCw,thc Jcw in gCncral in his

in this Prccisc contcxt)must仔 CC you florn it,But thc clliPtical ft)rcc of thc tcnds t。 takc historical pe1ˉ

rcnd 瑙苞

with his Christian counterPtalt,Christian P。 wcr,thc Christian State The

Jcw mu哽

brgiⅤ e

(Permit me a Pt△ rcnthCSis hcrc∶ whlc rcrca(ling this cxtraor(lina9'Ⅴ

crdict wh° sc

rusc wc shall analyzc in a m° n1cnt~namcly,thc phrasc that says“ thcn thc Jcw

mⅡ t br妒 Ⅴe,”

imPlying tl1at ht is thc Jcw、

in gcneraI t° forgivc”

-—

I can’

・ ho m¨ t br虫 vc,” htis uP to thc JCw

t avokl rccalling thc PoPe’ s CxtraordiI1ary sigh at the

・ cnd° fthe sec° nd n1illcnnium,ScⅤ cral rn。 nths ag° ,as he飞 Λ as about t° board a planc f° r。 nc° fhis transcontincntal journcys,hc、 vas askcd、 Ⅳ hat hc thought ofthc Frcnch isc。 Patc’ s dcclarati。 n of rcntancc,and aRcr sighing,aftcr fcchng a bit sorry for

himself, aRer kcling a bit solty br ChHstianity and Cad△ olicism, hc s"d:

“ I noticc do11∶

d1at it is alⅥ

iays wc who arc asking for for要 Ⅴ Cness” 、 Vcll!Thc imPlica if s° mc Peoplc le妒 dmatCly think of cσ tain

・ ’ hr妒、 Cncss什 om thc Je、、 s lcven

Arnerican Indians to° ,as、 Vell as various other victi1ns of thc Inquisition、 vhorll the P° Pe

has sincc Put。 n the list as an another duty of corl△ mcmoration,as it is called

。r° f rcntanccj,It is alⅥ ⒎ ays、 re,Christians or Cathohcs,wh。 are asking忆 r forgivcncss, but “rhy? Yes, 、 Ⅴhy? Is it that f° rgiⅤ cncss is a Christian thing and

434

JACQuEs DERRIDA

Christians sbould sct an cxamPlc bccausc Christ’ s ion consistcd of assun1ing sin

°n

ss?Or indeed bccausc,under thc circumstances,a ccrtain Church,if n。

tllc cr°

Christianity,、 vill

al、 vays

t

havc rr。 ached itsclf a grcat dcal,vchilc asking for forgivc-

ncss,and Hl^st。 f all i° m tlle Jcw,wh。 m it htls a钛 c(l№ r允 r要、 Cncss-an(lt。 be mcrcIfLI″

“

TllCn mu虻

tlle Jcw l,C mσ ohl、

Portia thus addrcsscs hersclf to Ant° t°

ni。

,hcr accon)phce, and、

Ⅴ hile

rcfcrring

thc Jcw as a tlllr(l Party,shc hc沪 s what the Jcw hCc・ ls:hccd with your rccog

niti° n,

your ackn° wlcdgcmcnt, your conkssion, tllc Jcw muSt be mer吻 △F, °ff。 rgiving, of rcn1itti11g your paiL】 or your

colui° natc, forbcaring, caPable

n But thc Je`Ⅴ Paymcnt,° f crasing thc debt,and s° °

d° esn’ t

undcrstand Porda・

s

deductiⅤ c rcasOning, he cntircly refuses to undcrstand this logic shc 、 v° uld likc hiIn t° grant forgivcncss a11d absolⅤ

c the debt simply bccausc it is rec。 gnizcd Thc

Jew thcn gr。 ws in山 gnant∶

“

ˉ ˉ In、 ìrtuc of、 ,hat c,bhgation,、 hat constIâi1】 t,・ .s⒈ at la、 n)ust I bc mcycJ/1∫ ?”

lˉ he 、 Ⅴ°rd that is translatcd l)y“ obhgation” or“ constraint” or“ la、 v” is an intcrcsth1g onc∶ “ it is cOI,,PuFS丿 ° In n, 、 vhich signi⒔ cs an irresistablc impulsc or constraining Po、 ver 、 1rttlc of wh菠 comPul“ 。n sh。 tlld I由 ow myscr仞 erc∮ Ι

`P”

On・

.△

llPulsi° 11at c。】

nn1ust I?Tcll nlc that

,411791

L盯 Γ

In rcsponsc to thc Jc、 's qucsti° n,Portia launchcs】 nto a grand Pancgyric ofthc

PowCr。 f er po、 Ⅴ

For思 ivcnCss

This suPCrb spccch(lcRncs Il,er9,f0rgivcncss,as thC suPrcmC

vCr XX/ithout c° nstraint,、 1th° ut obhgation,gratuitous,an act Of graCC,aP° ′

ab。 Ⅴ c P° 、:cr, a so、

crcignty above sOvcreignty, a suPC1ˉ lative Π1ight, n)ightier than

n1i8ht Sincc it is a∏ 1ight xxith。 ut n1ight, a resPitc、 vithin Π

Π1ight

ofil,召 rcr riSCS abovc Iuight,ab。

Ⅴc thc ec° non△ y° f

ìght, this transcendent

Illight and thc:ˉ cf° rc

abovc

sanction as、 cll as transaction This is、 vhy luercy is thc king’ s attrit,utc,the right of gracc, the absolutc l)rivilegc of thc111° narch(or,in this case, of thc〈

l。

ge) YCt

it is also an insnitc cxtraⅤ agancc,anod1cr trcad or tradc in an insnitc asccnt, and

just灬 this Powcr is above PoⅥ ˉ Cr,a migl、 t mighucr tllan might,so thc monarch’

s

attribute is at thc samc ti1nc abovc hiln and his scePtre This l1,ight cs bcyond humanity cvc11as it CS through humanity,just as languagc docs(a、 carhc1D∶ itiS Only in God’ s kcing,G1・ acc is divinc,in carthly Po、

、 vc n`cntioncd ˉ :hat cr it rccalls Ⅰ r、

Ⅴithin the hun1an, Thc t、厂 ° mOst rcscn1blcs (livinc Po、 vCr, it is thc suPcrhuman 、 disc° urscs

hcre echo。 r rnirror onc anothcr,that°

f shyl。 ck thc JcⅥf and Portia thc

Christian° r thc Christian in thc guisc of thc la、 v, Both l)lacC SOmcthing(thc oath, for8iⅤ encss)above

human languagc1n hun1an languagc,bcyond thc hun1an ordcr1n

the hun1an° rdcr,bcyond11uman riglnts and dutics Thc st】 ˉ cngth of RDrgi、 cn css,if you hsten to P°

Ⅰ n human la、 v rda,is m@″ rhdn just,m。 re just

than justicc or tlac law It“ ses abovc thc law° r abovc what in justicc is only law; it is,bcyond hunlan la、 v, thc Ⅴ cry thing that inv。 kes l)raycr, And、 vhat is, hnally, a discourse on translation(Possil)lc/iruP。

ssⅡ )lc)is alS。

a(liscourse ofPrq cr on Prdver

n and Praycr, on t、・ o rcqucStS it and that。 fthc l)ers。 n、 vho grants it,Thc

ForgiⅤ encss is Praycr; it bClongs to thc ordcr of bcncdicti。 b。 sidcs,that oΓ thc Pcrs°n′ 、

ith f° rgiⅤ cncss, not xsith Po、 vcr and la小 ,. Bet、 vecn csscncc of Prayer has to do、・ Cr, ab。、 c cvCn royal rt)cnedicti° n ~above human l)o、・ the cleⅤ ation of PrayCr 。

/lHAT Is A、、RELEVANT″

叩

羊摁

TRANsLATION?

435

W礻 :I;}出 T∶ fⅠ↑∶:;JⅠl蛋 1饣Υ ∶ff昱 J{J∫ ;RtⅠ∶∶u衤

洱 1∶

sanlc csscnCc,tbc san1c cn1iI1encc thatis n)。 rc cn1incnt t11an cn△ incncc,thc cnη incncc

。fd△ cM° st High Shylock is hˉ ightcncd b) this cx° rbitant cxhortation to forgiⅤ c bcyond the la、 v, to1ˉ CnounCc11is1ˉ ight

and his(luc Hc isl)cin8askcd to do n1。 rc than hc can and

】 ight to grant,givcn thc bond(one is tcmPtcd tO Sa) thc orc than hc c、 cn has thc】 ˉ scnscs that it is an Bu刀 d)that。 bhgcs hilη bcy° nd cⅤ cry hulnan link shylock als。。lvcs attemPt to stccr his shiP in circlcS,ifI can sPcak this xsay about a story that inⅤ ‘ ・ thc dcvⅡ rcck Hc、 vho is Prcsentcd as a chabohcal Hgure(‘ a ship and a shil)、、 lη

’

iI1the likcness c〉士a Je、 v’ lJ'Γ , 3 1 201)8cnscs that hC is in the l冫

lˉ

°cess()fl)eiI1g

had,

n△ PlainS,he clam。 rs f° r thc laxx,his right,his Penalty In any casc, rε iⅤ eness,an cconolVic hcis not deccivcd In thc namc ofthis subhme I)anegyric off°

grumbles,he c°

Ⅴit ruse,a calculation,a strategelu iS bcing l)lottCd,thc uPshot of、 vhich(you kn。、 d) 1" l)c that 〈 ° 、 hˉ oP()f bl° xsit110ut shcdding onc 、eⅡ ∶the challengc to cut flcsl、

」泔ls凭菩⒒F∷cr掖垠「∶ 浅捏甘∷fr甘 1毪 l{湘 ℃ :∶

situation takcs a bad turn at11is cxPcnse he、 Ⅴill tra11slate hinlsclf(c‘

,hl:crr召

ha、

c to conVc1・ t to Christianity^t。

“)into a Christian,into a C111ˉ istiml langtla￡ :c,aRer ha、 i11g hC、 :ho、、as cntrcatcd to bc

bccn in turn R)rccd, thr。 ugh a Scandalous rcvcrsal

‖ 揆扛 ∫ ilIIi刂 lI裢茎缸斡打崔社百跗Ⅱ a nx)n扩 cll“ to曲敲 J tbc Jev:

That thOu shalt see thst(lifFcrcncc of our sp"・

it

I Pard。 n thcc thy li「 cl、 ctore thou ask it: For1△ alf thv、 vcalth,it is Antonio’ Thc c〉 ther

s,

half comcs to the general statc,

VVhich11u1nblcncss lnaⅤ driⅤ c unto a Hnc

Γ叮 ,41364691 I′

Thc soⅤ creignty ofthc(loge,in its crafty n△ anifcstation,n1irnics absolutc lt)rgiⅤ

c-

・ hCrC it is n° t rcqucstcd,)ct it is thc Pa1・ (lon nCss,t11c Pard° n dlat is grantcd cvcn、 Λ 。fah、 ,As R丿 rt11c rcst,sh)lock iS t。 tall)cxProl)riatCd,half of his hrtune going to a Pri、 atc sul)jcct,Ant° nio,half to the state And thcn~anod1cr cconon1ic rusc ~in ordcr to rccciⅤ c a rcduction °f thc Pcnalty and aⅤ 。id total conHscation, thc hich is that shylock rcnt(“ rcntir” is Franqois-、 △ct° r dogc adds a condition, 、・ Hugo’ s translation f。 r“ huInblcncss’

’ if)ou )∶

bⅡ c rc11ting, give l9r。 of of hun1ihty、 Ⅴ

you1・

ill Penalty`vill bc rcduced and you、、

oⅤ cr

it that hc tbrcatcns to

c onl) a-lnc to l)ay instCad ol total 、 vicldS such soⅤ ercign PO、 vcr CxProPriati° n As for thc absolutc Pardon, thc dogc

Ⅵithdra、

it∶

baⅤ

436 uAcQuEs DERRIDA He shaⅡ (lo this,° r clsc I d。 rccant The Pardon that I late Pron。 unccd hcrc [″ P° rtia had Pr。 tested against t11e offcr to rcducc thc t°

°n

Γ ,41387-881

tal c。

nhscation to a hne

the c° nditi° n° f rePentancc,Shc says,“ Ay for thc statc,not for Ant° nio”

mcans that thc Pcnalty of conHscation is rcduccd f°

(which

r、vhat shyl。 ck° Ⅵ'es thc statc,

but n° t fclr what hc。 wcs A11tonio) Thcn shyl° ck rcl)cls and rchscs thc Par(l。 n

ˉ

Hc re± Llscs to Pal d。

n,允 r sulˉ c,to bc mercJh`,btlt hc also rchscs,父 0Procally,to

bc pardoncd at this PricC・

Hc thcref° rc rcfuscs b。 th

t°

grant and to ask for f° rgivc~

ncss Hc calls hirnself a f° rcigncr, in sh。 rt, to this cntirc PhantaSn1ic talc fc)rgiⅤ

logico-Pohtical Prcaching that trics t° t°

。f

cncss,t° this cntirc unsavory Plot of forgiⅤ cncss,to all thc Christian and theo-

clic than t。 bc Pard°

offthc n△ 0° n as grccn chccsc Hc prefcrs

ncd at this Pricc bccausc hc undcrstands or in any casc scnscs

Ⅴould aCtually havc to Pay vcry dca1・ ly for the abs。 lutc and lncrciful Pard° n, and that an cconomy allΛ ・ ays hidcs l)chind this thcatrc °f absolutc f° rgiⅤ eness 严 shylock thcn says, in a sort of countcr-calculati。 n: 、、 cll, kceP your Pard。 n, take that hc、

myh炙 ,bll mc,hrin takng iom me cver艹 hing

that I have an(l all that I am,you

in cffcct kⅡ l mc,

Nay,takc1my lit and all,Pardon n。 t that,~ You takc lny housc,、Ⅴhcn you(lo takc thc Pr° P That d° th sust“

n my housc:you takc my h、

厂、、 hcn you(lo take the mcans、 vhcrcby I livc, I lrΓ

,4137o-73]

You kn0、 v hoⅥf thi11gs turn。 ut:thc extraordinary ccon。 n△ y of rings and oaths Rcgardless ofˇ vhcthcr Shylock is illlPhcatcd in it,hc丘 naⅡ y loscs cvcrything, Once thc d° ge has thrcatcncd to、 vithdra、 v his Pardon,hC must agrcc to sign a con】 PlCtC rcn1ission of thc dcbt and t°

G佗 tiano

undcrgo a forccd conⅤ crsion to Christianity

tclls him:

In christ’ ning shalt thou haⅤ c t、 :。

Had I been judge,thou sh。

godfathcrs,

ul(lst haⅤ c

had tcn morc,

To bring thee to thc gallo、 vs,not t0thc font [lrΓ

,41394-961

袢

才掖瑟

Exit shⅤ lock,

铽

1Ⅰ ;⒊

C狞

ts甘 C九

氓岁λFTR⒎

忄

尜

;c蕊

pro丘 ts arc spht,and thc d° gc bcsecchcs,imPlorCs,cntrcats(xx hich iS rcndcrcd into Frcnch as cc,r,Jurel Porua t。

dinc with him Shc rchscs,humbly bcg要 ng hiS Pardon∶ n” (thC fact that:rcat Pe° PIC arc。 Rcn caⅡ ed

“ I humbly do desirc your gracc of Pard°

Your Gracc° r Your Graoous M句

cSty clearly undersc。 rcs thc powcr wc arc

discussing hcrc) shC l)cgs His G1・

s Pardon l)ecausc shc n1ust travcl out of toⅥ

acc’

/n

Thc doge° rdeⅡ that shc,or he,be rcmunert△ ted C愆 lau=0,that曲 C/hc bc P“ d° r rC、 Ⅴ ardcd

f° r hcr/his scrⅤ Iccs:

、 VHAT1夂

sA、、RELEVANT″

Antono,grati灯 tlaiS gelltleman, Forin mv n1ind Ⅴou arc much bound t。

TRANsLAT【

0N?

437

hi1n. I IfΓ

,41402-31

vs it,shc recognizcs it, shc knoˇ This gratuity,this rc、 :ard is a、 vagc Portia kn° 、

vs

「忆rp、 c11css

and

and says that she has been paid br Pcr忆 n11ing wcll in a sccnc°

Pardon as an ablc and cunning Iuan。 f law;she adn1its,this、 Ⅳon△ an in thc guisc of a man,tlltlt she has l【 lsomc way bcc11Pai(l as a mσ ccnary of gratitLl(lc[è mσ cil,or mercy I`d mcr。

l∶

Hc is wcll Paid that is wcll satisfic(l,

And I dcliⅤ eHng you,am satls侍 cd,

And thcrcin do lnVsclf xl=cll Paid,~

ˇ1Ⅴ

-as ncver vct rnorc n△ crccnarⅤ n1in(l、、

,

卜lJ Γ,41・ 411-141 No onc could bcttcr cxPrcSs the“ n1crCcnarⅤ

ord of this、 Ⅴ

”

dirnension of“ n1erCr’ in evcrⅤ sensc

And no° nc

vho has could cⅤ cr cxprcss it bcttcr than ShakcsPcarc, 、 er bcen char8cd、 vith anti-sertlitisn△ for a、 v° rk that stagcs、 vith an unequallCd Po、厂 all tllc grcat m° uⅤ cs。 f Christian anti Jud“

sm

Finally,agai1△ in thc samc sccnc,Bassanio’ s resPollsC to Portia Cs。

ncc lnorC

thr° ugh a logic of forgiⅤ cncss∶

Takc son1e1ˉ clncn)l冫 rancc of us as a tril)ute,

Notas a ke;grant mc thsˉ 0things I Pr灬 Notto de11y mc, and to Pardon nlc

you,~ l″

丨 141418-2Ol

Such is thc c。 ntcxt in、 vhich Portia(lisPlays thc cloqucnce for、 vhich shc is paid as crccnarⅤ al△△

n1an ofla、・

Now hcre is thc m“ n dish,thc Plat dc r忐 si哎 ancc I haⅤ e lcR thc spiciest[rcfcΓ 司 and aRcr ttlstC fl,r the cn(l Just a⒒ cr吮 ying,“ Then must tllc JCw bc mclcihl,” ’ ‘ (Dn xxˇ xll)lock Pr° n mustI?’ Portia bcgil)st° SPCak tCSts by askiI1g,‘

hat con11,ulSi°

again I citc her sPccch in Enghsh, thcn translate。 r rat11cr Paraphrasc it, st by SteP It raiscs thc stakcs in adn1irablc1・ hythms∶

First rnovcmcnt∶ The quahty of rnercy iS not strain’

d,

It dr。 PPeth aS thC gcntlC rain froΠ l hcaⅤ en icc l,lcst, uP。 n the Placc bcncath:it is t、 ˉ

It blcsscth11inn that giⅤ cs,and hi1n that takcs,

Jrl,,41 180-831 丨 Thc quahty of mcrcy is not f° rccd,constrained∶ rncrcy is not con1n1andcd,itis icc,

・ ver It can’ gratuitous;grace is gratuitous,Mcrcy falls⒒ orll hCaven likc a gcntle sh。、 bc schcdulcd,calculatcd;it arrivcs or(loesn’ t,n° onc dccides on it,nor docs any human la、 v;likc rain,it haPPCns° r it docsn’ t,but it’ s a good rain,a gcntle rain; f° r8iⅤ

Cncss isn’ t ordcrcd uP, it iSn’ t calculatcd, it is forcign to calculati。

t

n, to

438 JAcQuEs DERRIDA cconon1ics,to thc transaCtion and thc la、 Ⅴ,but it is good,like a gift,l)ecausc lnlercy gives by forgiving, and it fccundatcs; it is good, it is l・ cnehcicnt, l,cncv。 lent likc a bcnc⒔ t as° PP° Sed t° an2dfefacti。 n, a ood ε likc raln,i° m ab° vc t。 bd。 w(“ it d1・。

dCcd as oPP° SCd t。 an1isdccd It falls, PPeth … upon the Placc bcnecRtho∶ thC pcrson、 vh。 f° r8ivCs iS,like f° r8iⅤ Cncss itself,on high,、 cry high,above thc Pcrson 、 Ⅴh° asks f° r 。r °btains f。 rgivcncss There is a hicrarchy, and this is 、:hy thc mctaPh° r ofrain is not only that of a Phcn° mcnon that is n。 t ordcrcd uP,but als° that of a vcrtical(lcsccndinε

‘ ‘

It is t、 vicc

m。 Ⅴeluent∶ for思 ivcness is givcn△ oll,aboⅤ c to l)clo、广

blcst;/It blcsscth hin1that gives,and hin△

that takcs’

a sharin:of thc good, of the good(lccd,a sharing° f thc bcncdicti° `thus thcrc alrcadⅤ n,a is performativc cⅤ ent and a lnirr。 r"1g bet、 ccn tⅥ 广 o bencHts °f thc bcncdicti。 n, a n△ utual cxchangc,a translation l)ct、 vcen gi、 ing and taking

sccond n10Ⅴ emcnt∶

’

Tis thc n1ig11tlcst in thc rnightlcst,it bccomcs

Thc throncd m° narch bcttcr than hls cr° 、n His sc订 c shows thc忆 rcc oftcmPord Power, Thc clttributc t° awe and m丬 csty, 厂、 hcrcin d° th sit the(lrcad and fcar。 f kings; 、 But lancrcy is above this sct1・

cd s、 ay,

ncd in the hearts of kings,

It is cnthr。

It is an attrⅡ )utc t。 G° d hin△ self;

And earthly Poxx=cr d° th thcn shoⅥ'hkcst G。

Ⅶ/hcn mdˉ cy

d’ s

seasons justice Il∫

I',41 184-931

Forgiìng mercy is thc n山 ghtiest or thc almighty in thc all△ li思 hty∶ “’ Tis thc n1ightiest in thc rllightiest/’ thc omnil)otcncC of° lnniPotencC,the omniPotcncC in on)niID。 tcncC。 r thc aln△ ighty am° n8all thC alrnighty, absolutc greatncss, absolutc en1incncc, absolutc luight in abs° lutc n△ i思 ht, thc hyPcrbohc suPcrlatiⅤ C ° fn1i:ht・ Thc Omnil)° tencc c)f’ omniPotCncc is at oncc thc csscnCC of P。、厂cr, thC csscnce of n1ight,thc csscncc(〉 f thc PoSSiblc,l,ut als° d might,is敲

oncc thc mighJcst∝

、vhat,

likc thc essencc and suPcrlatiⅤ

might and morc Fh口

n might,幻

c

on(氵 °Iη niP° ~

tcncc This lilnit of Po、 :cr,° fn△ iε ht and ofthc P。 ssiblC obhgcs us to ask oursclⅤ cs

‘ ‘ :cr_to_ ˉ if the cxPcricncc of forgivcncss is an cxPericncc Of‘ ‘ Po、 Cr/’ (〉 f thc P。、 br虫 Ⅴ c,” thC“hrmaj。 n° f Powcr tlar° ugh九 r要 vencsS蔽 thc∝ )n” ndi。 n of all tllc °rders° f“ I

and n。 t only。 f Pohtical po、 vcr,or cvcn the bcy。 nd of all po、 vcr at issuc hcre~_another Problcn△ of translatk)n~is thc status of刀 90rC

can/’

/l)at 、、

is al、 :ays

as rJl召

m° sF and as J,,orc rF,dn,。 fthc n1ightiest as n2orc`力

j卩 l,9・

n1ighty, and thercf° re as an° thcr ordcr than n1ight, Po、 imPosSiblc that is illOIC rhdn in2P°

In d1c samc 、 Ⅴay,

ssⅠ

♂ Fc

dn‘ J rhcrσ 。 r召

if forgiⅤ cncss, if“ lucrc)′

P°

’

ssib`cS

Ff’

'cr,

cin_ and as i,,orc r凡

°r thc P°

ssil)lc∶

tl n

thc

or“ dlc quahty of n1c1・

cy” is“ the this situates both thc aPcx of。 nu1iP。 tencc and son△ e~ ‘ /C thing ln。 rc and othcr than abs。 lutc Po、 vcr in‘ the n1ighticst in thc lnighticst,” 、、

n1ighticst in thc n1ighticst/’

foll° 、 v, accordingly, the、 vaⅤ ering of this liluit bct、 Ⅴccn p° 、ˉ cr ,Crlcssness,Poxl・ and abs。 lutc P° 、 crlcssncss or thc abs。 lutc imPossiblc as unhn1ited

shoukl be ablc t。

po、 vcr

、 vhich is n。 t unrclatcd t。 thc im~possiblc possible of translation

^/HAT「 S A

、

Dˇ

1crcΥ

ⅥRELE∨

ANT″ TRANsLATION? 439

bcconès thc throncd monarch, Portia saⅤ s, but cven bcttcr than his 、 vn on al、 cad;it suiFs thc nx)narch,it becon1cs hiln,

cro、 :n Itis highcr than thc cr°

Ⅱ cr汔 cJagn,tllan the t】 ttHbtltc。 r Ⅵ`n LikC the sct1ˉ C,thC cr0、・ n mani%sts tc∏ ⒈ ・ ′ hCrcas hrgi`cncss is a supratclη wcr,、 lt辶 lal P° wcr Abo、 c tl△ c al,spi1・ po1ˉ Poral P。 btlt⒒ sujrs h唿 hcr tl・ an hls hcad cllld thc hcad lfd沱

蚯gn of Po、 vcr

that is thc r。 yal cr。

authority of thc scePtrC,it is cnthr°

ncd in the hcart° f kings This omniI)otcncC is

diffcrcnt仃 om tcmPoral might,and t。 bc diffcrcnt仟 c)Iu rnig1t thatis tcmPord and thcrcf。 c carthly and Pohtical, it rnust t)c intcrior, sPh1tual, i(lcal, situatcd in the 1・

king’

s hcart and n。 t in his cxtcriOr att1・ ibutcs, η Γ 11c agc across the liI11it clcarly

忆ll。 ws

thc trt△ lect° ry ofan intc1ˉ lorizatio11that eS【 om thex・ Isiblc t。 thc inⅤ isible

by bccoming a thing。 f the hcart∶ hrgi、 c1acss as Pi∫ 丨 n9。 J冖 c° rJc〕 bcing thc scnsiti、 ity ofthc hca1ˉ t to thc rnisf【 giⅤ cncss

,1ˉ

,if y°

u、 ˇ ish,Pity

tunc ofd】 c bouilty,`vhich】 n° tivatcs for-

This intcrior Pity is diⅤ inc in csscncc,but it als° says solllCthing ab° ut the

csscncc oft1ˉ anslation Portia obⅤ iously sPeaks as a Christian,shc is alrcady trying to convc1ˉ

t or to l)rCtend that she is Prcaching to a convcrt In bcr cfR)rt to pcrsuadc

shylock to l。

rgi、 e,s11c is ahˉ

cady attcn11)ting to con、

crt hin△

to Christianity;by kign~

ing thc suPPosition that hc is already a Ch1ˉ istian so that hc、 vill hstcn t。、 vhat shc has to say,shc turns hilu t° Ⅵ广 ard Christianity by rneans of hcr logic and hcr rhctoric;shc cc。 nVC1△ s llllal, shc convcrts

PrCdiS丨 )oseS hiln to Christlanit)9 as Pascal saicl, shc l,1ˉ

hin1in、、 ardly, son1cthing that hc、

Ⅴill

s。 ° n

bc forccd t。

d。

physically, undcr con_

straint she trics to conⅤ crt hiln t。 Chlistianity l)y Pcrsuading hirn° fthc suPPosedly Christian interPrctation that c。

nsists of i】

ltcriorizing, sPirituahzing, idcahzin8、

・ among Jc、、 s(it is° Rcn said,tat lcast,th敲

tll“ is a、

rcmai11physical, cxtcrnal, htcral, dcⅤ otcd to a rcsPcct for thc lcttcr As、 dirercncc l)ct、 ,Cen thc circulncision of d1c flesh and the Paulinc circun1cision° ill heart~therc、 ˉ

vhat

cry Powcrltll xterccltyPc)will ìth thc

f thc

certainly be a nccd to lo。 k for a translation, in thc broad scnsc,

、 Ⅴit11 rcgard t° this I)roblcn1atic of circun1cision (htcral circun】 cision of thc flcsh versus i(lcd and illteror cilcumclsion of tllc hca氏 ,Jewis11circumcision vσ sus Christian ci1ˉ culncision,thc、 hole dcbatc surrounding Paul) 、Vhat haPPcns bCtⅥ 广 CCn the JC、 ˉshyk)ck and thc lcgislati°

nc)f・

of Hcsh bcf° re thc la、 v,t11c oath,t11cs、

the Christian statc in this wa思 cr ofa P。 und `。

rn la1th,thc qucstion of htcrahη

css,and so

on?If f。 rgivcncss d、 ˉ clls、 1thin thc king’ s hcart and notin his thr° nc,his sctrc,

。r

his cr0、广 n,that is,in thc tcluP。 ral,carthly,Ⅴ isil)lc,and P。 htical attributes。 f his

ˉ ・ cr to l)a】 don intcriorizcd in Po、 cr, a lcaP has beCn madc to“ ard G。 d Thcl× )、 Ⅴ ・ n1ankind, in hu111an Po、 cr, in royal Po、、 cr as11un1an P。、 vcr, is 、 hat Portia caⅡ s Ⅴ diⅤ inc:it、 vill be God~Ji大

c This“ hkc/’ this analogy or rescn】 blancc s a logic,

or analogic, of thcologico— P。 htical translati° n, of thc translation of thc theological jnto Pohtical

It is cnthroncd in thc hcarts of ki11gs, It is an attributc to God hhusclf;

・ AI1d caIˉ tl)l)P° 、 cr

、 Vhcn1η

c1・

s

C)sCasons justlcc,

Thc ctl1ˉ t111y powc1ˉ

”sticC、 `c1111Ders”

ˉlikcst God’ d0th d`cn sho、、

that n10st rcscmbles God is that which“ ith h1・ gi、

cncss

scasOns justicc,”

which

440 JAcQuEs DERRIDA

“ Tcmp志 re”

’

[tCmpersl is Hug。 s transladon忆 r“ scas。 ns”

choice;it in fact meansò scas° n”

mocl” ,to∞ mrr,to drc“ Lct’

ss￠ [￠

It isn’

t an erroncous

isonneIl,to mix,to causc to change,to

忆od c,rto a【〕 ftc∝

a cllmatc,asmκ d切 s∝

c,l qud⒒ y,

s not forgct that this sPcCch bcgan by trying to(lcscribe‘ ‘ thc quahty of rncrcyr’ Yct I an1tcmPtcd to rlace I△ ugo’ s translation,“ temP志 rc,’ ’、 vhiCh is not bad,

Ⅴ。th another It、 vill not bc a truc translation,aboⅤ c all not a rclcⅤ ant translation lt、 Ⅰ ill not rcsPond t。 thc namc Fr口 ns`drion It Ⅵ,ill n。 t rcnd召 r, it、 vill n° t Pay its ducs,it、 vⅡ l

n。

t lnake a Iull rcstitution,it、 :ill not Pay or allits dcbt,srst and fore_

most its dcbt to an assumcd conct,that is,t。

the scl∴ idcntity of rncaning allcged

by thc word rr￠ ns灿 on It will n° t bc answcrablC t° r丿

IrcFσ σ d召

l what iS currendy

called a translation, a rcF召 v￠ nF translation But apart fron1 thc fact that thc m。

rclevant translation(that、 vhich prcscnts itsclf as thc transfcr。

st

f an intact signi;cd

thc h∞ nsccl∝ ndJ Ⅴ Chclc d any s唿 niHcr whatsocvcr)iS tl・ c lca吼 rclcvallt ・ rer Ⅵ dl all。、 vn△ e to attcmpt at lcast rhrcc召召 srurcs at oncc,to PosSible,thc Onc I。 thrc,tl吵

tie togcthcr, in the samc cconomy, thrcc ncccssitiCs that、

vill all be linkcd to the

history of a translation that I t。 °k the s° mcⅥ厂 hat rash initiatiⅤ e in Pr。 P。 Sing, ovcr d1irty ycars ago, and 、 vhich is n° 、 v PubhclⅤ can° nizcd in Frcnch ~all thc Ⅵ・ hilc

naturally remaining untranslatable int。 any。 ther language I shall thcrcf。 rc trans_

‘

latc‘ seasons’

’ vhcn1ncrcⅤ as“ rcl志 Ⅴ c” :“ 、

j“ tice lou le d∞

it)” [吖

hCn m″ ⒐

cfcΓ 口Fcs

scasons justice/’

“

c la quand lc Pard。 n rcl心 Ⅴ r"nJ dnd刀 driI’ PFcs召昭 J9

dnd Ⅰ 刀rc” ori″ ,rh″ c纱

c(。 r rhe FdTl,⒈

丿“r∫ cdFion:animme(liatc gu泸 antcc l【 ad)c play ofthe Idlt,m Re`cΓ σ 丘rst conveys thc scnsc of cookin8suggcstcd hcrc,likc dssdisonI,cr It is a quCstion° f giⅤ ing

ùsF泌1Firsε

tastc, a〈 lifferent tastc that is blended、 vith thc6rst tastc, no、 v

dullcd, rcmaining Ⅵ hde changing it, 、 vhilc undoubtcdly rcm° Ⅴing son1cthing of its natiⅤ e, original,idiomatic tastc,but als。、 vhilc addin8to it,and in thc very Pr。 ccss,mor召 tastc,、 vhilc cultiⅤ ating its natural taste,、、hilc giving it sFiFìli ore :c call“ rdcⅤ c1・ ”in Frcnch rs° n`n芒 dsr召 ,its° wn,nt△ tural∏ av° r~this is what Ⅵ σ】 cooking And this is Prc0scly what Por“ a says:mcrcy scasons lreFδ Γ 司justicC,thc quali叮 of mcrcy se灬 ons thc taste ofjusdcc Mercy keePs tllc taste。fjusticc whlc the samc whilc altering it,

亻、ding⒒ ,rcHnlllg

it,culuⅤ ajn:k;mercy rescmblcs justicc,but⒒ comcs fl。

somcwhcrc dsc,it bclon驴

to a difˉ

ft・

it at oncc tcmpcrs and strcngthcns justicc,changes it、 it vvithout conⅤ erting it,yct xl=hile imPr。 reason tO translatc scdsons

m

rent ordcr,at tl,c samc dmcit modi⒔ cs justicc,

Ⅵith‘ ‘ rcl亡 vcr’

Ⅴ ithout

changing it,convcrts

Ⅴing it,、 vhilc cxalting it Hcrc is thc srst ˇ vhich effectiⅤ ely PrcscrvcS thc gustat。 ry

‘ and thc cuhnarⅤ rcfcrcnce of ro sc召 son, ‘ assaisonner” ∶Fo sC虿 son ll氵 rf, sPicc, t。 SPice H s召虿 s。刀 Cd disFl is,according to thc translati° n in thc Robcrr dicti。 nary,“ un Plat 9Justicc PresCrvcs its Own taste,its own mcaning,but this vcry tastc is relcⅤ 。 ,” c° de

bcttcr xsˉ hcn it is scds0nCd or“

reclccm,dcllx・

”

relcⅤ 芯 bⅤ

lncrcy, Without considcring that m召

rcΓ

can

er,casc,hdcm血灯,indced curc(this is thc chaln hcd`,hor召 n,h。夕 ,

h召 iFi胃

a

)justicC which,thus easc(l,ll~ghtcncd,(lcliⅤ crcd(rc乃 c;=召 Jl,redecms itsclf with

Ⅴ ic、 v

tO sacr° sanct salⅤ ati。 n,

2scc0刀

‘ f Jusrin^c虿历on∶

、

dσ

σ

”

justicc,it Pulls and inspircs justicc to、

c佼

ctlⅤ cⅡ x dσ atⅡ exPre锵邙 dex如 on Mσ vard highncss,to、 Vard a hcight hi思 hcr than thc cˉ

sctrC,and po、 vcr thatis r。 yal,human,carthly,and so° n subhmati。 n, n, asccnsion tovvard a Cclcstial hcight, thc highcst or thc most high, highcr than height, Thanks t。 f。 rgivcncss, thanks to mcrcy, justicc is cⅤ cn cro、 vn,the

eleⅤ ation, cxaltati。

Ⅵ/HAT

Is A、 \RELE∨ ANT″ TRANsLAT10N?

ˉ 〗 ising

n1ore just,it transcends itsclf, it is spirituahzcd by

昭

fε

`卢

vC itsdf Mcκ y Sublimt】 tes justkc 3ThcK is,nnally,a FhjJJ丿 usrJ污 cdri° n br tl△ c、

441

and thus lifting itself[se

l d,,rI ab。

cdFi° nt。

mojf°

to、

crb reFcvcr I usc tl△ is、 òrd丿 usⅡ -

rcConcilc、・ hat、 Ⅴould rcndcr this t1・ anslati。 n rclcⅤ ant to thC c° ncd Mσ cy sCasOns jusd∝ η and justlDcss or alDl)r° PH蔽 Cncss″ usrcss叫 ord,thc most aPPr。 PriatC l)° sSiblc,n10rc aPPro^ PriatC、 Ⅴ

f justicc(“

,

^hat ruust bc thc aPPr° Priatc d)an aPProPriate T11is last justi⒔ cation lx:ould thcn giⅤ c a Phil° s。 Phical mcaning and cohercncc to thc cc。 non△ y, accumulati。 n, caPitahzati° n °f good

、ord 、、 vith a doublc 】 △ 】 eaning

grounds In 1967, tO translatc a crucial Gcrman

凵刂hcbcn,△ 吵 cbu叼 ),aw。 rd曲菠吨 1lih“ 菠 clll∝ ∞ ⒃

l,l’

rcss alltl

ω ckvatc,a

Ⅴord that Hcgcl says rrcscnts thc sPcculative risk of the Gcrman lan￡ :uagC, and 、 that the cntirc、 vorld had until then agrccd、 Ⅴas untranslatable~or,if you prefer, a wo1ˉ d△ r which no。 Ilc had agrced、 ith anyonc(,11a stablc,satis、 ing nˉ anslati° n into aI1)languagc

le and thc、 ˉ crb rcFcΓ er for this、 v。 rd,I had Pr。 poscd thc noun rc′ 扌

This allowcd mc t° rctain,j(,ining thcm in a singlc word,thc doublc motif。 f tl△ c ˉ elcⅤ atioI1and thc rlacen】 cnt that prcse1ˉ 、 cs、 vhat it dcnics()r dcstr。 ys,Prcscrving vhat it causcs to(hsaPPcar,quitc likc— in a Pcrfect cxamPlC 、 vhat is callcd in thc 、 arn1cd forccs, in thc navy, say, t11c rchef【 P°

SSib】

rc`氵

Fcl

。f thC guard Tl1is ust1gc is als。

C in Enghsh,Fo rcF】 cΓ c l()Was1η y oPcration a translationPll I an1not surc that

it dcscrⅤ cs this tc〗 ˉ 】 n Thcf`ct is that it has bcconη c irrlaccablc and nca1・ ly canon~

izcd,c、 cn in thc uni、 crsity,occasionally in othcr languagcs`vhcrc the Frcnch xx:° rd

Ⅵcre quotcd fr° n1a translation, c、 cn、 vherC its Origin is no l° ngcr 、 Vithout hCn its Placc。 f° rigin~I mcan“ mc” -or its taste is dishked kn0、 n,or、・

is uscd as ifit

Plungh1g us、 cry dcly into thc issucs,I1】 1ust at lcast recall that thc lnovcl,1cnt0f

△。%c♂ u叼 ,thC l)rocess d est乩 lishing rclσ ance,is dw叮 sin H℃ d a di引 cctical mo℃ mel△ t of interic,li/tadon,ll△ rioH犭 ng mcm。、'(￡ hnn召 nInJ)and Sut,limathg ˉ sPirituah'ation It is also a t〗 anslation such a rc`扌 lc is prccisely at issuc herc, in tc・

s moud1(mcrcy rdt,9c,it dc、 atcs,rlaccs and intcri()rizcs thc jtlsticc tl△ at it cr) nd tl△ c防 mc ncc(l hr tlac1σ hebunf,thc reF♂ vc,at the Ⅴ hcart of thc Hegdian interPrctao。 n J mcrcy,Particulady in rl,c Phcn。 mcnofo捌 /犭 cdε c aS the truth° f thc lfind∶ thc m° vclncnt to、 :ard PhiloS。 Phy and abs。 lute kn。、刂 Po1ˉ tia’

seasons) AbovC all,wc⒔

Christian1・ chgion CS thr。 u8h the cxPcricncC of rncrcy 12 Mcrcy is a relt,Γ

in its csscncc an

Ⅱ刂bebunJ

It is translauon as wcll In d】

c, it is

ch。 Hz° n of cxPiation,

rcdcn)Ption,rcconciliation,and salvati° n

Ⅰ 、、 hcn Portia sayS that111crcy,aboⅤ c thc sctrc,scatcd(〉 n thc intc】・ ior throne in d1e乜 ng’ s hcart,is an att1ˉ ibutc。 fG。 d hinrlsdf1and that d1crchrc,as an carthl)∶ 、 vCr,rnercy rcsen2In`cs a diⅤ inc Po、 ver at the mon1cnt Ⅵ.hcn it clcvates,Prcscrves, P。 and negates[圮肪lcl justice(d1at is,thc law),what c。 tll1ts is the rcscml,lance,thc analogy,thc Hguration,thc111axilnal analogy,a sort of hun1an translatjon°

f diviI1ity:

in hun1an PoⅥ :er lncrCy is、 vhat llaost1ˉ CsCn11)lcs,、・ hat1uOst is and rcveals itsclf口 a di、 :inc Powcr C℃ hcn show hkcst God’ s” ):

But n△ ercⅤ is abo、 c thc sctred S′ ′ ay,

It is cnthroned in thc11earts of kiI△ gs, It is an attril)ute t°

G。 d hin1sclf;

And carthl)P° wCr d° t11d1en shoxl likcst God’ Whcn me1ˉ cy陡灬0ns iusu∝

s

s

442

JAcQuEs DERR1DA VVhich docs11’ t luCan,nccessa1・

il),that1ncrcy co1ncs onl)⒒ on10nc l)crs° n,uP

therc,、汀ho is callcd G。 d,hˉ on1a Pitying Fathcr、vho lcts his lncrc) dcscCnd uPon

us No,that can als°

lnean that as s。 on as the1ˉ c is Incrcy,ifin fact thcrc is any,the

so-caⅡ c(l human cxPcricncc1ˉ cachcs a zonc of diⅤ inity: 111crcy is thc gcnesis of thc

inc,。 fthc holⅤ or thc sacrcd,but als。 thc sitc。 f Purc translati。 n (A risky intcrPrctati。 n It could,lct us n° tc too quickly,cffacC the nccd f° r thc singular Person, (h、

fk)r thc Pard。 ning Or pardoncd Pcrs° n,thc‘

ho” irreducil)le t。

the csscntial quahty

`Ⅴ 。fa(hvinity, and so forth) :ery site of thc thcol。 This dnd/oal iS thc 、 ^P。 htical, thc hyPhcn Or trans~ 8ic° lation bct、、 ccn thc theol。 gical and thc P。 htical;it is als° 、 vhat undcr、、 ritcs Pohtical

sovercignty, the Christian incarnation of the l)。

body,thc king’ t“

st、 vo

dy of God(or Christ)in the king’ s bodics,This analo要 cal ~and christian~aruculation betⅥ ,ccn

ˉ o Po、・ s(di、 inc and royal,hcaⅤ enly and earthly),inS。 e1ˉ

thc sovcrcignt) of rncrcy and the right。

far as it cS hcrc thr。

uEh

f gracc,is als。 the subhmc greatncss that

auth° rizcs° r cnablcs thc autl)orization° f evcry rusc and vilc actioI1that Pcrlllit thc la`vyer P。 ltia,llaouthPicce of all shylock’ s Christian ad、 crsarics fron1the Incrchant

Antonio to thc dogc,t° gct thc bettcr。 fthe Jcw,t。 causc him to losc cⅤ crything, his P。 und of flcsh,his moncy,cⅤ cn his rchgion In cxPresSing all thc cvil that can bc thought of thc Christian lûsc as a(lisc°

hcn shⅤ l° ck、Ⅴ

hc raiscs a huc and crⅤ

ursc of Incrcy, I aIn n° t about to Praisc

f° r his Pound。

f⒈ lcsh

and insists。 n thc litcr~

alncss of thc btlnd I analⅤ zc OnlⅤ thc hist。 rical and allcgorical cards tl,at haⅤ

dcalt in this situation and aⅡ

c bccn

thc discursiⅤ c, logical, thcological, P°htical, and

cconon1ic rcsou1ˉ cs0fthC c° nct of rncrcy,the lcgacy(our lcgac))ot thiS Scmant∶

tics of l△

lcrcy -l)〗・ cciSCl) inasn1ucl)as it is jndissociabk∶

sˉ

jnterPrctation °f translation

orn a certain Eur。 Pcan

ARcr thus Pr。 P° sing thrcc justi丘 cati° ns for n1Ⅴ translati。 n of scclsons and vclb alld noun),I hvc gathercd tOo many Ⅱ 灬 Ons to山 sscmbk

H(f/l,ebuIaJ小饣

thc hct that m、 `Jr“ d1oicc aimcd fo1・ thc best tlâL1saction Possil)lc,thc n10st cconomic, sincc it aⅡ o、、 s me to usc a singlc 、 vord t° translatc sO many ot11er 、 v° rds, cⅤ cn languagcs,、 vid1their(lcnotations and c° nn。 tations.I an1not surc that this transac-

tion,evcn ifit is thc mOst ec。 non1ic possiblc,1uerits the namc of Frdns`口 strict and Purc 3ensc of this

Fi° n,in the 、 vord, lt rad1cr seems onc of th° sc 。thcr things il1

rr,a transaction,t1ˉ ansR)rmation,tra、

aⅡ , rI d【

c`~and a tl℃ asurc

cnuon,if it als。 sccmcd to takc uP Irc′

t1ˉ o、 c lrr。 u,口

i″ cJ

a challc11gc,as anot11cl saying gocs,consistcd。 nly in disc。 Ⅴ crin8、 vhat Ⅵ=as、 vaiting,orin Ⅵ:aking、Ⅴ hat、 vas (SincC tllis in、

cl c叫

SlcePing,in thc languagc) Thc treasurc trovc an1ounts to a travail;it I)uts t°

′ Ⅴ°rk 、、ithout adcquati。 n or transParCncy, hcrc assun1ing thc ・ shaPc 。fa nc、、、 vriting or 〗 c、 Ⅴ riting that is PCrforn1atiⅤ c or Poctic, not only in thc languages, fl1ˉ st of all,

Frcnch, vchcrc a nc、 v usc for thc、 vord cn1crgcs,but also in Gern1an and Enghsh Pcrhaps this oPcrati° n stdl ParticiPatcs i11 thc travail of the ncgative in 、ˉ hich

Hcgd saw a rc`亡 Ⅰ c(△ 刂 /hcbunJ) If I SuPPoscd,thcn,that thc quasi tlanslati。 ’ ‘ transaction。 l thc`vord rc`氵

n,thc

(an Enghs11、vord in thc Pr。 ccSs

lc is indced‘ rclcvant’

of FrcnchiIication), that、 Λould pcrhaPS quahfv thC effecti`cness c)f this travail and

its suPposcd right to bc lcgitimatcd,accreditcd,qu°

ted at an ofHcia111narkct Pricc,

But its PrinciPal intercst,ifI can c、

aluatc it in tcrms of usur)and the n△ arkct,hes

in、、 hat it lnli8ht say about thc ccOn。

my(9f cvcl`y intcrlinguistic translation,this thuc

in thc strict and Pure scnsc of tbc、

0r(l t111(l。

ul)tcdl), in takhn:uP a challcngc

∧ 、 /HAT・

kn ItFcΓ dnr

un df],aw。

IS A

、、 RELEVANT

lang11吃 c,a

rd is acJcled to tllc F1cn山

443

TRANsLATION?

word i1)awσ d The

usc tl△ at Il)aⅤ c” St madc° fthc w。 rd rc`cvcr,“ en rClc、 ant un(lo⒔ ,” also bccomes a challcngc,a challcnε e,ln° rc Ovcr,to cⅤ ery translation tllat、 Ⅴould likc t0、 vclc。 mc into aI1othcr|angua:c all the c。 nnotations that have acculuuIatcd in this、、。rd T11csc rcmain innumerable in thcmsclⅤ cs,PcrhaPs unnamcablc∶ luorc than onc、vord in a ord,lnorc than。 nc languagc in a singlc languagc,bcyond cvery Possible comPat_ ’ ‘ ibⅡ itΥ ° f hom。 nⅤ ms 、Vhat thc translati° n 、 vith thc 、 rclcⅤ ant’ also dcm。 n~ xs・

òrd‘

stratcs,in an cxcn△ 1)lary fashion,is that cvc1・ translation should bc relc、 ant by voca~ tion It、 vould thus guarantee the suH jI‘ of thc body ofthe origi11al(sur‘ ìlcIF i1】 the )・

l′

doulDlc scL1se that Bel△ lan1in givcs it in“ The LzbcrFebcn∶ Isn’

l)rol。 ngcd

t this

、 vhat

Tcask° f thc Tlanslator,” forr`cbcn and

ljft,continuous lift,Fivinf。

l)ut also life aRcr death),

,,’

a translation d° cs?I)ocsn’ t it guarantcc thcse rll@ surⅤ ivals l)y

losjng thc flesh duril、

gal)roccss0fC0nve1ˉ sion[cJ,dnJc丨 ?By clCvating tbc signiser t°

Ⅴ hnc prcscrving thc111。 urnful and dcbt-ladcn mc1△ 1ory °f thc shlgular body, the ⒔rst body, thc uniquc body that thc translation thus

its rncanh1g or valuc,all thc、 clcⅤ ates,PrcScrⅤ cs,and

ncgates IrcFδ vc|P SincC it is a qucstion of a travaⅡ

as、 vc notcd,a travail of thc ncgatiⅤ c— this releⅤ ancc is a travaⅡ thc lnOst cl1ig,η atic scnsc of this

、 vhich mcrits a rc~clab。 rati。 n Ⅴ°rd, 、

attcn1Ptcd clScⅥ hcrc but cannot undcrtakc hcrc,13T11c measurc ofthc rc`冫

Ⅴancc, thc pricc of a tIânslati。

n, is al、

-indced,

of l△ ilourning,in

that I haⅤ e ,饣

vays、 Ⅴhat is called n1caning, that is,

。Jarhcir, PrCservation, truth as prcscrⅤ ation (「 ⒎

bell∫

or1ˉ

elc-

:aluc, 、

召Jar召 n) °r thc `=aluc of rneaning,

nalnely, xx・ hat, in bcing hˉ ced fron△ the b。 dy, is elcvatcd ab。 vc it, intcriorizcs it,

spiritualizes it, IDrcsCr`cs it in n1cn】 ory

A RⅡ thhl and】ηournhl n1cn1° ry Onc cs the Ⅴ aluc 。Γlueaning or luust

doesn’ t cvcn haVc to say that translation l)rescrⅤ raisc IrcFdⅠ

crl thc body to it:the very concePt,thC、 alue of lncaning, thc111caning

。f rneaning,thcàlue of thc Preservcd valuc originatcs in thc n△ °urnful exPcricncc 。f translation,of its very Possibility,By rcsisting this transcriPtion,this transaction 、 vhich is a translation, tbis 2饣 ,=c, shylock dchvers hiI11sclf int° thc grasP of the `♂ ccn JudaiSn1and hc cost ofa、、 agcr bet、 Ⅴ Christian stratcgy,bound hand and fo。 t (ˉ Γ : f° r blovc thcy tI・ anslatc then△ sclⅤ cs, although not into onc Christianit), bl。、 anothcr) I insist on thc Christian din1cnsi° n Apart iom all thc traces that Chr诣 tlanity

has lcR。 n thc hist。 ry oft】 ˉ anslati。 n and thc n。 rluative conct of translation,aPart iˉ

c)md1c hct that d1c Ⅰ d亡 ,c,Hcgcl’ s.1Ill+lac♂ unf(o11C nlust nc、

jc1・

Ft)rgct th荻 he、

a Ⅴ cry Luthcran thinkcr, undoubtcdl〉

às

hkc Hcklcggcr), is exPhcitly a spcculatiⅤ c ,c of thc ion and Good Friday into abs° lutc kn0、 vlcdgc, thc traⅤ ail of rc`δ Ⅰ lη

ourning also describes, thr。 ugh thc ion, through a n△ cm。 ry hauntcd by the

body lost yct PrcscrⅤ cd in its graⅤ e,thc rcsurrcction of thc gh。 st or of the glorious body`vhich riscs,riscs again Ise r召

F♂

9・

c| -and、 valks

、 Vit11。 ut wishing to causc any gricf to Hcgcl’ s ghost, I leave aside thc third mo、・ Cmcnt thcat I had ann。 uncc(lin Por伍 a’ s sPccch(which w° ul(l haⅤ c dcalt with translation as PrayCr and bencdiction)14 /1erci ⒒ thc th))c》 ou11aⅤ c 卜 )1ˉ

takcn∴ ˉ1u Ⅴou c〉

gi、

cn111e,Pard。 n,

n,c冫

丐r,

forε ivc

thc th11cIl)avc

444

JAcQuEs DERRIDA

Notes

坩弼:燃丨

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lJ扌

a琵

(Paris:P1・ csscs uni、 ’ crsitorcs

F,召

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s￡

:∶

dc F1fance,1962) Trans]

,fT土

r∶ :丿 ;犭 nch, ed Dcrek Attrid:c and Danicl Fcrrcr (Calnblldgc∶ Calnbh(lgc :`∶

=△

U11ivcrsity P】 ˉ ess,1984)

Trans‘

]

scc st Jer° n】 C,Ι 沾σ山。 m。 Jcnc″ Pr氵

r呷 rcrcn山 (即 57)lA⒒ anslau【 ,ll ^m九 For d1is rckrcncc I °lumc Transj mn indebtcd to thc adnⅡ rablc rcccnt、 ˉ 。rk(stlⅡ unPubhshcd)of Andr心 s claro,

。f st,Je1ˉ 。me’ s Ⅰ召 s%scs If。 nc

i刀

lcttcr is includcd in this、

br氵 s氵 s:Q夕 dF'c vdhdFions sur氵

d汤品c山 ″dducrcur

rcflccts on Jakobson’ s classi6cation, 。nly

inFcrFⅠ nJuisr氵 c

translation(thC

°PCration that transfcrs from onc langua思 c to anothCr and to Ⅵ∶ hich onc m。 st oRen rcFl・ rs as transladon in thc ProPCr。 r st1・ lct scnsc)iS go`c1・ ncd by the ・ cconolny I havc dcscribcd and, xx ithiI】 it, by thC un1t° f thc 、 \o】 (l Neither 9nrr口

tΙ

isric translati。 nn。 r inrers口 mipric translati。 n is goⅤ crncd by a l)1ˉ inciPle

`jn彐 of ccono1ny c,】

ˉabo、 c all by thc unit ofthc、、ord IDcrri(la is rdtrI・ lng to d1e

cssay by Roman Jakobs。 n KPrintt・ d in this、。lume

Tmns|

(1985) Trans丨

5

IsCC Dc1ˉ

6

This abstract arithmetic,this apParcndy arbitrary cconomy of n1ultiPhcati° n by threc~thrcc ti1ncs n△ orc than thc rnonctary signs — Points us to thc scenc 。f Portia’ s thrcc suitors at thc end。 f the Play and the cnurc Pr。 blC1η atic of

1ˉ

ida’

s essay,“ Dcs Tou1・ s dc Bal)cl”

妊冉扛板漱弼 Ι 撼烈镞F奄∴ cd,Joh11Russcll Bl° 、 vn,vo123d Thc Ⅱrdcn￡ di冖 °nt,/′ rhc}lor大 sJ 丨「 1″ ″ 】 2sfldkcsPcdrc,Cd・ uj1a Ellis~Fcrlnor(London:p"cd1ucn,1951),4 I 224?,Tl tll△ 26;hc1ˉ caRcr abbre“ atcd J∫ 【 s丨 of I%njcc、 i‘

[Franqois-Vict。

r Hugo(1828-1873),thc son ofthc P。 ct,novchst and dramacrsi° n。 f shakcsPcare’ s、 rks bct、「 ccn

tist Victor Hugo,Pubhshcd his Frcnch、

1863and1873 Trans]

`。

、/lc n2° sr i【 uPosSiblC,thc absolutc in1P。 ssible,thc in1possiblc par cxcellencc is ‘ ‘ r as thc n△ 。rc r`,cIz, it11P° sSiblc, the beyond of inaI,° SSible is Possiblc” ° ・ unt to thc san1c thing, Possil)lC” Thcsc rcndcrings arc、 cr〉 (hffcrcnt yct an△ ° ˉ bccause in the t、。cascs (thc 。nc c。 n△ paratiⅤ e, thc other supcrlatiⅤ c) thcy 、ind uP saying that thc tiP° fthC sulun1it(thc Pcak)bcl° ngs to anod1cr order than that of thc sumn1it; the highest is thcrcf° rc c° ntrary t° or °thcr than

Ⅵ/HAT‘

Is A、、RELEVANT〃

TRANsLATION?

445

、 Ⅴhat it surcs;itis highcr than thc height ofthe lnOst bigh:the n1。

st in1Pos_

siblc and thc lu° rc rhdn imPossiblC l)el° ng to anod1Cr order than the iIuP。

ssiblc

h1gcncral and can thercf。 re be P。 ssiblc The mcanil`g of“ possiblc/’ thc signiHcance of thc concePt of P° SSibility,rncan、 vhile,has undcrgonc a mutation,at the P° int and li1η it。 f the i1t⒈ possible ~if I can Put it this vvay— n1utation indicatcs、

Ⅴhat is at stakc in our reflccti° n° n thc imp°

— and this

ssil)lc Possi~

bihty of tra11slation: thcrc is 11。 lo11gcr any l)ossiblC c° ntra(liction bct、 :ccn P° sSil)lc

and in1Possiblc sincc thcy bclong to t、

Enghsh Ⅴcrsi° n

vo11ctcrogcneous orders 丨 An

of Dcrrida’ sc° n11ucntary on AngClus silesius aPPears in On

Da“ d、Vo。 d and J。 hn P LcaⅤ cy Jr,cd (Stanbrd,calif′ ∷ stanbrd uniⅤ crsity Press,1995卜 Trans]

∠ hc N口 mε ,trans

Th。 mas Dutot

cntry in thc O~%rJ￡ nJ`jd】 D氵 criondrJ`gi、・ cs so〗 nC SPlcndi(l 11ses壬 or ‘ such clivcrse111canings as‘ t。 rcnder m。 re PalatabIc by thc addition° f son1c 11η

c1ˉ ich

sa、

oury ingrcdicnt,’

moderatt,,to aⅡ

’“ to

c、 iatt・

“ t。

adaPtr’

accon11nodatc t° a particular tastc/’

,to tcmPer,to Cmbalm;to oPcn,ω 允rd、

rarc and n△ orc archaic(sixtCenth ccntury)usc∶

“ t。

,”

“ to

A mom

prcgnatc,to copulatc/’ as in“ when alnalc11ad)once seasoncd thc炙 malc,hc ncvcr aRcr t° ud1cs hcr,”

10

11

i1η

c” st alluded t° 山cI1a、 :′ Ⅳcll,t11cn,JosePh c° nmd,hr examl)lc,w11tCS ‘ ‘ in Thc sccret sharer” ∶I 、 vould gct thc sccond n1atc to rehevc nlc at that ” ’ ‘ h° ur’ ;then‘ I ¨ rcturncd on dcck f。 r lny rchc∴ Curiously,thc nrst tilllc that the、 Ⅴ°rd rc∫ aΓ c seclncd to mc indisPcnsablc f° r anda血 g(vc⒒ hc,哎 tranxla山 9tk wα d△ 吵 cbunJ was。 n thc∝ ca№ n dt△ n "ˉ analysis 。f thc si:n scc ￡c Pui芒 s cr `ta E「 r召 midc∶ Jnrrt,tf1`crion a F夕 sen,丿 o甲 ic dc Ih【Rx

tD′

″昭c∫ ,a lccturc dcIi、 crcd att11c Coll心 gc dc FIâncc in Jcan Hyppolits’ s sc111inar

during January 1968,rrintCd in J∫ d-乡 cs

Minuit, 1972), P 102 [SeC Dcrhda, lntroduc・ tl。 nt° Hcgcl’

de F〃 Phi`° soPJli召 (Paris: Editi。

“

ns(lc

Thc Pit and the Pyramid: An

s Semology,” 〃d昭 ins gr P乃 1`。 soP勹 /,tmns Alan B灬

s

α Univcrsity of Chica8o PrC、 s,1982)Trans⒈ )R/1° st ofthc s° callcd 、。rds that haⅤ c intcrcstcd me cvcr s"1cc are also,by n° n1cans vord (`hdrl’ ’ 大 or2, suPPl忐 ment, 口 acci〈 JcntaⅡ y, untranslatablc il)to a singlc 、 (C11icaε

undeci(lablc、 (hff苔 rancc,

hyn1cn, and so on) This liSt cannot, t)y(lc⒔

cl° surc

In孔 er,l,召 n。 mcnDRu`σ

ˉ

l奶 nd,菠 tllc cnd c,± Di召

nition, bc givcn any

nbd″ ‰ 山″on,just bcfc,lc 刂。 absolutc rchgi° n and

DtIs tibsoFLIFc lJ1sscn, thcrcf。 rc at the transition bct、 Ⅴccn

vledge~as thc truth° f rchgion absolute kn。、 ISeC Dcrrida,s`ccrrc‘ dc/lr口 rx;`’ Jrdr dc`d dcFrc,炻 rrdΓ dⅠ F du dcuⅠ F cr`d nouΓ c``c inFern山 on虿 Fc(hHs:Gahl芒 e,1993);sPccrε ‘ gf刀 drx;%c sr口 Fc gf rh￠ DebF,rhc 【 %砝

g厂 lr。 uminJ,dnd

rf,c NcΠ ⅡFilFcrndFjor,dF,tmlils Pcggy Kamuf(Lc)nd。 n and

Ncw York:R。 utlc(lge,1994)Trans.l 14

T11is、 v。 uld bc a n1attcr,、

vithout sPcakinε furthCr ab。 ut thc doge and thc Statc,

。⒈cxan1inh1g and、 veighing justice on onc sidc(and justice hcrc n1ust bc under~ st。 ° d as tllc la、 ,thc justicc that is calculablc and c?加召 d,aPpliCd,aPPlicable, and n。 t thc justicc that I(listinguish clscwhcre△ ° m thc law;hcrc justicc rcˉ

thc juIˉ idical,thc judiot△ 〉,P。 sidⅤ C,indccd Penal law), T° cxaminc :cigh justicc on onc sidc、 id)salⅤ ation on thc° thcr,it sccms11ccessary and、

1ncans∶

to ch°

l・

°se bct、 ˉ ccn thcn△ and t°

1・

cnouncc la、v so as to attain salvation This

、 v° ukl bc likc gi、 iI1g an csscntial dignity silnultanc。 usly to thc`Ⅴ ord and thc

446 JAcQuEs DERRIDA value。 fP严 d厂 er; Prayer、・ vs Onc t° go beyond the la、 Ⅴ ould l,c that、 vhich all。、 to、 vard

salvati°

n or thc hoPc °f sal、

ati。 n;

Ⅴould bcl。 ng to thc ordcr it 、

l)rgivcncss,likc bcncdiction,、 vhich、 vas c。 nsidcred at thc bcgi】 )ni11g(1。 ncss is a dotlb丿召

bc力召diCrj° J,:

ˉ 、⒈°】 ccciⅤ es it,lclr wh°

f0r thc PcrsOn

、vh。

1ˉ

。f

giⅤ e~

n

grants it and for thc Pcrs。

・ er gi、 :cs and忆 r whocⅤ cr takcs) Now f Praycr bclong8to thc ordcr off。 rgivcncss(、 Ⅴ hethcr requestcd or εantCd),it has no 厂 Nor in Phil。 S。 Placc at all in thc laⅥ Phy(in。 nto_thc。 l° gy,says Hcidcggcr) e、

Iˉ

But bcf。 re suggcsting that a calculation is an cconon1y again lurking in this

logic,I Icad tlacsc hncs⒒ ˉ om P°l tia`sPccch Just aRer saying`vhcI1mercy scasons justicc/’

she(° r hc)continues∶

Thcrc忆 rc,JC`Ⅴ Though jusuce bc tlly Plca,c。 nsidcr d)is,

That in thc coursc ofjusticc,nonc of us Ⅴc do Pray for rncrcy, should scc salvati。 n∶ 、 And that san,e Praycr,d。 th tcach us all to rcndcr Thc clccds° frucrcy I havc spokcn thusluuch To n1itigatc d1c justicc of th)Plca,

、 Vl△ ich if thou F° ll。、 v,this strict court of Xrenicc ‘ Must nccds givc scntcnce gainst d1cn1erchant thcrc [∫

ParaPhase∶ (F9F召 tI∶

“ Thus,Jevv,although justicc(thc go° d

laⅥ

lr「

,41 193-210I

・

)Inay bC)our argun1cnt

Ⅱ your allcgation,、飞hat you Plead,that in thc nan1c of、 `hich y。 u plcad,

your causc but als°

y。 ur

PlCa),c。 nsider this;that、 vith thc sillnPlc Pr。 ccss of

the law(the silnPlc juridical Pr° cedurc)n° ne。 f us、 :oukl attaIn salⅤ auon∶

Pray,in tl uth,for忆

rgi、

Praycr, this praycr, this

cncss(mcrc))(⒒ cd。

Ⅴ cry

Praycr(F乃

。 r mcrq丿 D、 alltl ths ℃ r)that tCac11cs us

l,J甲 JⅠ `∫

tlr sc7,,,c`r哕

mcrcihl涎 “ (to%r要 vC)t【 )cⅤ eryonc,EⅤ crytl)ing

we

is thc

to do

I htlx c just saltl is to miti

gatc thc justicc° f your causc;if you PcrsiSt, if you continuc to pursuc t11is causc,thc strict tribunal of Vcnicc、 vill neccssardy havc to o1・ (lCr thc arrcst oF

thc mcrchant prcscnt hcrc”

Chapter 30

Ah适

Marl

FOR AN ABUSI∨ E SUBTITLING

Translators arc likc busⅤ

n1atchn△ akcrs vvho Praisc a hallˉ veⅡ ed

as bcing`・ cry loⅤ cly∶ thcy arouse an irrressiblc(lcsirc for t11c。

beauty riginal

Goctllc,lr虿 ” ms口 nd R叨召cr氵。ns(trans S H叮 Ⅴaσ t)

σ ˇF硭 ∶ ∶ ‖ W’ J「 ∶ 温 lr虽盘

an° thC△

A{∶

il|【

f∵ {∶

c∶

kR a⑾

诀

thcatcr xx aIltl℃

thc movie’ s laaurdcr by incomPctcnt

・ subtitle Thc dcath of a text through t】 anslati° n is an agc_old tr。 Pc,but it takcs on ˉ nc、 1ncaning、 vith its transPositi° n into cincma Thc Ⅴcry Possibility° f that dcath thc moⅤ ing imagc imPlies a虻 atc of animation,a statc tlaat is,aRcr all,cssential t° As in thc casc。 f htcraturc,that dcath is a discursivc conditi°

n,but、 vid1nln.it also

constitutcs a Pcrctual category, SPcctat° rs oRcn6nd cinema’ s Po、 vCrful scnse of mimcsis mudtlled by mbtitlt,s,cvcn by skllhl ones Thc oH妒 nd,忆 K螅 n,ol)je∝ ~its sights and its sOunds

is aⅤ ailablc to aⅡ ,but itis casⅡ y obscurcd by丈 hc graPhic

tcxt through、vhich vve neccssa1ily aPProach it Thus,thc° Pacity。 r

。f

aⅥ /kⅥ 厂 ardncss

subtitlcs easⅡ y insPires ragc,

I began d△ inking about thc vagaries of thc subtitle xs hcn I translatcd mⅤ

’

hrst

。召 1991)It was an cxPCricnce⒔ llcd with surPrises,Hc1ˉ c was an cxtraordinarily d。 sc form° f textual analysis、 vhcre cvcry clcmcnt of Ⅴcrbal and visual languagc is1ˉ cad cn△ amc by h・ amc,I was hscint△ tcd by thc °f the imagc,rcatc(lly,hnc by linc,c、 ˉ 、 vay this Particular sckl。 f丘 ln△ analysis naturally raiscd thcorctical Problems in thc subtitlcs for()ga`Ⅴ a shi11sukc and Iizuka T。

shi°

s=1⒒ FoΓ ic

CclP1Fd′

(E氵

ci n。 n,,cl大

,

coursc of、 v。 rking out Practical soluti。 ns tO sccn1ingly shnPlc Problcms,But n。 thing

1999/revised 2004

448

ABE MARK NORNES

is sin1Plc

Ⅵ:hen

it c° mcs to subtitles;cⅤ

cry turn of Phrasc,cⅤ cry I)unctuation ltlark,

akcs holds imPhcations for thc、 ic、 vin思 cxPcricncc of forcign sPcctat° rs Hovvcver, dCsPite thC rich c。 n1Plcxity of thc subtitlcr’ s task CⅤ C1・ y

dccision the translat°

r lη

Ⅴirtually ignored

and its singular rolc in rncdiating thc forcign in cincma,it has bccn

in Hhn studics, 【 n translation studics,in contrast,thcrc has bccn a l)1ˉ

ohfcration of

、、。rk,but it has aln10st exclusivcly concc11tratcd° n Practica1issucs f。 r translato1・ s °r the Physi° logy of thc Pccuhar brand °f sPccd reading dcmandcd by subtitles, Scbolars in cithcr disciI,hnC l、

aⅤ

c yct to cxPl° rc in dth thc cultural and idcol°

gˉ

ical issucs I、 vill attcnd t。 hcre l As f° r cincma’ s global audiencc, it is likely that

no one has eⅤ cr c。 luc a、 vay

lˉ

lˉ

olu a forcign ihn adn1iring thc translati。

n Ifthc sub-

titlcs attract con)mcnt,it is° nly a dcsirc for rcciProca】、 i。 lcnce,a rcvcngc for the tcxt in thc face ofits c° rruPti。 n, F° r,as、 ve shall scc, all subtitles arc c。 It is particularly curious that considcring today’

rruPt,

s celcbration° f othcr culturcs,

this c° rruPti° n

has gonc unconsidercd,unchcckcd I susPcct thc cxPlanati° n lics in y,CⅤ cn hiddcn,P。 sition in tllc hh1’ s journcy sˉ om production t° cxhibiti° n Fighting this c。 rruPtion Ⅵ ill rcquire Pushing the fact of translati° n out of thc darkncss XlVc Illust undcrstand thc lhnits of thc subtidc in ordcr to ・ CxPlorc nc、 v mcthods Thc 、 iolencc。 f thc subtitlc is unaⅤ °idablc,but thcrc is no reason that it should neccssardv lead to(lcad1 °r that that vi。 lcnce should n。 t bc s1d)tiding’ s ancillt△

lˉ

valuablc,cven cnjoyable In the1990s、 c are witllcssing the cmc1ˉ gencc of a nc、 vhich is by naturc positively abusivc XVith all thc attcntion f° rm of subtithng 、 clirccted tovvard multiculturahsn)and divcrsitⅤ ,n° Ⅵ/is thc tirnc to rcconsidcr thc odc° f translation thr。 u8h xshicb our cincnàtic cxPcricnccs with the f° rcign arc

n△

lucdiatcd,L°

° kil)g

closely at translati。 ns

betxxccn Enghsh and JaPancsc,and n10ving

bctween P琬 ctical and thcOrctical P。 lcs,ths PaPer`vill dentiI s°

mc。 f

tl,c

dilcn11nas subtitlcrs face as、 Ⅳcll as their rcsponses to thcm ovcr thc past70ycars,

、c movc to`Vards creativc solutions through stratcgic abusiⅤ cncss Only thcn can 、 I havc claboratcd thc notion of an abusivc translation originally pr。

PhiliP E Lcwisin“ The Mcasurc ofTranslation Effccts,” in Frcnch and translatcd int。 an° thcr critic’

st1・

Poscd l)y an essay hc ohginally wrotc

Enghsh hiInsclf(sCC LCwis in this、

anslation of Dcrrida’

s essay、

:°

“

lumc) T° analyzc

La lnyd1。 l° gie blanchcr’ Le、 vis dehn-

catcs thc diFfcrcnccs bct、 vcCn thc Frcnch and Enghs11 1anguages, ar思 uing that vhcn it occurs, has t。 m° Ⅴ translation, 、 c、 vbatcvcr n1eanings it caPtures fron1the

‘ ‘

original int。 a⒒ ˉ amcxx ork that tcnds to in11冫

and a(⒈ Fferent construction of rcahty”

oSC a different sct of discursive rclations

(p 259) ThC disshnilarity l冫

creatcs di【 fercnces that si1uPly cannot bc ovcrc。

activity of translation, This is furthcr con)P°

ct、

vccn languagcs

me, inc、 itably c。 mPron1ising thc

undcd by thc tcndcncy for translation

・ ate on meaniI1g to thc exclusi。 n oftexturc and matcr~ iality As both 、 vritcr and translat° r 。 f his essay, Le、・ is disc° vers a frccdon1 to of cssayistic texts to conCcnt】

diⅤ crgc

fl on1the originaI text unaⅤ adablc t。 thc tyPical translat。 r, It is fron1this

Sition that hc I)1・ P。

。PoSCs a nC、 v apProach,“ d1at。 f the strong, forccful translation

that values cxPc11mcntati。 n,tampcrs、 vith usagc,sccks t。 match thc Polyvalcncies or Pluriv° citics or cxPrcSsivc strcsscs0f thC°

riginal by Pr° ducing its o、 ⒎ n”

(P262)

This is t。 locatc thc strcngth of a translation in its abuscs Whcrc an original tcxt

ith signiHcation, thc translation strains language d1rough tcxtual kn。 ts dcnse Ⅵ厂

ˉ ∫ 0rlus analogous violcncc against thc targct languagc CorruPt subtitlcrs chsaⅤ °、ˇ thc、 i° lencc。 f thc subtitle、 Ⅴ hnc abusiⅤ c translators rc、 cl in it Pe】

FOR AN ABUsIVE sUBTlTLING

449

Put rnorc concretclⅤ ,thc abusivc subtitler uscs textual and graPhic abuse is, cxPcrilncntation lsˉ ith lanε

quahties _to brit1思

that

uagc a11d its grammatical, morph。 logical, and visual

the fact of translation from its P。 sition of obscurity,to critiquc

vhilc ultirnatcly lcading thc the irnPerial Pohtics that 8r。 und corrupt practiccs 、 vie“ :er to the foreign °riginal bcing rroduced in thc darkncss of thc theatcr

This。 riginal is not an° rigin thrcatcncd l)、 c° nta∏ 1ination,but a locus。 f thc indi~ 、idual and thc intcrnational、 vhich c】 an potcntially turn thc⒔ ln) into an exPer氵 cncc ol△ r口 ns`dr氵。 n

A corrupt Practice Facing thc violcnt rcduction(lcmandcd by thc aPParatus,subtitlers haⅤ an△ ethod of translation that consPircs to hi(lc its、 Ⅴork~al。

asst1rnptions

⒒olll

its oⅥ /n

ng、 ith

c dcⅤ eloPcd its idc。 logical

rcadcr~sPcctator3 In this scnsc、 Ⅴc111aⅤ think of thcn)

as corruPr Thcy acct a、 iSion of translati。 n that Ⅴi° lendy aPpr° PriatCs thc source tcXt,and in thc l)r。 ccSs of convcrti11g spccch into、 Ⅴriting、 vithi11thc tilη c and sPacc hn1its。 f the subtitlc thcv c。 nforrll thc。 riginal to thc rulcs,rcgulations,idioms,and

frame of rcfcrcncc of thc target languagc and its culturc, It is a Practice of translation that smoot11s Ovcr its textual violcncc and(lomcsticatcs all othcrness、 vhdc it PrCtends t° bring tbc audicnce t。 an cxPcriCncc of thc k)rciε n

The Pecuhar chal-

lcngcs Poscd by subtithng and thcìolencc thcv nccessitate arc a〗

uattcr of cOursc;

theⅤ are、 :ariations of thc dif⒔ cultics in an、 translati。 n and in this scnse arc analogous t°

thc Pr。 blClus confrontcd by t11et1ˉ anslator of Poctry.It is thc subtidcr’ s rcsPonsc

、 vhich arc corruPt Subtitlcrs say they Pr。 m。 tC lCarning and holkate cllloyal)lc mceungs with。 thcr cukurcs,b1ˉ lnging d1c scnse behnd act。 rs’ spccch acts to vic、广 crs through thcir skillful rcndcring at thc cdges° f thc screen

t。

th。 se challcngcs

In fact,thcy consPire to hi(lc their rcated acts of violcncc thr。 ugh codi伍 cd rules

rruPt~~fCigning comPlCtC_ 、iolcnt xx orld.Onc ofthc fcw atten△ Pts at thC° izing thc subtitlc tt,uchcs on tlacsc issueb,although it is tlltil11atcly unsclosIing,Thnh T Minh ha and a traditi。 n。 f suPPrcSsi。 n It is this Practicc that is c°

ncss in their°

xx lη

Iˉ

、 rltcs, `厂

The durati。 n of thc subtitlcs, for cxamplc, is vcry ideological I think that if,in m。 st translatcd611ns,the subtitles usually stay on as lon8as thcv tcchnicallⅤ

can~。 Rcn much longcr than thc tirnc nccdcd cⅤ cn

f° r

a sloⅥ 广rcadcr~it’

s bccausc translation is conccivcd hcrc as Part。 f thC 。Pcrati。 n ofsuturc that de⒔ nes thc classical cincmatic aPParatus and thc tcchnol。 gical c110rt it dloys to 】 1aturahze a dominant, 1】 icIˉ archicall、 uni⒔ ed、 vorldvie”

∷Thc succcss of the mainstrcanl Hh11 rchcs PrcciSCly

vcll it can hi(lc Iits articulatcd artinccs] in on ho、、、

show Thcrcf° re, thc attcmPt is al、 vays

t。 Pr。 tcct

、 vhat

’ it、飞 iShCs to

the unity of thc

subject;hcre t° collapsc,in subtithng,thc actiⅤ itics of rcading,hcaring, and sccing into onc singlc activity, as if thcⅤ

/hat 、 Ⅴcre all the same 、、

hat y。 u hear is1nore oftcn than n° t, you rcad is、 vhat y。 u hear, and、・ Ⅵˉ hat、 0u scc (T1înh1992: 102〉

450

ABE MARK NORNEs

Wc can acct Trinh’ s gloss to thC CXtcnt that、 ve rcc° gnizc ho、 v,in this modc oF ublcsOmc texts arc丘 tted

translation, all f° rms。 f(liffcrencc arc suPPrCSscd and tr。

into thc most c。 nscrvativc of framc、

v° rks

Take thc cxamPlc。 f sCxud difFercncc,In JaPancsC gender is clcarly markcd hnguistically,and subtitles dramatize(liffcrcncc through stcreotypcs。

Ⅰ fthc、、 ay n1cn

or、Ⅴomcn sJ,ot扌 Fd sPcak In subtitles this is acc°

mPhshcd priluarⅡ y thr。 ugh sentcncc_ gnal Particlcs For cxamPlc,thc malc cnding zo has a hard,asserti、 c sound,、・

hiIc

ftmale sPecch iS soRcncd by Particles likc Πd and no As、 vith any corruPtion,habits arc hard t。 brcak and beha、 i。 r is rulcd by conⅤ cntion At the l)cginning of the JaPanCSC Subtitled Ⅴcrsi° n。 fR。 boc。 P,【 ri11stancc,thc kmdc a11(ln△ alc cops mcct cach。 tl△ crjust aRcrthc kmdc omccr bcats a row(l、 'criminal into submissi。 n Aftcr c’

this disp1ay ofn。

-n° nsensc

brutahty thc ncxx・

Partners arc intr° duccd to each° ther,

thcy gct into a squad car,and drivc aⅥ fay,ˉ Γ he action is innocuous enough,but thc dialogue inⅤ olvcs an intcnsc play for P。 Fcn2d助 CY阝

Ⅱ d丿 c(217孑

∝ r∶

丈、knI,ml,1・

・、

In JaPan tl、 is was subtitlc(lin t11eR)llo、 inε

:

e牡 ℃ in a¨ w

lDtart¨ r

manncr∶

吖σFdsJai卩 cI1Inrcn sur1I Ⅰd / I“ 1ll drivc ΚⅠ f,,i ni Ⅱ =d nad炙 dserclrcn / I can’ t lcaⅤ c it to Ⅴ ou

FcJmcI`c: Il∫ ti`召

that’ s cntirCly linguistic:

I bctter dri、 c until you know y。 ur way arc)un(l

Iu田 d|洳

cc∷

、 vcr

l・

Not Only is this c°

nⅤ ersation

rcduccd to its barcst,litcral n1caning, but thc po、 :er

dynan△ ic is changcd floΠ 1a strugglc oⅤ er kno、、 lcdgc to a si1nPle d° n1inati。 n

Ⅴon△ an’ s soR sentcncc-Hnal l)articlc;vtz contraSts、 :ith the IuaIc of丘、

ccr’

Thc

s curt、 crb

ending;thc diffcrcnce strongly suggests11c occuPieS a suPcl¨

i。 rP。 siti。 n(a Positi° n cemcntcd by dloyn△ ent ofthc sec。 nd-Pcrs° n Pr° noun灸 iz12i, xxhiCh onc uscs only

、 vith

sub。 rdinatcs), The w。 lη an’ s subtitlc、 v° uld haⅤ c bcen much strongcr、 vith a (liffcrent Particle,such as丿 o This particlc is assOciated、 vith Patriarchal powcr and is tyPicaⅡ y uscd by l△ liddlc— a思 cd、 v° mcn、Ⅴ hcn

thcy、 vant tO sPcak f° rccfully Indecd,

i'tz in any contcxt P actually using Ⅰ 、Vith。 ut thcir accoluPanying in1agc,thc lines rcad likc a gan8stcr talking to his lll° ll

it is difΠ cult to in△ aginc this aggressiⅤ c fclualc c。

Thc tra11slator took grcat lil,ertics, n△ atching thc substancc of thc targct languagc

Ⅵ・ ith the imagc but evacuating thc Po、 Ⅴ cr Play2 VVe may be ablc to undcrstand thc basic, undcrlying logic of corruPtion by turning to its mOst cx△ emc manikstclti° n∶ dubhn: Thc j。 urnd「F,c№ cF Ⅰ iJhF fⅠ

∶ ∶ ∶ 〖哏扩吲土

l∶:∶ !∶

;∶

∶ ∶ f苜糕 J吖戛 &￡ T∶l;;瀑 l廴

:(尢 :∶ 1I1占

、 vhich ProducCS a11c、 tCXt frcc °fthc c。 nstraints° n thc translat。 rl)ccause thcrc is no dcbt to an original,This allo、 Ⅴs the translator t° brin思 t11c rcadcr(rcad ctDnsLΙ Jmcr) a rcadily digcstil)le Packagc that easⅡ

by the° riginal nlrn

y suPPlants any idcological baggage carricd /hⅡ c subtitlcs arc dcscribed as PuriSt and chtist, the author 、、

argucs thc dubbcd sOundtrack is hbcrating;rnass audicnces、 becausc thc(lubber c|an rcsist thc idc。

vⅡ l n。 t

rcsist the forcign

gical underPinnings that link6llll t。 gcoPohtical strugglcs strange,thcn,that this is thc cssay’ s conclusi。 n∶ 61n△

l。

FOR AN ABUsI∨

E sUBT1TLING

451

Dul,blng I … lm。 stly succcc(ls in d%cing the hct of the丘 lm text’ s forei8n° rigin;or,rathcr,it思 ivcs its nc、 v audicncc thc chancc to(lisavo、

:

cntrilo~ 、 vhat they really kn0、 v,hcncc。 Pcning an aⅤ cnuc for cultural Ⅴ quisrn thr。 ugh voicc l)oStSynchr° nization

In doing so,thc dubbcd⒔

aPPears as a radically ne`v Pr。 duct rathcr than a transformcd old。蚯nglc tcxt rathcr than a d。 Tai、 vancse

hn

nc,a

ublc Onc,Likc a JaPanCSC gamc comPutcr,a

shirt,or a German car,Pr。 ducts that haⅤ e l)ccn c。 nstructcd

⒔t c° nsumcr dcsires in an intcrnational markctplacc through thc rcduction °f thcir cultural sPcciHcitiCs, thc t。 ~bc~dubbcd⒔ lFn °riginal initlally hl⒔ ‖s an imPoltant critcⅡ on with which m° st othcr inter t°

national con△ modities also comPly∶ t()bc a“ bre唿 n”

丘lm in。 rdtl

it forcgrounds its function, ccasing

to bcc°

mc just a slm ⒈,l In thC inter

national markctPlacc thc Hhn。 riginal thus f`Jnctions as a transnational decultured Pr° duct;it bccomcs thc raⅥ

matcrial thatis to bc rcinscril)cd

辶rcnt cultural c。 ntcxts of thc c。 nsumcr nations thr。 ugh the use of dubbin8 into thc(hf【

(Ascheid1997:40) Just a⒖ lm indccd Asidc h・。m an insum。 cnt thcoo'auon° f tl anshtion itself,this ‘ SusPicious cssay rcduccs thc forcign t。 nguc to nothinε m。 rc than a‘ cultural dis~ where dul)bing is PcrcciⅤ Cd as“ a stratcgy of cmPowcrmcnt” This is a Hne cxamPle of a、 'alorizati。 n of Postln。 dcrn Play bcing cooPted by caPital The adⅤ antagc”

“

exchangc” facilitatcd by the‘

‘

t。

moncy for Plcasure This is thc l°

l)e-dubbcd⒔ hu” is silnPly of thc caPitahst Ⅴaricty: gic of corruPti° n in its dubbcd、 crsion,thc Onc

PracticCd by distril)ut。 rs f。 r、vh° rll translation scrⅤ cs littlc1n。 rc than surPlus valuc

Today’ s subtitles ParticiPatC in it to an unfortunate degree; any translat°

r 、 vh°

、 vishcs t° think othcrⅥisc is bhnd, Thcse f。 rms of corruPti。 n c。 ukl bc critiqued fr° m thc idc° l。 gy of Hdchty, 、 vhicl,inⅤ 。kcs thc auth。 rity of thC° riginal and P° rtrays it as an cndangcrcd purity or origin This 、 vould rcⅤ cal ho“ subtitlers arc reluctant to discuss the issuc ()f Hdchty,as it`Ⅴ ould eXPose their violence and makc then1aPPCar incomPCtCnt ⅣVc c。 ukl als。

cxtcnd the domain° f this Purity undcr siegc to thc tcrrain of thc scrccn

itsclf,hkc thc JaPancsc cincmato8raPher Ⅵ:h° dccries ugly,suPc1ˉ imPoscd Subtidcs for dcsP。 iling thc in△ age and seParating sPectators fron△ thc bcauty of the。 riginal (F叼 lllami197⒎

81-84) hdeed,any mct△ sure of⒔ dclity is a哎 and盯 d dle aPP茳 at“ ‘ ’ HoⅥ 广 c ver,cvcn though thc tcrm‘ c° rruPt’ threatcns to posc

itsclf、 ˉ nl n。 t pCrn△ it tl△

e° riginal as tcrrit。 ry unsPoilcd by subjectivitv,therc arc thcorctical rcas° ns that

thc abusive translator stecrs clcar° fsuch easy binaries to takc a quitc(liffercnt tack

Thc Hrst st is to simPly CxP° sc thc act。 f translatlon,relcase it9Om its sPacc。 f SuPPrcSSi° n, and undcrstand 、:hat subtithng actually is and ho、广it camc to its corruPt conditi°

n

The aPParatus of transIation The Practicc of subtithng has bccn cⅤ cn m。 rc obscurcd than the translation 。f 、・ rittcn, Printcd tcxts Indccd, m° st Pc° Ple Probably ha、 c ncvcr thought of

452

ABE MARK NORNEs

subtithng虿 s

rr虿 ns`dri。 n,

ab。 ut f° rci8n

Thcrc is no question that Enghsh-languagc

伉l1n criticism

cinCma has takcn the mcdiation °f subtitles cntirely for granted

Outsidc Of dle ⅥTiting ahlled at Pr。 ksSi。 nal translat° rs and tbc acaden1ic audicnccs

。ft1・ anslati° n studies, 、irtually n° thing has bccn、 vrittcn ab。 ut thcn) Indccd, thc anslators thcmsclvcs,al。 n8、 vith thci1ˉ tcchnicians,丘 hn Iuakcrs,、 Ⅴritcrs,cc nsors, and the Producers that11irc thcn1all,go to great lengths to suPPrcss any ackn0、、⒈ edgn1cnt °f thcir c。 nspiracy It has bccn n° tcd morc than oncc that thc unlucky t1ˉ

translator is an author but not The Auth。

r, that hcr translation is a“ 'ork but n°

t

Thc 、Vork。 But cvcn this dynan1ic is abscnt froln b。

th P° Pular and sch° larly disc° urscs on the cinema,This abscncc sPCaks doubly ofthc d。 lui11al)ce ofthc imagc

and the uttcr suPPrcssion of the subtidcr’ s ccntral role in cnabhng a61In’ s border crossln8 'Γ

o transPort thC subutlc△ 。n△ its spacc of obscu1ˉ ity and uncovcr thc ro。 t。 f

its

corruPtion, v￠ C must considcr、 Ⅴhat is spccisc to it as a Particular modc of trans~ lati° n

This includcs its 111aterial conditi。

cincn1a a lllassiⅤ e aPParatus11eccssitatcs a、 Hh11’ s

ns and its historical c。 ntingcncy, In d1c iolent translation° fthe sourcc tcxt T11c

uttcrances arc scglucntcd by tiIuc;natural brcaks i11sPccch al~c nlarked for t11c

ten1poral bordcrs of thc subtitlc Thc translat。 r dctcrn1incs thc lcn8th° f cach unit oft1ˉ

n to thc framc,that is,cl。、 vn t。 a24th of a sccond As thc transla~ anslation doⅥ 厂

ti° n

Procccds,the translator strives to rnatCh thc tirning ofthc subtitlc、

and ln,oti。 n ofthc s。

vith thc sound

urcc tcxt A humor° us linC,for examPlc,rnust bc arranged to

meetits audi° -Ⅴ isual Punctuation Once accon1Phshed,thC translation m°ves through tlae hands° f coundcss tcd111iciansi sOmc of、 ˉ hom think n。 thing of“ adlusting” a subtitlc here° r thcrc f。 r thcir° “`n caPricious,technical reasons As、 ve、 vdl sCC,this can lcad t° thc kind。 f elubarrassing rnistakes that1nakc translat。

rs cringc

FinaⅡ y,thc translation is graRcd onto thc。 riginal text in° ne

thc casc° f nlrn) ThC Subtitlcs arc Ph。

ofthrcc、 Ⅴ ays(in

oPticaⅡ y and sand、 vichcd t° gcthcr l1,ith the sound and imagc as a third6hn strip,litcrally a thi】 ˉ d track or thcy arc cut into thc cmulsi°

to思 raPhcd

n itsclI∶

inciscd, scratchcd C)r, morc rcccntly, thcy comc to l>Cl)urned int。 coIη

° nt。

the、 ery tissuc

f thC °

imagc,

thc tissue(,f the celluloid、 vith a

Putcr_drivcn lascr

Bcyond thc dif⒔ cultics P° scd by this con1Phcatcd pr。 ccss, the translat。 r 厂 n thC Path of corruption The

consˉ onts an array of challcngcs that sccrll to lcad dOⅥ sPace amd tilllc available for translati°

n are dccidcd by thc aPParatus itsclf;this n1ay

bc analogous to the challcngc Poscd by l)octry,but is actuaHy a(liffcrcnt Problcn1

h1Hln1the machh1c runs at a constant sPccd and1uindlcssly unsP。 ols its translation at aI1unchanging1・ atc Thc translat° r111ust condense his translation in the Physical sPacc° fthc frame and the ten△ Porallength ofthe utteranCe The readcr cannot stoP and d、 vcll。 n an intcresting linc;as thc reader scans the text,thc1nachinc instandy

oblitcratcs it Thcrc arc Protocols for this condcnsati° n,but thcy diffcr dcndh△ g on thc translator and thc aPParatus Thc nu】 nber of sPaccs available f° r text dePcnds

on d)c%rm破。fthc hlm(16111m,35mm〉

,the le11s(1∶

scriPt° f thc language, and thc subtithng meth°

33,⒈ 85,CincmaScoPe),t11e

d itsclf 1Γ 11c translat。

n1incs ho、 v many lcttcrs Or Characters arc legiblc in thc scc。

r thcn(lctcr~

nd °r t、 Ⅴ。or thrcc

avaⅡ able t° cach tide k is oRcn s"d that actors talk twicc as%st as sPCCtators can

rcad,but this is hardly a useful starting Point for the、 vork of translati。 n, Donald Ric11ic,for cxamPlc,allo′

vs f°

r about onc、 .ord Pcr f° 。t,or a t、 Vo_hnc titlc Pcr12

`

FOR AN ABUSIVE sUBTITLING

453

et(Richie1991:16)・ Japanesc subtidcrs are fond of citlng thc rulc,“

F° ur char 3T° da Natsuko exPlainS h。 vv this rulc、 vas arrivcd at: thc⒔ rst subtitlers had t° dcterminc how hst thc typical JaPanCSC could rCad,s。 thcy showc(l

ft・

acters Per sCc° nd”

a Hlm to a Shhbashl

ishd(!)and εε

camc up witl△

thrcc to bur charactcrs Pcr sCc。 nd

with a13charactcr hnc40vcr thc years thc JaPanCSC Subtitlcrs rcduCcd dle hnc to tcn to prcvcnt sloPPy Pr°

jccti。 nists lr° n1cutting。

ff thc charactcrs at thc cdgcs,

but s。 ° n thc f° ur~charactcrs-Pcr-sCc° nd rulc、 vas clad in ir° n

(By、 vay of contrast,

subtitlcs in othcr languagcs can bc t、 vo to thrcc tirncs as l° ng, (lcnding on the

hrmat,aPelturc,and a numbcr。

f° thcr

hctors,)A∝ ually,this

hist。

ryis hr m。 rc

nuanccd than thcir rrCsCntation ofit In any casc,against this l1● atrix of thnc and sPacC, thC translat° r sublnits thc °riginal text t° a Ⅴiolent reducti。 n that m° st rcadcrs c° nsider int~ifthcy dod8c thc translator’ s feints and Pausc t。 think ab° ut it at all

The JaPanesC languagc sccms κadyˉ mtaclc儿 r subutling∶ 忆r。 nc thng,JaPancsc does n° t、vastc Precious sPace。 n gaps bct、 vccn、 vords and can cvcn brcak a linc in mⅡ ~w° rd K虿 IlJi(Chinese characteⅡ thc ma妊 mum amount of mea血 ng

)cxPK“

in a n1iniInum of syllablcs; ncol° gislns and abbrcⅤ iati° ns arc casⅡ y acc° mPhShCd thr。 ugh thc crcatiVc con11)ination of k口 nì EvCn bcttcr,JaPancSC oRCn lcaⅤ cs° ut tl△ c subject,dlrcd° cct,° r othcr Par“ of叩 CCch,m1・ lng much ncc(lcd sPacc. 匀 Bccausc this f° rccs spcakers t° its rcaders t。

bc avvare of contcxt, thC langua思 c itsclf prarcs

scck out、 vhat subtitlcs lcaⅤ c unsaid Finally, in additi。 n

t。 itahcs,

Japancsc has thc cnⅤ iablc ability t° bc inscribcd b° th h° riz。 ntally and vcrtically,a rcsource、 vhose abusiⅤ c Potcntialis Pr° Ⅴ。catiⅤ C Finding thc sourcc languagc a richcr hnguistic、 vorld than onc’ s° vvn targct lan:uagC iS Probably a uniⅤ crsal_-and frus~ trating— —exPeriCncc f° r translators,but vvc1nust not lct this imprcssion lcad t。

、 vard an csscntiahst relauonshiP t° translati。 n and its t° ols, A far morc po、 vcrful

:round f° r develoPing a translation attuned to its tiluc is a thorough historicization, eSPecially one that takcs into lnultiPle nati° nal c° ntcxts To aⅤ 。i(l this is

Πirt 、 vith the dangcrs dcm° nstratcd by the nationahst chauvinism of post、

t。

var

JaPanCSC subtitlcrs. Thc subtltle has ncⅤ cr bccn cntircly ign。 red in JaPan Sincc at lcast the 1930s,

cnJ%cc sccl1扪 0sd%rclp⒔ lms haⅤ c bcm Ptlbhsht・ d on a∞ 汛 m basis.Holyk∴ CⅤ Cr, e bulk of thcsc c°ntain comPlctc translations° f the丘 hns, and this sPcaks1n。 rc

tl△

br the JaPanCSC Hlm world’ s aPPrc0ation° fthc a⒒ 。 f sccnario wrking than of subtithng Pcr sc At the samc tilmc,thcrC arc currcntly sch°

ols dcⅤ otcd to training

translators,and thc namc ofthc subtitlcr is al、 vays includcd as a crcditin thc JaPancsc

PrintS。 f bre唿 n slms(at lCast in much of thc P。 stwar cra),In hct,a number° f these translators havc achieⅤ ed rutations am° n思

gCncral audicnccs. somc subc hns!Thc m。 st%m° us shimizu Shu巧 i,Okacda Sh巧 i,Kamishma Kin△ i,and Toda Natsuko~havc PubhshCd autobi。 graPhics,ho、 v~to books,and tcxt_

titlerq cvcn haⅤ

tcaCh Enghsh conⅤ crsation ; 严、、 hilc many of history’ S rnOSt fam。 us essays on translati。 n haⅤ c cmcrgcd in the ‘ coursc of Practice,thcsc authors’ 、 vritings on‘ thc art of subtithng” arc dely disapPointing. Thcir conction° f translati° n is regrettably Si1nPhstic F。 r cxamPle, thc Russian cinclaladc adaPtation and subsequent Japancsc transladon。 fr÷rdmFer books that usc subtitlcs t。

natuIˉ ally

raisc the issuc° f thc auth° rity of thc original text; obhⅤ

i° us

t。 this kind

°f issuc,T° da Natsuko~l)y hrthe m。 st PoPular subtitlcr in Japan— uscs thc⒔ lm

454

ABE MARK NORNEs

only to suggcst、・ hat a Pity it、 vould havc bccn if dubbing had crased thc rnain actor’

s

beautiful, vclvety voicc (Toda 1994∶ 10) Similarly, her n1cnt。 r shi1nizu Shunji dcschbcs his subtitles hr Olivicr’

s OFJlcrJ°

N。 ting that the grcat actor’ s PCr忆 rrn

ancc、vas lnorc thcatrical than cincmatic,hc lnadc rnuch°

f hs8° ing to thc unusual

lcngth of listcning to a taPc rcc° rding of the sOundtrack、

Ⅴhile translating(shin】

6162),N。

izu

,ide their most translators,shakcsPcarc’ s Ⅵords Pr。、 `v忆 daunting task, a tcst case for dac m。 st basic,PreSSing thcorctical issucs in transla-

199⒉

rm。 st

tion This d。 cs not occur to shin△ izu or Toda In b。 th cascs,thc actor and his voicc rePlacC ShakcsPcarc as thc sources to、 vhich thc translator。、ˉ cs a dcbt, Thesc auth° rs’ undc1・ standing of⒔ lm hist° ry is just as imP。 Ⅴ crished;thcy have donc littlc or no rcscarch int。

thc Past or Prcscnt c° nditions of their⒔ cld,but thcy

ncⅤ cr hesitatc to cxplain or analyzc it In his‘

shinji l)ascs his acsthctics of cinen1a on a na∵

narration

s。 phy of Subtithng/’ ()kacda vc cquation of sⅡ cnt and sOund 61n△

⒈ 1e unProblCmatically comParCs thC narrativc function of sdent era

intcrtitlcs t°

thc lcss、

‘ Phil。

that of sound subtitles in thc1980st。 his acsthctics of cinema∶

Ⅴords a⒔ hn has thc bettcr6Hc docs n° t bcgin to consider thc、 ast° nt° _

logical and scn1iotic(liffcrcnces bet、 veen silent and sound cincIη a For exan△

Ple,hC

docs not cⅤ cn rncntion the crucial r° le of thc bcnshi,thc fam。 us scrccn-si(lc nar1âtor

of JaPancsc“ lt,nt mm wh。。 Ⅲered b。 th

nt△ rl

ati、

=e commcnttlry ancl mimickc(l

thc Ⅴoiccs。 fthc charactcrs This is a tyPical cxamPle。 fh。、ˉ si1nPhstic is thc concˉ

tion of cincma、 vith、 vl)ich c° rruPt subtitlcrs° Pcrate Furtherm° re,thcir undcrstanding of thc rclati° ns11iP。 f Subtitlcrs t° thc、 v。 rld

hl1n industry and its PohticS is particularly inadcquatc Toda rcduccs‘ ‘ Alncrica’ standard Practicc of dubbing” to thc fact thatitis a nation of hn∏ that fcels uncannilⅤ sirnilar t° statcmcnts ovcr、 vhich

1i思

s

rants,a commcnt

a numbcr°

fn△ inistcrs haⅤ e

rcsigncd in rcccnt ycars Ccrtainly an adcquate exPlanati° n、vould havc t°

clcal、 vith

ac° mPlcx。 Ⅴerdctcrn】 ination of f° rccs:the cmcrgcncc of Enghsh as a lin思 ua ianca °f intcrnational busincss and PohticS;thc、 vorld d° n1ination of Holly、 v° 。d,its l。 ca_ tion、 vid1in uS b。 rdcrs,and its ncar total don1ination of thc h。

me markct;and an

cducation systcm that Placcs n0、・ a1uc on f° rcign languagc study Furthcrmorc,、 vhilc mass△ narkct Hhns luay bc dubbcd, it is incorrect tO say this is standard Practice

Thc adual markt,t hr凡 rcign hlms has histotlml|demanded sul)udcs,a11(lths h灬 also bcc。 mc truc of rnainstrcam relcases for foreign Hlrns as of thc 1980s Toda’ s brand of radical reducti° n is comPlemented by tcdious gloating oⅤ

cr thc

JaPanese languagc, thc scnsitiⅤ ity of JaPanese SPectat。 rs, and thc sPCcial skⅡ ls rcquired。 f thc translat。 r。 f丘lrns Toda∶ “ Japancse PcoPlc’ s SPCcial tcndency to 、tant tO scc thc Original crcated a uniquc subddc nadon,unii【 ndJii,’ 口 ku芡 o大 ul;hCrc, 1Ι

、 ve

arc haPPy that cⅤ cry JaPancSc can read,an cxtremely sPccial c。 nditi。 n any、 vhcrc in the w。 dd” (T。 da1994∶ 11),Okaeda∶ 玎apancsc PCoPlC’ s intcndon IshikJl t。 wc・ rds

thc。 riginal is str。 ng[and。 nc。 f thc rcasons] subtIdcs arc the mainstrcam I

] Consiclcring t11is,subtitlcs arc immoⅡ “,、 Vc could say, ‘ f thc JaPan;Nation。 ”(Okacda 1989∶ subtitlc Culturc’ 6), Subtithng is not in a rrcsSCd condition in JaPan;rather,it is oⅤ crⅤ alucd through thc idcahzati° n of JaPaneSC languagc and its vn °、

Practicc of translati。 n ofthc f°

rcign Con11n° n sensc lnight dictatc that dubbing

w°uld bc d1c tlanslation method° fch° icc br krⅤ cnt nauonalists(scc,br cxamPlc,

thc w° rk°f Marjnc Danan 1991); howCⅤ cr, thc JaPancsc case suggests how subtithng1η ay also丘 nd itself subjcct t° Cultural and national chauⅤ inisln In JaPan,

FOR AN ABUSIVE sUBTITLING b。 th thc usual lncd1°

ds。 f rrCSSing thc subtitler and

455

JaPan’ S unusual fetishization

ThcⅤ deHcct° r disaⅤ °、 v thc Ⅴhich the act °f translati° n crasurc of(liffcrcncc and thc inequahty of languagcs 、 of thc subtitlc achicvc an idcntical effcct in thc cnd。

al、

Ⅴays

tl△

reatcns to exPosc

A submerged history Thcrc is a PrCSSing nccd to updatc()ur aPProach to‖ t°

lIn translati。 n and PerhaPs cⅤ en undcrtakc nc、 v translations of。 ld⒔ ln△ texts To Pr。 vidc sOme contcxt for this

projcct~and to儿 lther Push subtitling iom its obscurc(lP。

siti°

n~we must

uncoVcr its history Likc thc、 vorkin8s。 f thc aPparatus,this hist° ry has bcen ign° rcd (or, in thc casc。 f JaPanCSC authors,rcduccd t。 anccdotc and gossip) This Sh。 uld

Ⅴhcn、 vc n。 tc that subtitlcs、 vcrc invcntcd shortly aRcr thc c° n1ing °fs° und_the m。 mcnt whcn tcxt was globally suPprcssc(l’ om d1c cincma

not bc surPriSing、

N1uch has bccn n△ adc of Holly、 vood’ s innoⅤ atiⅤ c attemPts t° oⅤ Crcomc thc °bstaclcs sound P。 sed to busincss in non-Enghsh spcaking countrics. HoⅥ ∫ cvCr, currcnt historics conccntratc exclusiⅤ cly on thc carly soluti° ns:teaching stars nc、 v

languagcs and makng idcntical forcign languagc vcrsions、 vith different actors on the samc sct(忆 r CxamPle,vinccndeau1988,Andrcw1980,Danan1999,Gomcry 1980)・ surprisingly cnough,thc invcntion of subtitlcs~thc grcatcst innoⅤ

ultilnatc solution to the ProbIcn△

ation and

~is a gaP in。 ur hist° ry Thcrc、 vcrc intcrcsting

PrCcurs。 rs to t11c subtitlc as translators attcmPtcd a nulubcr of strate8ies t°

trans_

P。 Ⅱ thC unwicldy aPparatus acrOss thc languagc barricr In JaPan and othcr parts

of thc、 v。 rld on thc cusP。 f thc s。 und cra, a tyPical、 v。 rk~around involvcd silcnt~

⒔lrn~stylC intcrtitlcs cxPlaining cach scctiOn of thc Pl。 t Rudolf Arnhei1n, that 。bstinatc critic of thc talking hhn,chscusscd his frustration、 vith these early attcnnPts at translati。 n in a 1929cssay Cntitlcd,“ Sound Fihn C° nfusi。 n” ∶

But 、 vc are alrcady caught in the n1idst °f a babcl 。f tongues Erich Pomn1cr wantsto mix languagcs when hc makcs his ncxt uFA luni、 FilmaktiengcscllschaRl Hlm,This will als°

忆rcc

not only l)y、 Ⅴ ay of artistic l△ncasurcs,but als°

[

tl△

∷ crsal

lllm to judge his act° rs

°se ofthc Bcrht7sch。 ° l

j Th。 SC with no hnguisdc gcniuscs among thcir actors must citlacr

scll talking丘 hns as silcnt abr。 ad,in、 vhich casc thc c⒈ al。 guc scencs arc sh° rtcncd ah・

and rlaccd、 Ⅴith laborious intcr-titles (a pr° ccSs、 VhiCh is

cady bc8inning to raisc gcncral protcst),or they1nust shoot thc same

nhn txlicc,as a talkic and as a sⅡ cnt, Both pr° ccsscs arc only possiblc 、 Ⅴhcn the⒔ hn is a Piccc° f industrial、 vastc f° r thc1nasscs and not art, For a、 v° rk of art is n° t a shirt、 vith rcmoⅤ ablc slccⅤ cs,

(Ar11heim199⒎ 33-3+l Arnhci1nh。 Pcd that Such frustration Ⅵ・ ould rcl sPCctators3ˉ oll△ thc talkic and turn thcm back t。 thc silent nlm H。 wcvcr,translators wcrc scarching hr ncw mct1△ ods Luckily, thc Pcoplc that subtitled thc nrst丘

lrns (and in s。

and c° nvelltions of subtitlll19haⅤ c c° mmitted tl△

(l°

ing、 vrote thc rulcs

or mem。 Hcs to Print Herman

XVcinberg、 vas thc nrst translator in the、 vorld to usc subtitlcs;hc is pr° bably thcir

456

ABE MARK NORNEs

invcntor In thc course° f his carccr, hc Clairned to havc titled ovcr400nhns in Sicilian,JaPaneSe,swcdish,Hindusta11i,slDanish,Brazilian,Grcck,Finnish,Czech, Hungarian, and Yug。 slaⅤ ian(sic!) , , , obⅤ iously, a bchever in kn° 、 ving thc targct language bcttcr than thc sourcc languagc, (surPrisingly cnough, this is n。 t so

unusual In his 1989Pro⒔ lc, (Dkacda shi11ii clai1ns。、cr 1,000titlcs to his crcdit, including Cirj7cn Kdn召 , srtir IIois, and Hhγ 1s in Frcnch, Gcrman, Itahan, Russian

and sPanish(C)kaCda1989∶ 229) NeedlCss t° say,one must、 vondcr about quahty in the facc。 f such cnthusiastic boasting ovcr quantity)HcrC wCinbcrg exPlains,in his0、 vn、 vay, thc cxPcrirncntation that led t。

thc c° (liication° f thc PracticC∶

someonc、、ith noth")g bcttcr to do onc day discoⅤ ercd thc PrinciPlC。 thc Ph°

t°

f

~clCCtric ccll、 vhich madc it P° ssil)lc to transrnit s° undv￠ aⅤ es

into hght、vavcs and、 icc-Ⅴ crsa, and which n° Ⅵ・1nadc it PosSiblC f° r moⅤ ics to talk. But、 vhcn thc Hl1ns I xlàs、 vorkin8、 vith talked it、vas in vc dO nollP Full scrccn titles、 vas the French and Gcrn1an 、 Vhat d° 、

蛀rst

ans、 vcr,stopPing

thc acti。 n and giving thc audicnce a brief synoPsis

of、vhat thcy vverc going t。 sce in the next tcn n△ inutcs Tcn n1inutcs latcr,an。 thcr RIll~scrccn synopsis This、 vas not only sⅡ ly but ann。 ying as th° sc in the audicncc、

Ⅴho

c。 uld1u1derstand

at thc j° kcs in bet、 :ecn thc full sc1・

the languagc could laugh

ccn tidcs、 vhnc th。 sc、 h°

(and thcy c° nStitutcd thc m句 ority,by far)sat there glun、

c。 uldn’ t

(l° ubly irri~

tated l,y thc laughtcr° f thc linguists in thc l)° usc Obviously S。 mcthing had t° l)c donc t。 Placatc thc cust。 n】 crs bcf。 rc thcy startcd as⒗ ng f° r thcir111° ncⅤ back 111cn s。 meonc discovcrCd thc cxistcnce of a mcchan~

“m callcd a“ m° 说ola” [,.j It had a countt・ r whiCh cnablcd you to mcasurc cⅤ cry Piecc of dial° guc bccausc it,too,`Vas no、 v equiPpCd、 vith that rnagical Phot。 ~clcctric ccⅡ s。 that you c° uld t10、 v rneasurc11ot only thc lcngth of cvcry sccnc l)ut that c)f cⅤ cry linc of dial° guc Al、 d

from

thesc mcasurements wc werc ablc,l)y tlac trial an(l crror mcthod l…

]

to dctcrn1inc what wc wcrc doing and why 、 Ⅴhcw!And whcn I say ‘ ‘ 、VC”

In1Can J,,c,as no onC knc、 v anV morC than anⅤ onC Clse did about

it and I scclned t° bc thc only onc、 vilhng to go ahead、、ith the actual

、 vas Ⅴcry cautious and suPcri1nP° sed hardly】 norc than25 。r30titlcs to a tcn_ vvriting and makc sOn△ cthing out °f it. At thc bcginning, I

minutc rcd,[ …l

Thcn I’ d8o

into thC thcatre during a showing to

、 vatCh the audicnces’ faccs, to scc ho、 V thcy rcactcd to thc titles I’ d 、 v。 ndered if thcy 、 vcrc going to dr° P their 11Cads shghdy to rcad thc titles at the l)。

rcad thc tid“ left t。

ttom° f thc screcn and then raisc thcm again a∫ tcr thcy

“太c

watching a tc・ n血 s

match an(lm° “ng your hcad⒏ om

right and l)ack again)but I nccdn’ t haⅤ c、 vorricd on this sc° rc;

thcy didn’ t dr。 P thcir hcads,they lncrcly dropPcd thei1・ cyes,Ilòticcd This en,b° ldcncd mc t。 inscrt molˉ c titlcs,、 'hc11warrantcd,of c° urse,

and l)it by bit rnorc and1n。 re ofthe original dialoguc got translated until

at thc cnd of my work in this neld I was Putdng in anywhcrc iom100 to 150titlcs a rccl [

Ⅵas

’

l th° , I must rcat, only

ⅥⅠ hcn thc chaloguc

arrant it, good cn° ugh to“ ˉ

(XJVCinbcrg1985:107-108)

FOR AN ABUsIVE SUBTITLING This nc、 ⅤtcChnol。 gy。 ftranslation is、 vhat enablcd I1。 lly、 vo。 dt。

457 aⅤ

。id any inter-

lm mtnrkct h JaPan,ncw tCchnology vho adding canncd sound to image caused dcbatcs。 n lnany fronts,△ olll the3cns乃 Ⅰ、

ruption in i“ dominancc of tlle internadond付 saⅥ

`thcir livchho°

scenarios t°

ds threatcncd t°

thoughtful critics thcOrizing a nc、 v Practicc for

lcRist critics、 vith industrial critiqucs A/1ost rclcvant to thc discussion

at hand, A/larxist critic I、 vasaki Akira argued thc talkic、 vas‘ ‘ anti intcrnationahstic”

ki)忆 r tl・ ew刂

un(lCmPh邡 izCd

0nal chal昶 ter of nlms,Pc.rtku 1930∶ 74-75), Although n。 t his luain point, this uncxPcctcd a、 varcncss of the s° urce culturc through thc inscrtion of thc sOurcc languagc/sound is PrcciSCly the quahty that subtitlcrs camc tO suPPrCsS・ :ery carly period Tokyo’ s Tcigcki and Horakuza Thcrc 、 Ⅳcrc altcrnativcs in thc 、 l flj灸

法

1Ι

s虿 i芒 ε

s。

tllc n敲

larly in the narratiⅤ c dran△ a(Iwasaki

thcatcrs cxPcHmcntcd with titlcs ProjCctcd to thc sidc°

f tllc scrccn an(la numl)cr

of Hollywo° d61ms uscd JaPancSC Amcricans ftDr dubbin8sOundtracks M° re oRcn than not,thc bcnsJ,i飞 Ⅳ。ul(l call translations oⅤ er the soundtrack,、 vhich、vas turncd d° 、 vn t。 facilitatc thc narrator’ s comPctiti。 n 、 vith thc nc、 v sOund tCchnol。 gy7 Theaters ad° Ptcd diffCring concePti° ns of translati。 n Thc famous bensJli Matsui suisei rrCsCntcd onc aPProach,、 vhich restrictcd thc translauon t。 bare_b。 nes Plot

su∏ 1Inarics

throughout the⒔ l1n;ho、 vevcr,in othcr Asakusa thcatcrs,bcnshj attcnded

to cach indivi(lually spokcn linc Once cⅤ ery、Ⅴeck,Matsui’ s Shibazonokan Thcater ‘ ’ hcld‘ no cxPlanati。 n talkie dayS’ (rJkii muscrsun,召 i dJ) for th° SC who (lishkcd thc bcnsfai’

s intcrfcrcncc with the Plcasurable s。 unds° f the° riginal(Tachibana 1930:

118 119) HoⅥ fcvcr,thc n1cth° d that bccamc standard oPcrating Proccdurc、

Ⅴas

thc suPCr~

imP。 sed(stll9)tidC— in paκ nthescs because they wcrc n° t always at the b。 thc f1・

amc 、Vithin

tt°

m of

a yCar。 r two ofthc tdkie’ s Pubhc aPPearancc,thc m句 or studi°

s

lms This includcd shiFnizu thc Hrst:ansladon with nlm subtldcs in JaPancsc Thc nlm was、 on stemberg’ s〃 @rocco,an(l tlais is Tamum’ s dcsσ Ⅱti。 n brought translators to Ncw York tO subtldc thc latcst⒔

Shunji and Tamura Yubhik。 ,wh。

c° nductcd

of thc Pr。 ccss∶ First of all,thc hrst Pr。

blCl1●

vc CnC0untcrcd、Ⅴas、 vhcther to usc Ⅴcrtical 、

or horiz。 ntal lincs, For this, I Pcrformcd various cxpcrilncnts In thc case of Ⅴertical lincs,thrcc-and~a~half fcct of Hln△ 、 Ⅴcre required t。 rcad

onc Iinc wkh12charactcrs,Howc、 'cr,WC忆 und that if wc PrintCcl thc samc hnc h° rizOntally it、 vould bc imP。 ssible to rcad 、ithout丘 ve °r morc fcct Bcsidcs thc dccisi。 n to Print vcrtically, 、 Ⅴc had to decide to Put thc subtitlc On the right or lcft si(lc, It、 vas imPossiblC t°

scttlc

°n a Position.We’ d Put thcn10n the right to av° id covering somcthing on thc left and Ⅴicc Ⅴcrsa So、 ve Ⅴ vatchcd Prcvic、 Ⅴs and inⅤ estigatcd thc blCm scene by sccnc I Ab° ut30ct△ rds Per rccl was the hmit … 〕 Pr°

、 Vc lxcrc carehl to aⅤ 。id showing thc cml)arrassing sight of tidcs【

om

onc sccnc running ovcr into thc ncxt.

(Tanaka1980:207) ARcr reading thcse ⒔rst-Pcrs° n s by the Pionccrs it、 vould

。f

Hlln translati。 n,

aPPcar that thc c。 nvcntions of subtitling haⅤ c changed httlc sincc thcir

invcnti° n This is tO say that thc rulcs and rcgulations that g° vcrn thc producti。

n

458

ABE MARK NORNES

of subddcs(exdusivc of thosc rchtcd t。

thc aPParatus itselfl wcrc sct during the age of thc Holly、vood studio systcm C)nc n1ight think d1is cxPlainS vvhy subtitlcs lo° k

and function t11c 、 Ⅴay they do Ho、vcvCr, it must also be stresscd that vvhilc

thc subtithng aPParatus itsclf has changed littlc,thc PracticC of subtitlers has, and the changcs thcn1sclvcs are closcly ticd to thc idc°

l。

gical contcxt at the momcnt

。f translation.Likcˇ visc,any theorization of subtitlcs lnust bc considered against its hist。 rical rn° n△ ent,、 vhich

points us t° thC、 veakness。 f Trinh’ s analysis。 f subtithn8

Her understanding °f a subtithng butt1・ cssing a uni丘 ed subjcct position and thc i1nPhcit call for an oPP° sitional aⅤ ant~gardc is anchored t。 °dely in1970s suturc thc° ry(see

C父 cd1998,⒌ :erman1983an(l Ro(l° wick1988hr goc,【 l、

l histo1。 l_

ographics of this thc。 ry) WhilC I sharc hcr conccrns ovcr thc idc。 logical din△ cnsion of subtitling, I steer a、 vay fron△ izati。 n

such esscntiah'cd argumcnts and to、 Ⅴard a the。 r_

groundcd in a stron思 hiStorical c。 ntcxtuahzati。 n,

Lct us focus 。n the examPlC °f JaPancSC subtitling and its historical deⅤ

cl。

P~

luCnt, A Closer c° nsidcration of Taluura’ s dcscription suggcsts thcre arc cruCial diffcrcnccs bct、 vccn PrC、 :ar and PrCsCnt subtithng convcntions Unfortunately,rn° st of thc%l ci￡ :n⒔ lmS(liStributcd in Jal)an l)Cft)rc Worlcl Wtar H wcre dcsΙ

oyC(l in tl,c

Fihn Ccntcr⒔ rc in thc 1970s (According to shhnizu Shunji,Films Inc,in Tokyo ho丨 cls a35mm print of Tamura’ sJ∫ or° cco)OthCr Prewar phnts of忆 rcign Rlms茳 c cxtrcmcly rarc,and should thcy cxist they、

v° uld

be equally(lif⒔ cult t°

Ⅴie、 Ⅴ Thcrc

is,ho、 vevcr,a、 vay around this ProblCm

Whcn a mm wasimP。

rtCd ht。 JaPan,thc H。 mc Ministry rcquircd thc mbmis n(cens° rshiP scenario):Kcn Vrsu cJd1l,on tyPically includcd a c。 mPlete translation of cⅤ cry uttcrancc and a (lcscriPtion of ncarly cvcry sound cffcd,Thcy d⒃ hdtlded an cnl∫ h“ lisd吒 of th【・Hln1’ s sul,tldcs Ody3coues 、 Ⅴcrc n△ adc,thc ofHcial c° Py that rcceiⅤ cd the H。 mc Ministry scal,onc for studio sion of a大

c,,’

ctsu ddjh。

use,and onc hr prcscrⅤ tttion at the Mhis仃 y(with thC Cstal)lishment。 f the Film Law of1939,two m。 rc coPiCs were created ftlr thc Home Ministry’ s In忆rmati。 n Burcau and the NIinistry of Education) In any case,it should not bc surprising that

°nly a handful°

f thcsc Prcci。 us sccnarios arc cxtant

shimizu shu。 ji rcccndy acquircd thc大

cn’

ersu ddihon of Iror。

PrCdictably suPcr⒔ cial, but ProvidcS a useful starting Point f°

ct。

His analysis is

r exPl° ring the rcal

history of JaPancse subtitlcs shi1nizu counts 297 subtitlcs in Tan△

ura’ s

Ⅴ crsion

Tamura’ s original translati° n uscd only 234, but aRcr sccing a tcst Print hc fclt thc cxtra 63 titlcs 、 vcrC ncccssary9 Thr° ughout his b。。ks, shirnizu oftcn notcs that l)chrc thc war subtitlers uscd s。 mcwhcrc bctwccn a half and a thir(l of thc subtitlcs uscd tOday With thc k∈ n’ cFst1 ddiJ,° ,, f° r l∫ @rocco in hand, hc attcnnpts to⒔ nd the di汉trcncc First,hc Parscs thC sccnario accordin:to today’ s standards and(lcc,ldes his own c。 unt would come t° 492 Thcn he counts Kikuji Hir。 post、 iar subbing of thc丘 lm,which

uscs491,Findlly,he comparcs Kik叼

i’

shi’ s

s and

TaInura’ s actual transla“ ons,c° ncluding that outside of a kv/。

l(l大 di,Ji,exccS“

long subtitlcs, and Tamura’ s choicc not to translate Dictrich’

s songs, thcrc is n°

signi盅 cant

vely

diffcrcncc

I Hnd this a rathcr starthng conclusi。

n Putting the actual translation of、 vords

aside f° rthe n10n△ ent,the differencc bct、

vccn297and492strongly suggcsts、 ve arc

dcahng Ⅵˉ ith r° ng thc、 Ⅴ

tⅥ 广 o、 ery dissirnilar conctionS of translati° n shirnizu、Ⅴas lDursuing qucstions Rather than、 vondering about the Phrasing ofindividual titlcs,

FOR AN ABUSIVE sUBTITLING hc sh。 uld haⅤ e l)ccn askng,“ If Tamura chosc t。 subtitlc° nl)11alI′

459

°f thc utterances,

tllcn what cxactl)w灬 hc translatlllg'丨 I%'r″ ds rhc o勿 cd frrdnsùrjo,,P” I havc hul1(l tlac大 cn’ crsu ddihon br Kh8Vid。 r’ s「Jlc Ch虿 /l,`(1931),which contains shlmizu Chiyota’ s subutlcs10Consistcnt with Slllmizu shu"i’ S writing,

’

roughly half o「 the Hln△ s uttcranccs、

^cnt1Intranslatcd Only328ofthc nhn,s869

hncs rcccived tidcs "Upon cl。 scr cxan1ination,thc nrst t11ing o11c noticcs is that ・ thc translatl。 n Pal^cs doxl'n the Hlm Prin1a1ˉ ily to narrativc m° 、 cn1cnt T11is mcans

、 vhicb the translator dccn△ cd insigni⒔ cant are 、 irtually (or evCn Ⅳ rittcn out of thc Hl1n bccausc thcir lincs go unsubtitlcd F° r cxaluPlc, PlCtcly)、

ccrtain charactcrs con△

not only arc thc hncs。 f JackiC Co° ga】 1′ half sistcr lnosdy untranslatcd, shilnizu ignorcd all rcfcrcnccs to hcr, Thc丘 hn ncⅤ cr srn△ 1y cstablishes dacir rclati° nshiP, so f° r Ⅴ icⅥ ,crs of thc subtitlcd Ⅴ crsion shc is sin1Ply a cutc little girl`Ⅳ ho sh° ws uP cvcry oncc in a xsˉ hilc,sayS SOmcthing incon△

PrChensil)lc,and then disaPPcars, Hcr

cxcision Ⅱom thc Hhu、 :ia subtldcs Iuarks d1c slln with a Patriard1【 ll rcading Placcd bcr” ˉ ccn text and 1ˉ cader/sPCctator

An° tl)cr crucial critcrion for sclcction aPPears t°

bc then1atic,T,lc CJ,口 mìs、 vell

kn° wn as an ca1ˉ ly resP。 nse to thc social cffects。 f dlc Great Dcl)1ˉ

charactcrization rev。 b° xer)br

lⅤ

cs ar° und

ssi0n Thc hln△

’ s

diⅤ orccd her l× )。 r husband (thc

・ c thcir s° n⒖ ・ om the ChamP’ s ‘ the‘ r cnvironment” Ho、vevcr,shiInizu’ s transP。。

a rich man;the mothcr wants to rcmo、

Custody to saⅤ c the chdd fi。 lati° n

a 、 vhO Ⅴ。n)an 、

t′

tcnds t。

lea、

rll

c。 ut Ⅴcrbal rcfcrcnccs to thc Class(liscoursc oI thc HlIn

the Only Subtides that rctain it Point t。

、厂 irtuallⅤ

、 1sual tnarkcrs° f class、 vhich thc audiences

、 v。 uld n。 t have n1isscd, such as thc diH辶 rcncc bctⅥ /een thc Chan1P’ s HoP-h° uSc aPart1ncnt and the ln° thcr’ s luxu】 ˉ i° us hotcl signi⒔ cantly,cⅤ cn class(hI1辶 rcnces in sPCCch itScll~i11flccti。 n,Ⅴ 。cabulary,g1ˉ an11nar,and thc likc-— in thc stⅤ lc。 f

lation in a sPccial Section dcⅤ °tcd t。 Ozu’

。nc。 f

JaPan’

are largcl)unrcHcctcd

the subtitlcs,Wc can hnd the rcal effects° f Shin1izu’ s selectiⅤ c transs PcIss】

nJ f口 n9(Dc攵

j卩

oR’

。ro,

1933)in sTs,

s C汀hcst hlm thc。 ry journals At thc tin1c, this hlm was° Rcn

con1Parcd t。 Thc CF,cIJη P f° r its narratiⅤ c centcred °n an intcnsc father~s° n rclati°

厂 nshiP, and aPParcntly Ozu l)ascd thc script on 、 id。 r’ s ⒔ lru In 11is sΓ s articlc,

R/1ura Chio atten△ Pts a structural c。 n1Parison of the t、v。 shns’ scril)tS to inⅤ Cstigatc thc differcnccs bct、・ ccn sound and silcnt Hb)、 sccnario、 Ⅴiting C)nc ol his conchl 1・

△n tcmη s of st。、 tellhg,lFltlnccsl Mahon’ s⒔ rm,text hcdy scena"o stuC and、厂 id。 r’ s dircct,sohd(lircctorial n1cd1° d precisely sho、 v us thc instinctual loⅤ c sions∶

°F hther and child H。、:evcr,thcy do notin any、 vay(lcscribe thc、 :° rld t1△ at l。 wer~ ’ nliddlc~class pcoPlc inhabit’ (RIura 1933: 25) This Suggcsts that thc translator rcgards sPccch Prilη arily as a`ˉ chiclc for narrative ProPulsi° n,and that n1any。 f the choices rcgardin8、、hat t° rctain as relevant haⅤ e quitc scri° us idcological imphca_ tions H° xx e、 er, the n)ost imP。 rtant criterion is als° the lcast obvious rJ,c chd,IlP has(at|cast)thrCC momcnts ofn1clodramatic cxcess`hiCh a1・ atin思

f°

r thci1ˉ

translation, By

“

cxccss”

ef∶、 scin~ 】n)Can elcmcnts such as ∏1ise-cn-sc心 nc,

sOund,acting,and`vriting、 vhich arc11cightcncd to c° n1Plcment Cn)otional chstrcss Thesc sccnes arc thc horsc racc、 vherc Jackic C。 ogan’ s horse stun)blcs just as it is about t。、 vin, thc jail sccnc、 vhcrc Wallacc Bcery rcjccts JackiC and tells hi1nt° go to his rn。 ther,and thc l)riZC⒔ ght at thc cnd, Shirnizu’ s translation scts uP caCh sccn c_ and thcn si1】 1Ply stoPs For cxamPle,thc narratiⅤ con1cs PriI△ 1arⅡ y

e tcnsion of the horsc racc

厂 o111 thc ann° unccr’ s call Ⅴ ∴ˉ 、 ith。 ut his descI1ption of Coogan’

s

460

ABE MARK NORNES

come_fron1-behind bid f° r⒔ rst PlacC,it is imP° ssiblc t。 tcll、 hich horsc is in、 vhich P。

Sition Thcrc arc no subtitles Pr° viding this inf° rmation The heartbrcaking jaⅡ vith a quiet by far the m° st memorablc momcnt of the ⒔ll△ l ~bcgins 、

sccnc ~ˉ

ccn thc Champ and his traincr sPongc, (Df thcir ninc lincs, all but guc bctⅥ 厂 txx o are translatcd(and thcsc wcrc casy t° guess by contcx0,、 Vhcn thc Chan1P’ S dial°

son Dink arrives,thc tlaclodrama g1ˉ

adually intensises xx,hilc thc subtitlc c°

unt clrops

stceP圩 Fr。 m hCrc until thc m。 mcnt Dink IcaⅤ es thc jail crushc(l by his%thcr’

s

hcn thc n through thc Pris° n

CxPloSivC rejccdon,only nine of241incs arc translatcd! Ncar thc cnd,xx・ t、

VO sCrearll at each othcr and thc Cha1nP violcntly strikcs his s°

bars,the subtitlcs st° P,This brcaks thc rnost cherished rulcs° ftoday’ s corruPt Sub_

tidcrs wh。 ~in a sccmingly naturJ way_assign mcaning to cvery uttcrancc as a

mattcr° f coursc This rcturns us to our original qucstion∶

cxacdy was thc oblect of transl肫 hnguistic asPccts that contributc t。

ionP”

“

If not thc rncaI1ing of cⅤ cry linc,、 vhat

On the。 ne hand,Shimi7u was ignohng

cxprcssion and sirnply translating thc narratiⅤ

c

mcaning l)chind thc、 v° rds Hc gcncra11y uscs a translation stratcgy that striPs the hncs()f dialoguc to their l)arest,n1ost basic functi。 n° fn△ °ving thc Plot(grantcd,

・ as as hc intcrprcts it)On thC。 thcr hand,br m。 mcnts whCn thc sPccch act itsclf、、 contributing to thc overall cxPrcsSion。 f thc Hlrn’ s cmotional in1Pact, f’ e chosc noF Fo rr口 nsFcIr召 ImPhcit in this decisi。 n、 vas thc assulnPtion that thc grain。 fthc v。 icc vas rnore imPortant than the lucaning it articulatcd 、

Thc cxamPle of The Chdf,,P is n。 t an isolated Hukc In fact, othCr r°

rts

concCrning Prc、 var subtithng Practices suggcst a varicty of graPhic tactics that als° cxhil)it a translatlon stratcgy focused°

n thc matcriahty of languagc For cxamPlc,

ks ne、广 sPaPcrs; as thc camera nears thc thcrc is a sccne in vvhich a b。 y ha、・ boy,his v° icc gcts loudcr on thc soundtrack,At thc san△ e tin△ e,thc JaPancsc subtitlcs iding a translating d△ e boy’ s Ⅴ oicc gro、 v corresPondingly largcr and largcr, Pr。 Ⅴ in J亻

graPhic rrcScntation of thc incrcasing volun1c,12Furthermorc,JaPancsc subtitlcrs routincly Placcd thcir titlcs in different arcas of thc scenc dePending。 n thc cinc~ matographcr’ s con1Positi° n It、 Ⅴas thought that thc Position。 f the、 vords sh° uld c。 n△

PlCmcnt lYlisc-cn sc志 nc and lnoⅤe1ncnt,At thc samc thne,thcrc arc indicati。 ns Ⅴcll, Onc st。 ry fr。 m critic c as 、

that subtitlc positioning dcndcd upon narratiⅤ

Yodogawa Nagaharu dCscHbcs a drcamy Hollywood l。 ⅤC Sccnc whcre thc subtidcs aPPearcd bctwccn thC t、 v。 1° vcrs(T° da1994∶ 26-27), Ofc° ursc! cCn tⅥ Thc concti。 n° f translation in thc talkic Pcri° d circulatcd l)ctⅥ ・ bct、vccn

a hcrmeneutic search for,and translnission of,n1caning,and a curi°

ò Polcs,

us f° re-

grounding of thc matclial quahtiCS of languagc (or a ch。 icC n。 t t。 translatc underPinned by the兕 me Ⅴalues) The rc灬。n忆 r tl△ is in(lt,tt・ rminacy hcs in the hist。 rical rn。

mcnt,Wc can detect as1nuch fron1an articlc about thc subtiding of

″orocco which Tamura ptll)lishcd tcn days bc忆 rc thc hlm’ s Public rclcasc:“ T11is timc,thcrc was thc、 al thttt with t° o托 w subtkles,thc meaning wotlld n。 tc。 mc thr。 ugh, At lcast, I th° ught that it、 vas ncCCssary t。 usc thc samc numbcr° f titles as silcnt rnoⅤ ics spanish and P。 rtugucsc subtitles uscd far too n△ any subtitlcs,1norc

than400subtidcs br onc⒔ lm HowcⅤ cr,becausc JaPancsC au(liences arc scnsitlve to thc feehngs。 f slrns,I bchcⅤ cd it、 vas unneccssary t° attaCh rnorc than30subtitlcs pcr rccl’

’

(Tamura1931) This is an aPProach t。

translation that rches on a c。 ncˉ

tion of cincma gr。 undcd in thc sncnt era In thcjaⅡ sccnc of「 l,e ChczIl,P,thc subddcs

FOR AN ABUs1VE sUBTITLING

461

y corrcspond to thc narratiⅤ c m° dc° f thc talkic as it sct up thc prcn)isc for

initiaⅡ

thc confrontati° n bct、vccn fad△ cr and s。 n;then it shiftcd back t。

sdcnt cincma for

thc mclodramatic hnish While this seeryls to be a likely exPlanation,、 Ⅴc must rcturn to thc silcnt cra to adcquatcly undcrstand the speciscitics °f this national cinema contcxt and its hist。 rical rn° mcnt. Onc n1ight say that thc lD召 nsl,i、 vas thc Hrst form of dubbing in thc prc~history of thc talkic,Thcsc scrccn-side narrators、 vould dcscril)c thc acti° n on thc screen and suPPly Ⅴoiccs for all thc actors,ehn1inating the nccd f° r thc translation of silcnt hhn intcrtitlcs,Aar°

n Gcrovv’ s rcsearch into the critical disc° urscs

surroundi【 1g

thc ngurc 。f thc bcnsJ,i rcveals that ref° rmcrs 。f the Purc Film Movemellt sought to moder血 ze JaPanCSC cincma by κ n。 Ⅴating the r。 le° fthc b召 nshi and revising thc standard use ofintcrtldcs(Gcrow1996:33) The benshi,they托 k, should aⅤ 。id FI。、 vcry Clocuti。 n f° r cⅤ cryday spCCch and stick cl。 scly to the nhn_ maker’

s Pl° tting

instcad of thcir indcndCnt claborations Of thc narrativc In othcr

、 v° rds, thcy h° vould bec。 me inⅤ isiblc, much hkc thc corruPt Ped thc bcnsFli 、 subtitlcs oflater dccadcs In thc cnd,the bcnshi ProvCd rnorc po、 verful and P。 Pular, sctting the stage for thc unusual subtitles ofthc talkie era in JaPan,WC can attributc thc tⅥ ・ o stylcs of Prc~subtitlc b召

nsl,i transladon~paraPhrasc vs hnc~byˉ linc~to

thcsc vcry discursivc tcnsions dcsigncd by thc Purc Fihn AJl°

vement Sccond, thc

samc rcformcrs called f° r thc chn1inati。 n of intcrtitlcs,sincc丘 lrn、 Ⅴas csscntially a

isual medium This could als。 hclp cxplain、 vhy so fc、 v subtitlcs、 Ⅴerc uscd in thc 、 1930s comParcd t° t° day Thesc arc Probably Precedcnts c° ntributing to an oⅤ crdc∝ rmhtltion of忆 rces bcaring down on JaPan’ s§rst subtides By thc cnd ofthc dccadc thc shift t。

thc Post、 var emPhasis° n narratiⅤ c lucaning

bccomcs dctcctablc In a1939articlc cnddcd“ Titlcs,”

ThcImP° Ⅴerished JaPanesC° fsP° kcn

Ota Tatsu。 critiozcs contcmPorary subtidcs and calls° n translators to work

toWards a ncw JaPanCSC languagc br丘 lm translati° n.Hc uscs troPes hr translation stratcgics、vhich havc circulatcd thr° ugh° ut thc history of translati° n thcOry∶

understanding Ia丘 lrnl mcans not intcllcctually,but Pcrkctly∏

1atching

thc feehngs, as if。 nc 、 vith thc samc atmOsPherc, and s° aking thr。 ugh t°

thc insidc° f tlac hcarts of thc JaPancsC masscs Thus wc must stop

the sP° ken titles that are mcssen思 crs SP°

brought iom a忆 rcign languagc;

kcn ddcs止 °uld be mcssengers iom a mccdng with Jt,pancse

languagc, In other、 vords,thcy arc not translati。 ns off° rcign langua8c,

but thcy must crcate in JaPancSC thC things that are trying to bc exPrCsSCd in thc f° reign languagc

(()ta1939∶ 51) T° this cnd, Ota calls for thc cnd。

f dircct translation

。f forcign 、 vords and the n subtidcrs must

crcation of a ncw JaPancsC languagc sPccincally br nlm translati。

stop rclying° n thc adⅤ icc ofcxPcrtS hi1ˉ cd froI△1univcrsity literature dePartmCnts and

、 vritc subtitlcs that sPcak(lircctly to thc soul of thc masscs T。 this end,subdtlcrs must rccognizc the hmits of大 dzlJi and rcstHct tllcir usagc of charactcrs to a lcvd attuned to thc1nasscs,`Ⅴ hiCh hc dctern1inesis some、 :hcrc at or bclo、 v thc elcmentarⅤ sch° 。l graduatc’ s lcⅤ cl subtitlcrs must striⅤ c to be like thc bcnsJli,

、 vhich is t。 say

bcc。 me° ne、vith thc fabric。 f thc Hhn sO thcy may speak dircctly to thcir audicncc

462

ABE MARK NORNEs

in the deePest sense(again a concdon。 fthe b召 nsJ,i consistent、 vith thc rcf。 r1η crs ofthc Purc Filn△ M。 Ⅴ cmcnt) Ab。 Ⅴc all,thcir subtitlcs should n° t be dircct translations of hrcign words,l)ut stH、 ℃ for a Pcrlk・ dn△ a∝ h、 ith thc JaPanCsC s° tll This last asscrdon is cruciaI bccause it exPrcssCs the shift, and its hist。 rical

mon1cnt, n10st clcarly C)ta is calling for a subtithng Practicc that complctcly d° n△ inates

thc forcign As、 Ⅴith thc R° man Pocts’ rclati。 nshiP to Grcck litcraturc

and EarlⅤ Christian translators’ rclationshiP to the Hebre、 v and Grcck Biblcs, hc

hoPcs to cnlldn his。 wn language in thc Pr° ccss° f aPPr。 thc dro“ s)lcttCr[

° wn

la11gua思

e”

ˉ iati° n st Jcromc statCd

f translati。 n luost dircctlⅤ :“ Thc translatOr(hd not attcnd j,but by right of、 ict° ry c茳 ricd thc scnsc caPu、 c ht。 hs (sCe Jcromc in ths Ⅴ olumc)・ ThC issuc。 f transladon cuts s仃 aight

thc Prcn△ isc of this ki【 t。

l)】

`d。

to thc rclationshil)of sclf and° d)cr Ota’ s cssa、 , 、 vrittcn at a tilne、 vhcn (lc into China and c。 η s Pcnctraun思 ntcn)Plating a colonizatjon of Asia, JaPan、 rc、 cals a totahtarian 、、ish f° r a subtidc that crascs di"erencc and incorPoratCs thr° ugh

f。

reign n1eani11g into a Perfected, harn10ni'cd 1η

ass I・

eadcrshiP It is a thc。 ry of

translation taⅡ 。rcd t° JaPan’ s gCoPolitical asPirations C)ta’ s Ⅴision of a meaningˉ oricntcd translati° n Ⅵ:ould cv° lⅤ c int。 thc codes °f corruPtion in t11c Post、 :ar

Pcriod, a stylc of translation that effaccs its violcnt, mediating Prcsencc by hk丨 ing in thc margins of thc framc and discrectly translating everJⅡ thc s°

uttcrancc on

undtrack

WhⅡ e

C)ta calls f° ra nc、 v、vriting and a nc、

・languagc,he still(lcknds In° st of ent of titles H° 、 vcⅤ cr,an

the Pre、 :ar(lonⅤ cntions,such as the nun)bcr and PlacCn】

CxamPlc∫ ˇ。n1thc。 d1cr si(lc ofthc思 lobe lnaⅤ tcaC11us that convcntions themsclves

can bc changed m° st easily at Particular n1。 mcnts ill historⅤ 、 vhen thc rulcs goⅤ crni11gl)racticcS tarc i11nux,Jcan Eustachc’

foFhcr虿 nd rh召

s Tf,召

ll J,°

rc lL￠

il,dn

/⒈ r￠

rdin,1973)is a cCntral Post1%8nlm madc in thc wakc° fthe Frcnch Nc、 Ⅴ WaⅤ c This⒔ lrn n10vemcnt、 vas centercd on brcaking cincIη atic convcntions and '⒈

cf Fd P〃

indulging in those things Only cincma is caPable of~it、

making This hbcratcd Eustache’

s t1ˉ

vas csscntially abusivc丘 hn-

anslat(Dr to dcal 、

。f thc

"th thc ProblcIn v。 rks。 nlⅤ at that kind of momcllt h Hlm h哎 t,ly Throu虫 h。 tlt thls dcvcr Hlm,tl△ c trtnllsPaⅡ ncy of thc subtitlc’

s violcncc、 Ⅴith t11c kind of exPcrirncntation that、

subtitlcs xx ould bc intcrruPted、 Ⅴith the brackctcd n。 111is Pr。

nrrdns`口 rtib/c厂 ,召 nc乃 P1In丿

tc∶

`r丿

ìdcs a cogcnt cxan1Plc of thC flcxil)ihty of subtithng that is engagcd in thc

cincn△ atic lDracticc。 fits t"11c Thc very c。 nction of this subtitle、 vas P。 SSiblc onl)

bccausc thc Frcnch Ne、 ˉXVave Fihn_n1akcrs were systcmatically attackin苫

: CⅤ

Cr)

conⅤ cntion° f ci11cma T^hc frccd。 n△ to exPerirnent、 vitll textual knOts° f in△ Possi_ fc n1ust not l)ihty,hoⅥ cvcr,can makc the untranslatable Frcnch Pun translatablc 、、

rejectimPo′

SⅡ

哟lity,but

cmlD1ˉ aceit Momc11ts of unt】・ anslatabi丨

it、

,~a nea1ˉ l、 constant

conditl。 n lor thc subtidcr~arc tin1cs |or cc/cbrczF1on, R)r not only arc the) PI・

i、

°PPortunitics f° r translators Ply thc highest skills。 f thcir craft, They are n△ omcnts crying忆 r abuse leε Cd

Cnc。 untcrs、 vith thc f。 rcign,but t11cy arc als。

i

t。

The abusiⅤ c turn Thcrc is a Potential and cn〕 cr8ing subtithng Practicc that acc。 able hrnits ilη

unts R)r thc unaⅤ

oicl

timc and sPacc of the subtidc, a Practice that d。 es not fci:n

FOR AN ABUsI∨ cOIη

E SUBTITLlNG

463

厂、、 e must Ⅴork to、 vard a subtithng that engagcs Cnt and 、

PlctCness, that(loes not hide its PrCsencc through restrictivc rulcs

rcconsidcr our c)、、 nl、 istorical

11)oll△

’

Ⅴi° lcncc、 vhich is n° t corruPt, but abusiⅤ c, To sketch out the charactcr° f abusiⅤ c subtithng and cstabhsh somc scnsc for h。、 v it hts int。 thc contcxt ofits0、・ n history,I Pr。 Posc、 ⅤC diVidc s。 und⒔ hu histOry todaⅤ s scnsibihtics、vith a

into thrcc ° chs of translati° n,thc last of`vhich is only just cmcrging

Γhc

histor亠

of translation discoursc is§ Jll of triPartitC formulas to dcscril,c differcnt rnodcs of

translation,flom DrⅤ dcn t° NoⅤ alis an(lG。 cthc t° Jak° bS° n Thc ochsIsug8cst Lnay bc sccn as historical Phascs thr。 ugh 、hich ci11cn1a has cd,but thcy also `・

Sur this diachr° nic structure and aPPear silnultanc。 usly. Thc P° tCntial for this

、 vill bC Particularly iluPortant for °ur undcrstanding 。f abusiⅤ c 。f translati° nn1ay bc(lcScribed in subtithng Roughl) skctched, the thrcc ochs ving n1an ncr thc f。 ll。、 Thc⒔ rst kind° f translation occurs in thc talkie cra It uscs a straightf° r、 vard si1nultancity

intr。 Pr° se t。

duce thc Plcasurcs of forcign tcxts The languagc ofthc subtitlcs thcm~

selvcs cxhibits a Functionahtv clcarlv (lcsigncd to con1municatc thc P0、

vcr。 f the

f° reign 。 riginal as cficicntly as P。 sSil)lc In d1is rcsPcct thC 6rst cra of subtitlcs bhngs d)c Ryeign tcxt to thC spcctators on thcir olx n(lomcstic tcrms,At thc same

timc,thc translat。 r remains fully cogni'ant。 fthc n1atcrial din1cnsions of languagc

~b° th

its graPhic and aural qualitics It rnay t)c that this is a c°

translation anch。 rcd⒔ rn11Ⅴ

t。

ncePtion of ci11cmatic

that transition into an1Ph⒔ Cd aurahty Ho、 vever,、 vhilc

there can bc no qucStion of its hist。 rical sPcci付 city in this instancc,、 vc still luust resist rcstricting a givcn modc of translation虿

s cl P°

′lnjFi9in any PCri。 d ofcincma s氵

h1thc scc。 nd och of cincmatic translati。 n, the translator Pretends to ln。 Ⅴe toWarcl thc breign,(lwdl thc1ˉ e,and bring its、 vndcrs t。 thc w扯 ung cr。 wds This cra is rlctC、 vith

I・

ulcs dcsigncd to思

rcgulation actually accolaal)lis11cs

ua1ˉ antcc

a translation’

s quahty,but、 Ⅴhat this

】 s an aPPr。 Priation of the sourcc tcxt and its

thor。 ugh don△ estication T11e rulcs also cn亢 rcc a tcrritoriahzation and ProkSsion~ ahzati。 n° f translation,producing stars and cxPertS and cxcludin思

all altcrnatives

This modc of translation, Ⅵ=hich I have contcmPtuously callcd corruPt, conforms ˉ des All that the R)rcign to the⒒ ・ an、 e、 ork of thc target languagc and its cultural c° cannot bc cxplained、 ithin the sc、 crc lilnits of thc〗 ˉ cgulation subtitlc gets cxcised or rcduccd to d。 mcstic mcani11gs vvhich arc often irrclcvant or inaPProPriatC Thcse subtitlers clai1nt。

bring thcir rcadcrs/sPcctat° rs to a PlCasurablc exPericncc of thc

)rcign, but in fact theh・ in11)overishcd translati。 ns kc audicnccs ignorant of thc conSPiracy and thc richcs that remain hiddcn fron)the cincmatic cxPcriCncc, Thc侍 nal Part。 f this triPtych brings11s to thc abusive F。 r this eP。 ch。 f trans~ lati° n, I `vi`h to t× roⅥ anod1cr Phrasc liˉ 。n△ Gocd1e,both l。 r thc P。 ′ vCr of its imagc tl11dt【 D sPccil;、・ h菠 d)usi、 c stll,titling is not In dη c tllird哎 a8c of G° thc’ s I辶

)1ˉ

t・

oⅥ'n peri。 di7ati° n of translati。 n,“ the思 oal of the translation is to achicvc Pc1ˉ fect

idcntity`vith thc° riginal,sO that thc Onc docs n。 t cxist instcad of thc。 d1cr but in thc。 tlncr’ s Placc” (SCC G° cthe in this、 °lu1nc) Hcrc thC translat° r iclcntihcs strongly

Ⅵˉ ith thc sOurcc tcxt and thc culturc in、 vhich it、 vas Produccd,so lnuch so that hc ccdcs thc Particular Po、 vcrs of his o、 Ⅴn culture to accomPhS11a translati。 n thatinvitcs thc readcr/sPectator to a novcl and rich cxPeriCncc 。f thc forcign ()f coursc, G。 ct11e’ s(∶ onction °f translation is(lcly ticd to R。 mantic notions that scck to dc付 nc thc sclfthr° ugh its、 :arious othcrs~an。 thcr f° rn1of domcstication I△

o、vcⅤ cr,

464 ABE MARK NORNEs abusjⅤ c subtitli11g aⅤ oids this kind of crasurc of diffcrcncc,scckJng to intcnsi、

t11c

interaction bct、 Ⅴccn thc readcr and the forei8n This translation docs110t Present a f°

rcign divested° f its Othcrncss, but stIives t°

translate from and、 vithi11the Place

of thc。 thcr by an invcntiⅤ c aPproac11to languagc use and a、 vilhngncss to bcnd thc

rulcs,both linguistic and cincmatic

As、・ c have seen,the kcⅤ

(hffcrcnccs bct、 vccn tlac translati° n of printcd tcxts

and thc subtitling° frnoving imagc lncdia arc that thc cincma adds thc human Ⅴ°icc

the equation and is ProPPcd uP by an aPParatus that r召 cluires a Ⅴiolcnt translati。 n Ⅴ 、hich in turn cxhil)its rnanv ofthe traits PhⅡ iP Lc、 vis calls abusivc EⅤ cn thc subtitlcs 忆rthc m° st nondescriPt,rcalist Hlm tamPc1ˉ with languagc usagc and flcdy ig1orc °r changc Inuc11ofthc s° urcc tcxt;ho、 :cvcr,co1ˉ uPt subtitlcrs suPprcss thC fact of

t。

1ˉ

this、

:hⅡ c tl)c abusivc translator cnjoys forciolcncc ncccssitated by thc aPParatus,、、

εr。 undh1g it, hcightcning its in△ 1Dact and tcsting its lirnits and Possibdities T。

the cxtcnt that Le、 'is’ s abusivc translation(lcm° nstratcs a nc、v articulation of HdchtⅤ

Ⅵ1ll t。 Play、 Ⅴith conⅤ ention, 11is 111。 dcl is attractivc to thc subtitlcr 。f thc cmcrgcnt third och・ This thcOrization、 vⅡ l Pr。 Ⅴ C Particularly attractivc in an age

in its

whcrc thc cxpcricncc of thc brcign is、 aluc(l,an(l whcre al)usc hdPs injcct a PalPablc scnsc° fthc f°rcign, In thc Derridian aPproach to translation thcOrized by Lc、

vis,abusc is(Jirected

ns 、 Vhilc this is a componcnt ofthc abusiⅤ e subtitlc,tlac。 ojcc‘ and cnds。 fabuse do nc,t am。 unt to a merc RsurreC tion of 1970s ⒔lln thcOrⅤ and its `àlorization of expcrhncntation in con)bating at b° th language and its1netaphysical assun11)ti°

°Ⅱ、、・ ood rcahs1n Ⅵ・ ith a dcc° nstructivc or Brcchtian avant-garde13 Thc Problems 、、ith such a Position havc sincc bccn argucd on n1any 6ˉ onts: its Euroccntrisn1, it$ chtis1n, and its inability t° f° r PoPular rcading m° des, Stdl, Ⅵˉ c may consider thc critiqucs of Poststructurahst 丘hn thc。 ry thc scguc bctvvccn thc scc° nd and third ochs of subtithng Bccausc、 ve arC intercstcd in thc d° n1csticating tcndcncies of thc c。 nvcntional thc cⅤ ils of I△

subtitling practiccs of thc sec°

nd eP° ch, 、 ve may P° sition abusivc subtithng as a

critiquc of(loΠ 1inant idcol。 gy

cⅤ cr, it docs not amount to a silllPlc cxPCri~ H。 Ⅵ厂

mcntation dcsigncd to bl° ck idc° logical intcrPcⅡ ation thr。 ugh distanciation tcchniqucs.Faccd、 vith thc l° sscs ineⅤ itat)lc in all translati° n,the abusive subtitler assum cs a】 ˉ csPcctfIll stancc vis-亩 -vis the origil)al tcxt,tampcring、 vith botb languagc

and thc subtithng aPParatus itsclf in

‘

°rder t° rclcasc 、 vhat

Laxx・

rcncc Vcnuti has

n ofa

called the‘ remainder,” textual and ci11en1atic effccts that cxcccd thc crcati。

narrative focuscd equiⅤ alcncc and、 :。 rk onl)in thC rccciving cultu1ê(scc venutiin this volumc) It is a ne、 v notion of HdchtⅤ attcntiⅤ c to thc Ⅴarious aural and visual

qualitics oFlanguage in m。 tion Picturcs,this in additi° n to thc linguistic and litcrary styles of scrccn、 vriting

Lct usl° 。k ata numbcr ofc。 ncrcte examPlcs that suggcst that c°

rruPt subtitling

PracticCs arc obsoletc and the timc允 r abusc is HPc Donakl Richc, who has sul,tidcd s°

mc ofthc m0哎 famotls Japancsc⒔ lms,is

Rdn,onc° fthc

tllc translator of Kurc)sawa’

s

rn。 st abusiⅤ c translati° ns cⅤ cr undcrtakcn(Ⅵ /ith thC P。 ssiblc cxc~

厂、 i誉 net’ s aPpr° Priations of kungˉ fu6bns in post-1968 dubbh1:dW。。dy Allen’ s Il‰ st屮 ,乃 Jc'‘ ,P)I4w攵 h山 Ct-oning

tion of thc situationist Rcn誉

F1ˉ an∝ or thc of talhes,Jal9ancsc Samurai Hlms hun(ht11ecessary to codiI a、 crsion of、 at Prc MC刂 i JaPancsC languagc should sou1】 (l like They cndcd uP with a samurai vcrsion F’

1】

FOR AN ABUsI∨

PcrcciⅤ ed as da1ˉ ingly cxPclîlncntal) Ho、

E sUBTITL1NG

、ay ⅤCver, thcrc is n0 、

465

to b1ˉ ing d1is

Vith° ut brcaking thc la、 vs of imP。 rtant clcmCnt。 fthc genrc to a f° reign sPcctat。 r Ⅴ lPtion,whid1is cxacdy what Richic attcmPtcd He、 Titcs,“ Carlled a、 'ay by conˉ 辶

all thc Pagcantry I relaxcd lny guard and th。 ught to intrudc a bit° f pcriod col° r° f my。 wn 卜 J I leR。 tlt tllc occ灬 lcDnal Pr° siti° ns in a Ⅵay con11url,11t【 J忆 rmal

‘

‘ court Enghsh son△ cthing likc I、vant you to go/ I foohshly rcndcrcd as I、 vould ’ 、 vith you go Not inc。 rrcct but, in dialOguc titles, c。 nlPletely inaPPr。 Priatc” (Richic1991: 16) Obvi。 usly rcgrctting his exPerimcnt,Richie hnally cxemPhnes ‘ vhCn hc calls for a‘ scruPul。 usly anonym。 us kind° f the scnsil)ihty° f corruPti。 n 、 i∶

:茁 Ⅰ∷

;;S厶 :1焦 :l生 :ta岁 :'∶

l:Ct∶ 芹

F1I:扌

`1ˉ

thc car as thc imagc cnters the eyc” t11csc subtitlcs、

Ⅴcrc

quitc x△

tiT:Ⅰ

弼淋变

∷梦

:拈哩

;辶

:nI↑f宝

Thc languagc should cntcr (R)id,), I coukln’ t disagrcc 1η orc Actually,

、 itten dialogue I Ⅵon’ t even use cxClamati。 °ndc】 ˉ Iol

for thc x△

n Points・

・ ay thcy rclcased ccrtain cffccts into

咭蕊石cr挠 %T∶岽罚 λ F掠三【紧絮茬 a∶

1溪

anonymous translati。 n, Richic sellˉ ccnsors his smart impulsc t° abusc the tcxt

/oung con仔。ntcd

Rol) 、

ConnccFion (T【 ,ndi,,。

I,J口

、ith Ya】 namot° Masashi’ s Tc7)dmt,,丿 d 1991), which cdcbratcs Osaka’ s culturc an(l

ζnlilar issucs

女on法 ushon,

tllalcct This员 lm is stllDtdcd“

F。 ols

Cr。 ss Bordσ F C1h。 “d炒 okdi o koσ u)and“

vccn T0kyo,H° ng Kong,and Hong Kong/Tokyo,ncti。 n/d。 cumentary,

thc coursc of its90-。 dd n1inutcs it criss-crosscs bct、 Osaka,blu1・ ring t11cb° undarics bct、 vcCn

Hong Kong comcdy/JaPanCse c。 mc(ly,mJc/kmalc,and cvcn insi(lc mo“ e/

丨言豆淋￡ I甜Ⅱ 烈拄l:嘁、摊I帘苒抻麒禅 thc sccnario dl。 ys an analogous fast-and loosc aPPr。 ach to sPcCch9 。r、 vherc it celebratcs linguistic rnarkcrs c)f Class and regional diffcrcnce.Anod1cr tactic he uscs con1es far cl° scr t。 thc sPirit of abusiⅤ cncss (Dbscenc cxPrcSsions likc k,t,ncf,1k1Ι sll。 /

and舫 n9〃 Jàl e“ all晶

tt・

d∫ 9犭

d#/@〃

om Y° ung’ s cxan1Ple First,this is n° t the kind Ve can lcarn sc、 cral things⒔ ˉ 、

、 vhich oRen lcavc 。bsccnc languagc ・ untranslatcd Granted,it、 °uld havc bccn far ln° rc abusi、 c to actually11sc° bScCnv0uld risk damagin8thc Hhn’ s chanccs at intcrnational itics in Enε hSh,but t。 do s° 、 e sCCn,thc ccns。 rs lurk at cvcry stagc of hh1a Pr° ducti。 n and distril)uti。 n As、 vc’ Ⅴ Ⅴc expcct of corruPt subtitlcs, of ccns° rshiP 、

distributi。 n S° Young runs thc gauntlct of ccns° rs by cxPcrirncnting、 vith language

1ncss of tbc origh)al sccnari° and in、 ays that arc analogous to thc lif、 guistic Play⒔ △ vith t11c sccn△ ingly untranslatable, thc abusivc its vcrbahzation sccond, faccd 、 subtitlcr n1ay Seek to Pr。 ducc Polyvalcncies and knots of sig11ihcation that lllay not coincidc l)rccisely、 vith thc Problcm in thc s° urcc tcxt Not all of Y° ung’ s subtitlcs using n。 nstandard gran1n1ar haⅤ c a onc~to-onc CorrcsPondencc、 vith silnnar utter_

anccs on thc s° undtrack Ncverdlclcss, his aPPr° ach cucs thc sPcctator to thc elaboratc Playfuh1css of thc clial。 gue that、 vould have bccn c° mPlctcly crascd by

466

ABE MARK NORNEs encss,Young,likc Richic bcforc

corruPt titlcs Third,dcsPitC l)is instinctual abusiⅤ hin1,als° rcstricts hi1uself t。

the tirne/sPace/graphic lilmits。

Attuncd to his historical lη °ment in thc third 。

f the standard subtitle

ch,Y。 ung hints at thc P°

ssibili

ties;but a truly abusiⅤ c subtiding、 vould havc becn as、 Ⅴild as thc o1ˉ iginal Hh△ 1 It vcould haⅤ c br° ught thc spcctator cXccedingly closc t° thc nhn,This、 vould aPPcar radical fr° n△ the PcrsPCctiⅤ c of thc scc° nd

Cra, but surely you,

、 vho hve in thc

cmcrging third era,can f辶 cl thc Pr° blcms、 vith cOn、 ention Therc arc Iuorc daring and thrilhng cxamPlcs of thc cn1crging abusiⅤ clsc、 vhcrc,PlacCs

Ⅵ=hcrc caPital doCs not cnf° rcc

t1△

e subtitlc

c rulcs and rcgulations° fc° rruPˉ

tion In thc sPring of1993, Profcssor Laurcl Rodd。 f thc lJniversity of Colorado assigncd hcr JaPanese translati。 n class the task of translating subtitlcs f° r thc。 ’ s△ FdxinJ「 %,,’ dn Rt,FtJI ns㈦ rdILJsd n00nn￠

ofItclmi JⅡ '。

indudcs strings of k口

n卩。

2,1987)Thshh。

戌

Pening scquence

(ChincSC、 :()rds)and Snatchcs of classical JaPancSc Thc r of⒔ hns,but

class quickly lcarncd to appreciate the dificultics facing thc translat°

thcir intuitivc soluti。 ns t。 conFronting thc Practical issucs had little to d。

‘

、ith thc

corruPt rulCS of thc scc。 nd ePoch’ s subtitlers Thcy rcgrcttcd thcir‘ inability” to CxPcri1ncnt by Putting subtitlcs in differcnt colors and in differcnt Parts。 fthc fran1c In fact, thcir excrcisc 、:as hyP° thctical and nothing 、:as PrcⅤ cnting thcm fr°

m

indulging in the n】 ost。 utrageous innoⅤ ation(thc ncxx tcchnologics。 f、 idc。

、,hich

hnk the aPParatus、 vith con△ Puters can casily luaniPulatc thc n1atcrial asPCcts of thc ls arc in Placc,but thc subtitle thr。 ugh colors,fonts,sizes,and aniInation).ThC t。。 profcssionals, likc thc studcnts aboⅤ c, chcck thcmsclvcs,hcld l)ack as thcy arc by thc incrtia of conⅤ cntion and thc idc。 l。 gy of corruption Actually,this has n。 t rcstraincd onc grouP of translat。 rs

h・ ol11、

v110m、 ,cn1ay

w ycars, cl° Pcd ar° un(l JaPancsc animation(dnimc)thr。 ughout thc

lcaln much In11E1ct,this articlc was insPircd by tllcir work In thc past Ii(⒉ a massi、 e hn(lc)m has clc、

、 v。 rld A substantial Porti° n

of thc fan actiⅤ ity conccntratcs on translation scriPts

arc postcd on intcrnct nc、 vs:r° uPs and circulatcd am。 ng clubs and indiⅤ kluals Fan 11ackcrs wⅡ

tc soRware忆 r thc Amiga an〈 l othcr comPutcr Plat允 rms,s。 ftwalc that 、・ n hands Gr。 uPs collab~ /orking outside 。ritc dnir,lε 、、

enablcs thcna t° takc the subtithng aPParatus into thcir。

Ⅴ crsi。 ns of thcir faⅤ 。ft11cn1ainstrean△ translati。 n industr)i,lacking any forlllal trai11in思 ,thcSC fans havc ns冖 ncF h sccncs“ ith ox・ edaPPlng did。 guc,they Produced abusi、 c subddcs quj'Ⅱ 氵 oratc on not-for-proht subtitlcd

ith untranslatablc、・ usc diffcrcnt col° rcd subtitlcs C。 nfr。 ntcd 、 °rds, thcy intro-

Ⅵ・ ith a dc丘 nition that s。 mctin△ cs Hlls thc scrccn F。 otnotes! Somc taPeS includc small-tyPC(lc⒖ niti° ns and cultural ducc thc f。 rcign、 vord into thc Enghsh language exPlanati° ns、vhich are illcgil)lc on thc Hy(here、 Pr。

t° c。 l

luadc P。 SSiblc by vklco、 vhcrc thc

vc ind a c。 mplctcly ne、

:、

1cxsing

Ⅴic、 vcr halts thc aPParatus’ s1nindless

march and rcads subtitlcs at leisurc) :Γ 11Cy use diffcrcnt fonts,si'cs,and col。 rs t。 corresPond to luaterial asPccts° f languagc, frorn voicc to dialcct t0、 Vrittcn tcxt

、 vithin thc fralnc And thcy frccly inscrt their tidcs all oⅤ cr thc scrccn It is as if history folds back。 n itsclf and、 vc Hnd a rcsurgcncc oft11c subtithng Practice of thc talkic cra,but thc undcrlying diffcrcnccs Put thC t′ Ⅴo、、 orldS apa1ˉ

Thc cxamPlc of dnⅠ n,c hnd。 n1 valorizations of anti-Holly、

v。

rc、 cals thc distta11cc bct、

。d cxPcrirncntation and thc abusiⅤ c subtitlc Both1nay

bc canny on idcological ProblClus,both rnay innoⅤ lattcr attcl△

△ l)ts

t。

t

vcCn thC° Rcn chtist

cngagc rcadcrs’ scnsibilitics、

Ⅴith

atiⅤ Cly

brcak c° nⅤ cntion,but thc

thc same scnsil)ihtics xx1th、

Ⅴhich

FOR AN ABUSIVE sUBT1TLING

467

thc readers cn思 agC thcir texts Just as thC sPect破 or aPPr。 achcS丘 lms△ om

hraway

ˉ

lDl涎

Cs to Cllloy an cxpcocncc ofthc± c,rc唿 n,tl)C abus卜 c tlanslator attemP“

his。 r hcr subtitlcs in thc Placc of thc° thcr,Rathcr than sn△

tcl l()∞

tc

。thcring thc⒔ ln△ under

thc regulations of thc c。 rrupt subtitlc, rathcr than sm。 othing thc r。 ugh cd8cs of

R,rcignncss,rathcr than convenin8cⅤ crything into casily c。 nsumablc n1caning,thc abusiⅤ c subtitlcs al、 Ⅳays(hrect sPcctat。 rs back to thc original text Abusivc subtitlcs circulatc bet、 vccn thc f。 reign and thc fan1ihar,thc kn。

r湍

℃ ℃ 拈

i罟

And is this not a chal・

絷

烈

actc1ˉ lstiC

只坩

生:`投

严、、 crC

Ⅴ cn and thc unknovvn

摞

猫

扌 i猡生i咒皮搏

of thc R)reign⒖ lrn’ s structur The sul)titled m。 ving

hnagc is a constcllatcd⒔ gurc; both the° riginal and thc translati° n are shuultane。usl)・ aⅤ ailal,le,as if’ tl△ ey wcrc cn、 fdce.M∝ ti1uPortant,、 icwcrs Work o± r thc。 H要 nal text x1・ hcthcr thcy undcrstand its languagc or not, Although corruPt subtitlcs、 v° rk strongly agai11st this reading l)racticc,abusivc subtitlcs cnc°

uragc it

The tilnc is riPc⒒ ’ r abusc,if。 nly bccausc we are in an agc whcrc m。

Ⅴing imagc 丿 \udicnccs bring thosc talents t° the fOrcign⒔ hn, but they8o cnti1・ cly unuscd Indccd, 、 vhat once、 vas radical cxPc1・ ilncntatlon is no、 Ⅴthc stuf。 f Hollyw。 od cincma,Ⅳ 1TV and hteracy h1cludes thc abihty to 1nanagc comPlex tCxt/h11agc rclations,

PoP-uP vidc。 ,c。 mmcrCials,sitcOn1s,and thc nighdy ncws ComPlcx imagc/text rclationshiPs arc a norlnahzcd tcxtuahty fi。 n1cvcryday cxpcricncc(excCCdingly so

in JaPan) Fron.this pcrsPective,corruPt Subtithng is actually archaic Thus,abusc

ns And 、 Ⅴhcn abusivc subtithng l,ccon1cs norluahzed, 、 vc、 1ll think。 f othcr tcrn1s~or sin△ Ply is dircctcd at convcntion, cⅤ cn at sPcctat。 rs and theil^ cxPcctati°

droP thc adjcctiⅤ c It is likcly that abusiⅤ c translations、 vdl l)cgin、 ith anirnation, comcdics,thc art filn△ , and thc(locumcntary

texts that arc thcInlsclvcs transgrcsⅡon△ subjccting thc lnOst

“Ⅴe or cssayistic~l)ut thcrc is nothing l)okling us back non-Ⅴ iolcnt Hln△ st° abusc, Thc Only。

tl`cr c11。

icc is corruPtion

Notes For cxccllcnt l)ibli。 graPhicS collecting this

Ⅵ:ork, scc Ga∏ 11)icr 1994and(lc

Lindc and Kay1999 I、 Ⅴould likc to cxtcnd1ny thanks to r)arrcll DaⅤ is,1)aⅤ id 厂 I)csser, and Particularly to La、 =rencc 、 cnuti, Makino Man△ oru and Aar。 n GcrO、 vR)r

their hdp and commcnts whilc、、 iting this cssay Gc1ˉ ow in 1ˉ

n on thc Purc Cincma AdoⅤ cn1cnt His disscrtation On thc m。 vcmcnt is groundbrcaking、・ ork(GCr° w1996), ucular hclPcd mc flcsh out thc sccti° PaI・

A11analogous rcvcrsal。 fP。、ˉ cr n△ ay l)cl。 und f°

in thc t1・ anslation of Trlc X~fiFcs

r JaPanesC tclcⅤ ision,in this case thr° ugh the aPPaI・

atus of dubbing Muldcr

Ⅰ is dubbcd by a n1an、vith a husky,deeP,tou:11-m an、・ oicc,、、 hilc Scullcy’ s rcla~ tiⅤ cly

lo、 :, busincss_hkc tonc is rlaced 、1th thc high-Pitchcd voicc

。nc 刁 Γ 11is lnaniPulati° n° f thc material quahtics。 f languagc~in this casc thc grain of thc vOicc ~ rc、 crscs thc sexual Play and Pohtics 。f thc sho、 v XVhⅡ c lcss dran1atic, thc Rob。 co` cxan1Plc diSplays thc san△ c dynan1ic As I 、 vill arguc usuaⅡ ) ass° ciatcs Ⅵith soaP oPCras and xs・ cathcr r。 rt

bclo、 v,standard

announccrs

subtitlcs ign。 rc the n△ atcrial asPccts of languagc

scc忆 r cxamPlc,Tocla199⒋ 27,Ok捉 ch198⒏ 18,Kamijima1995∶

22,

468

ABE MARK NORNEs T° da(1994:27)is f°

r hcr hist°

r° rtin思 hcarsay;it aPPcars shc has(l。 nc no rcal rcscarch

rⅤ

BiograPlllCs ll△ ClLldc T。 (la1994,Kamijima1995,and

Shimizu1985 Thc latter

w~

isthe m。 st hmous,btlt Kamijima’ s is the mostintcrcsting ofthc bunch H° rs l。 ° king

to b° oks arc PoPular among translat。

to add Ⅴaricty to thcir usual

slatc。 fb° ring busincss translati° ns;a fcvc ofthen△ arc apParcntly uscd as tcxt~

bo° ks in classcs

。ffered bⅤ

s°

mc

°f thc m° rc high-Pr° slC

Subtitlers∶

scc

Kamijima1995,Ok淤 da1988and1989,shimizu1988and1992, Okacda1989∶ 194-195 Far rn。 rc disturbing is his ignorant h° moPh。 bia vvhcn he Prcfaccs a scction on holη 。scxuahty and subtithng with a l)izarrc asidc imPlying Amcrica has“ h。 mOs” and JaPan d。 cS

n。 t,an(l

cxPlicidy blaming

AIEls on An△ crican h° n△ 0scxuals

This stratcgy condnucd wcll into thc Postwar Pcri° d in many Parts° f ASia that uscd narrat° rs throughout thc silcnt Peri。 d Thc subtitlcr’ s collaborau。 n Ⅵjth structurcs of ccns。 rshiP is an ilnP° rtant

timc tc,eXPlOre in this c。 nt【・《 In JaPan, subtitlcs 、 Ⅴcrc strictlⅤ ccnsOrcd in both Prc、・ ar and p。 st、厂 ar eras N】 ore rcccntly, ccns° rshiP has largcly bccn (hrectcd at the imagc cxclusiⅤ e of thc 忆 rm。 fc° ⅡuPuon I d。

s°

n。 th灬 ,c

undtrack shirnizu scrⅤ ed f。 r manv ycars on the l)° ard。 f Eirin, one()f thc

Prhnary cCnS。 rs11ip authorities in JaPan Okacda has a curious agc in bis

lcctures about subtithng PornograPhy For CxamPlc,hC′ varns his studcnts n° t “ to translatc Oh, that feels so good” dh・ cctlⅤ ovcr thc uttcrancc/sex act bccause thc translation vvould ncvcr cCnsorshiP Pr。 cCCdings;h°、:cvcr,if ‘ ‘ ’ thc subtitlc aPPcars bcf° rc or aRcr, as in ll n1akc you fccl good,’ thcrc I’

v this PracticC affccts thc translati。 n ofn△ ainstrcam ProblCm H。、 tCXts is lCft uncxPlainCd(Okacda1989∶ 2O1-202) sh° uld

l)cn。

shimizu 1988∶

厂、、 hⅡ c shiΠ 1izu’ s saⅤ s this、 :crsion nevcr rcached

350

A Quick N° tC Pul)lic thcatcrs,a contcmPorary articlc suggcsts othcrWisc In“ 。 n thc Talkie/’ Hayashi Chitosc 、cnt to the tr° ublc of counting hnes of dialoguc and subtitlcs Hayashi’ sc。 unt: 387spokcn lines/229subtitles xlith

‘

f° r an aⅤ craε c of32 hncs/19 subtitles pcr rccl Ⅳ Vhilc he notcs that thc m° st(lialoguc-hcaⅤ y sccne °f thc ⒔lrn uscs morc subtitlcs (41ftDr521incs),Hayashi st。 Ps his analysis with thc basic a1gumcnt tllat lcss

4‘ inscrted subtitlcs/’

is bcttcr I arguc bclo、 v this is n° thing othcr than a sdcnt cra-sPcciHc c。 nc~

tion。 f cinema cardcd over the sound barricr(Hayashi 1931: 39)

10

Thcsc and °thcr C° Ⅱccd。 n

kcn’ cFsu dc11J,on arc PrcSCrⅤ

cd in thc N1akino Mamoru

and thc Kaxs,akita Institutc.Shirnizu Chiy° ta was, along with

Tan)ura,。 nc ofthe bunding mcmbers of焰 nem口 zinc fr° m thc earlⅤ

t、 vcntlCth

ccnturⅤ

t。

ytInP。 ,tl△ C

PrCmicr⒔ lm maga

thc Prcscnt

Longcr lincs rcquircd multiPlc subtitlcs,1naking the t° tal numbcr° f subtitlcs 360, Thc °thcr kcn’ cFsLI ddih° n I insPectCd aPPcarcd t。 haⅤ c si⒈ nilar subtitle

counts,Thcy may bc found in thc Makino Mamoru Collcction 12

This was rclatcd t° mc bv Komatsu Hiroshi,who saw thc Print while xsˇ 。rking at thc Nati。 nal FilIη

13

Ccntcr。 f Japan

An旬 c AScheid’ s articlc° n(lubbing attcInpts to av。 i(l thcsc traPs,but丘 dls illto

othcrs bccausc° f an inadcquatc thc° rization of translation itsclf

FOR AN ABUS1∨ 14

I11 1973 Rcn忐 Vionct crcatcd inccndiary sul)titlcs f°

E sUBTITLING

469

r a Hong Kong kung fu

丘ln△ called rhc Cùsh(dir D° ° Kwang Gcc and Lalu Nin Tung,1972),ThC ‘ credit for thc translati° n、 vent to‘ Association Pour lc d造 vclopPcn△ cnt dc la luttc des classcs ct la proPagation du rnat总 rialislnc dialcctiquc/’ and thC rclcasc 口c PcuF

tltlc was∠ d Di〃

cc口 sε r如 s briquε sP(cdn r南 c Di口 e′ ′

fec‘

】 c Bre召女BricksP)

‘

Robcrt stam andècr`刂 Ella Shohat r。 rt that‘ A scquCncc of devastating karatc ‘ Ⅴ bl。、 vs、 v° uld be subtitlcd: D。、 n、vith thc b。 urgcoisier” (stan1and sh° hat 1985∶ 35-59) For a contc1nPoIâry rcvicw of d1is curious translati。 n,scc s1973∶ 11011l llhd、 tJP,乃 Jσ D夕 P必 actud灯 a bvc△,tt吨 ∝ Japanc陡 dctcctivc sln△ 、 vith Allen’ s parodic(lubbing on thc sOundtrack.()nc could als° i111aginc an abusi、 c(lubbing,although ulti1natcly dubbing is rnircd in c°

rruPˉ

tion bccause it con△ Plctely crases thc cxPeriencc° f⒒)reign s° und,。 ne° f thc n1ost crucial n△

ate1ˉ ial

asPccts。 flanguagc Thcsc cxaluPlcs arc als。

vhich indulgcs in thc abus1Ⅴ c translat。 their Par。 dy, 、 cncing the forcign, sourcc tcxt.

r’

、 vhilc sharing thc corruPt translator’

curious for

s Pleasurc in exPcri^ s(lon1ination of thc

Chapter 31

Ian Mason

TEXT PARAMETERS IN TRANSLATION∶ TRANSITI∨ ITY

AND INSTITUTIONAL CULTURES

1 Introduction S片

IIc点 P氓 n描 iWc品

鬼Γ礻 \Ⅳ 。拄

号孚:`扭

丨棵

iT押

uu

hncs are issucd to all translat。 rs、 vorking for thc institution,in thc f。 rn1of glossarics1

。dCS0f Practicc and so on;or it rnight simPly丨 )c a devcloPn)ent、、hich ut of sharcd cxPcriCncc,thc nccd tO flnd con1nl° n aPProaches t。 recurring Problcms °r through ad、 icc and trainin思 o⒈ 【辶rcd to nc、 Ⅴ ・ cn11)l。 yccs Rclativel) littlC has becn Ⅵ】 ittcn about such Phcn。 n△ ena and thc issue stylc思 uidcS,t∶

εroⅥ s。 Ⅴer a pcriod of years。

of instituti。 nal aPProacbcS to translating rnight be considcrcd to bc a ncglccted l。

ct。 r

、 vithi11thc hcld of translati。 n studics Thcrc arc° fc∴ oursc son】 c cxCtionS M° SsoP (1988, 1990) |ooks at thc assun1Pti。

ns 11ndcrlying ad、 icc t。

tran、

lators issucd b)

the Fcdcral Govcrnn△ ent of Canada and thc in1Phcations of the Pohcy, Koskincn (20OO)asks Sin1ilar qucstions of thc translation(l。

institutions,noting on the、 ˉ a) ‘

and thus

that tht‘

ctri11c ofthc EuroPcan LInion(ELI)

ELI tcnds to cleⅤ cloP a culturc of its0、 vn

PS its o、 vn kholll in 11 dialccts∷ shc thus sccs thc translations Produccd by EU institutions as‘ inrrd-culturaΓ (K。 skincn2000∶ 58) But thC Pri1u aI・ ) value c)f thcsc studiCs is that thcy oPcn 11I’ a ncld。 f cnquir〉 and l)。 int to the nccd

【。r

de、 cl°

furthcr 1ˉ cscarCh i1】 tO

suCh n)attcrs ∫ \n aPProPriatc qucstion

、 Ⅴill

l)c; clo tl△ e

rm

guidctincs issucd by institutions affect actual translati。

nal l)racticc in any uniR’

xx:a)P、 Ⅴit1】 in thc sc。 Pc of thiS alticlc, it、 `Ⅱ l n。 tl)e

)ossible to rcach a vahd and 丨

rchablc ans、 ˉ cr to such a br。 ad qucstion Thc eⅤ idence adduced, llO、 vcⅤ er, lnay 1c、 Ⅴ s about thc control of translat。 rs bΥ thc bc sufncicnt t。 cast doubt。 n sOme 、 institutions、 vhich en11)loy thcnl 2003/re∨

ised2004

TRANsITI∨ ITY AND INsTITUTIONAL CULTUREs

471

For Mossop,it is thc goals of thc institution that dctcrn1inc thc general aPProach takcn bv translat°

rs∶

Customcrs may、 cll ask%r htcral rcndcrings,but whcthcr or not litcral renderings gct Produced

、 vill dcnd on

d。 ctrinc。 f translation allo、 vs

、 vhcthcr thc institution’

s

for this aPPr。 ach・

(M。 SSop198⒏ 66) VVhat xxc havc hcrc arc thc makings of a tcstable hyPothcsis It should bc P°

ssible

to track,in s° mc systcmatic、 Ⅴay,thc transfcr ofstated Pohcy into PracticC,to gaugc

the extent to、 vhich translat。 rl)chavi° ur is innuenced by the institution’

s goals or

po|icy on translation No、v, onc、 :ay of1ncasuring this`Ⅴ 。uld be t。 matCh aCtual lexical choicc by translators t。 the adⅤ icc t。 be f° und in thc in~housc glossarics, stylc guidcs and

°thcr guidchncs issucd t。

thcm Butthis,of c。 ursc is thc rnorc consCious and dchb~

cratc cnd of thc imPlcmcntation of Pohcy If a giⅤ a paIˉ ticular

of tcrminology calls f° r

cn iten△

vay it`vill bc trcated, irrcsPective 。f thc rcndcring, thcn that is thc 、

translator’ s° 、厂 n PrCfCrrcd stylc and inchnati。 ns But thcrc arc other tcxt Parame~ hat they can rcⅤ cal about undcrlying attitudes t0、vards tcrs s1.orth cxPloring,for、・

tcxt and translating.Pron1incnt an△

on思 these is transitivity,a kcy Sitc for cxPloring

basic strategies sincc it Pcrtains to thc、 Ⅴay Processcs arc vic、

vcd and Prcscntcd In

syStemic Grammar(e g Halllday1985),仔 anSⅡ l0is lo∞ tcd withh thc i(leat0nd x・

§ ancti。 n,PCrtaininε t。 the rrcscntation of cxPcricntial rncaning in the clausc, It ‘ sh° 、广 s h。、 v sPcakCrs cncode in languagc their n1cntal Pictu1・ c of reahty and l)o、 v they acc()unt f【 ,r thcir cxpcrience of tlac world茳 ound tlacm’

(simPs。 n1993:88),

ζ Fowlcr(1996∶ 74), agcncy,state,proccss and So。 n`t11C ClCn△ ents of transi‘ tiⅤ ity, sccn△ to l)c the basic catc:ories in tcrms of、 vhich hulnan l)eings Prcscnt thc Ⅴs that any text,including a trans_ orld to thc1η sclvcs throuε h languaε c’ It foll° 、 F。 r

xx・

lati° n,

cmb。 dics a rrCsentation of cxPeriencc, signallcd thr° ugh thc transitivity

systcln,and that shiFts in transitivity I))ay consequcntly involⅤ

c shiRs in rresenta_

und uP、 Ⅴith Point of vie、 v。 Thc lattcr ity but also inⅤ °lves such Paramctcrs as dCixis,

d° n.In this、 Ⅴ ay,transitivity is closcly l)。 is of coursc not rcstrictcd to transitiⅤ

modahty and thClη aticity But ShiRs of transitivity n)ay inv° lⅤ C shifts。 f Point of 、 ie、 v For although indivklual choiccs。 f ProccSs typc Pcrtain at clausc leⅤ cl, thcy concatcnatc at tcⅩ

t lcⅤ cl t。

f°

rnl an oⅤ crall pattcrn of rrcsCntation,

Rcturning no、 :to the starting hypothcsis al)。

ut instituti° nal(l。 ctrincs affccting

indiⅤ idual translator stylcs,it`vould seem that translator bchaviour xxìthin thc Para_

mctcr of transitiⅤ ity could usef`△ lly bc comParcd to、 vhatcⅤ cr institutional advice is :ithin thc gcncral aⅤ ailablc at thc tirnc。 ft1ˉ anslating Broadly,onc n1ight cxPcct,′ Λ variety oflan思 uage in usc and ruaking allo、 ,ancc for grc△ lη n1atical or i(li° matic Prc△

r^

cnccs of Particular la11guagcs,somC CVi(lence° f consistent translation Practice

、 Ⅴithin an institution, sPcciHcally, thcn, in scckiln8t° addrcss t、。 o qucstions∶ 1

、ˉ hat

follo、 vs,

、:e Shall bc intcrestcd in

、 Vhat cvklcncc is thcrc, if any, of a uniforn1ity of aPPr。 ach acrOss diffcrcnt languagc scctions,consistCnt、 ith thc l)rofessed aiIns of the institutionP

472

IAN MAsON T° 、 vhat extent do actual shiRs。 f transitivity contribute to signalling signi⒔ cantlⅤ

diffcrcnt

Ⅴalues at thc levcl

-

°f tcxt and disc° urse in translatcd

d。 cumcnts冫

As suggcsted above, there can, for the tiIne l,cing, bc n° dcsnitivc ans、 :crs to such questions The investigation rortCd here is sirnPly on too small a scalc t°

bc

yicld rehable and gcncrahsablc丘 ndings At m° st, vvc shall bc ablc t。 Put for、 Ⅴ ard somc tcntatiⅤ e hyPothcscs, t° bc tcstcd against l。 ngcr and br。 ader ablc t°

data scts

2 TransIating for institutions Thcrc is sc° Pc for a1nuch lnorc dctailcd invcstigation ofthc guidancc°

institutions to translators, bc thcy full-tirne in-housc staff。

ffcrcd、vithin

r regular° r。 ccasional

△cclanccrs,so%r,wc havc n。 morc than a Patchw° rk。 f insigh‘ 什om a Ⅴaricty of vith discussi。 ns in MossoP (1988, 1990), Kos⒗ ncn (2000), sourccs, together 、 Munday (2001),Wa思 ner, Bech and Mardncz(2002) It iS intcrcstlng to comPare some of thc instituuonal P。 hciCs reportcd by thcsc sch0lars,Accordin8t° MoSsoP ‘ (1990: 346n), thC [Canadian]托 dcral g。 Ⅴcrnmcnt’ s“ translation d° ctrinc” statcs that° ne should render“ n。 t thcˇ vords or thc structures of thc sOurce~tcxt but rather the messagc or,in othcr w。 rds,the auth。 r’ s intcnd° n” (Translatiom Burcau ’

198⒋ 3;emPhasiS ml11e)In蚯 milar von,a latcr d° cumcnt(Rc"s召 ‘ H虿 ndb。 ok1985) from thc samc s。 urcc adⅤ iscs against‘ kcing slaⅤ ishly to thc cxPrcssions and struc-

Imphcd hcre is a vie、 v that structures bclong t° the r’ formal rnakc~uP。 f tCxts and arc cntircly seParablC fr。 rll thc‘ rncssagc’ to bc rclaycd in translation This woukl,in PracticC,Cnt缸 l wholcsalc changcs to sourcc tcxt(sT) transitivity structurcs in thc intcrcsts of rclaying‘ intcntion’ Thcrc arc, of coursc, many questionablc assumPtionS hcrc F。 r thc mollOcnt,lct us lcaⅤ c thesc asidc and turcs choscn by thc auth。

comparc。 thcr institutional attitudes and pohcies A further asPect° f the Canadian Translati。 n Bureau’ s Pohcy is thc requiremcnt

°f‘ authcnticitⅤ

’ :

Authcnticity is thc imprcssion convcycd l)y a translati° n that it is not,

in hct,a“ anslation,that it was comPosed in thc tar8et languagc f1・ thc Outsct,that it is an original PiCcC° (TranSlati°

It is, t。

‘

om

f、 vriting,

n Burcau1984∶ 6,citcd in M° ssoP 1990: 347n)

say the lcast, an intcresting tⅥ

△st to our understanding of thc n° ti° n °f

authcnticity’ to cx∝ nd itto a pr° ccss whercl)ys。

mcthing whch is,in hct,a trans

lation is Presentcd as sOmething、 vhich is not! What is bcing ProPoscd hcre is, of course,an illusion;but it is a、 vidcsPrcad° ne The suPPoscd inⅤ isibility ofthe trans_

latoris wclhngr“ ncd h Wcstcrn(and CsPecially Anglo-Amc1・ lcan)culture,as amPly

documcntcd by、厂 cnuti(1995) It is als。 ticity is inscribed in the Treaty of R。 EU institu1t∶∶ ions,

°rth n。 ting t11at thc n。 tion of authen~ `Ⅴ mc(1957)and undcrhcs translation policy in

T RANSlTI∨ ITY AND INSTITUTIONAL CULTUREs

473

°f institutional translator bcha、 i° ur arc thc Eur。 Pcan ParIian△ cnt and uNEsCO,using eⅤ idc1、 cc【 °m translations of hich (]uring the debatcs in Pa11ian1cnt and of articlcs in thc UNESCC) Couricr, Ⅵ′ The t、 v。 institutions sclcctcd for this studⅤ

its existence(1948— 2001)vvas a rnonthly Pubhcation that aPPearcd in n△

any dilˉ l辶 rcnt

languagc cditions Bod1 sets °f translatOr 。utPut arc aVailablc °n thc intcrnct, at 、 vˇv、v3。 euroParl。 eu。 int/omk/omnsaPir。 so/debats and w、 v、 v。 unesco。 org/courier rcsPCcti、 cly EⅤidcncc of。 fHcial guidancc on translation I)ohcy is availablc in a numbcr of pubhcations and s°

me sahent Points are、 vorth recording

hcrc K。 skincn(2000∶ 54)writcs。 ftlac Eu c。 mmission’ ‘

s Translati° n serⅤ ice that

thcrc is a clear,all)cit unwritttsn,prclcrcnce ft)r surhCe lcve】

assun1c(l to guarantee that1・ k:adcrs of th()Ⅴ sagc’

EquiⅤ alCncc, she【 ilahns,

a1・

‘

similarity,xS bich is

ious translations all get the sam()lllcs-

is oRcn taken t。 mcan lin8uiStic corresPondcncc,

°r litcral rcrcndcring’ (2000∶ 55) In l".c、 vith this and、 vith thc n。 tion of‘ aud1cnas(liscusscd ab。 Ⅴc,it is of⒔ cial P。 hcy in all Eu institudons that translations

ticity’

arc not refcrrcd t。 as such but rathcr as‘ languagc vcrsions’

That is,thc translati。 ns

arc Prcscntcd as iftcxts、、cre draftcd in all lan思 uagcs silη ultancously,as if n。

s。 urcc text cxistcd(VVagncr,Bcch and p√ 1artinc`2O02∶ 8-9) This Cnsu〗 ˉ cs that no tcxt can bc takcn to bc n10rc auth。 ritati、 c than any。 thcr and that thcrc is, conscqucntly,

c。 n11)lCtC

cquahty l9ctxl ecn all ofHcial languagcs,In thc Particular casc of thc dcbatcs

of the Europcan Parhamcnt, thc intcr、 cntions of succcssiⅤ c men△ bCrs, all sPCak~ ing in thcir °、 Ⅴn nativc tongue, can bc rcad all in 。nc language, as if thc dcbatc itsclI bad bccn n△ onohn:ua1. These Prcscntational fcatures are ill△ tors ofi11stitutional P。

P。

rtant indica_

hcy and oftbc、 va)tranSlations arc exPcctcd to be vic、 vcd l)y

thcir uscrs

Munday(2001∶ 30reP。 rtS that uNESCO hasissucd a sct。 f Guidelincs lc,r its ‘ cry⒔ rst rcquirCtranslators(Kidd 1997),in、 Ⅴ hich it is sai(l that accuracy is thc Ⅴ Iuent’

for all translations The organisation’ s translating activitics,of coursc, sPan

a rangc of Hclds and gcnrcs,including documcnts for llat.cth1gs and c。

、、 hich

discrancics bet、

and ta1ˉ cd△erehre

nfcrenccs,in

Ⅴccn different languagc Ⅴcrsions can bc a sOurcc°

f troublc

s11unncd as hr as Possil)le In tl△ c case of Peri。 (licals~t11c%cus

of this study it is said(Ki(ld1997∶ 3)that‘ whilc accuIˉ acy is still of thc grcatcst irnPortancc’ ,joun1al editors、 .ill insist on rccciving a‘ rcadablc tcxt’

Asˇ Iunday

。bscrⅤ cs,s0mC0fthc tcrms uscd hcrc t° o&tr advicc to translators arc。 fthc most ・ aditional kind,al)。 h1t、 vhich aPPhcs lnnorc gcncrally t。 POhcy statcmcnts on trans_

t〗

lati。 n

‘

Tl1cy arc also usually undcr~sPcci§

litcral’ ,‘ mcssagc’

arc all ttˉ rms、 lich

cd∶

‘

‘

accuratc’ , idiolnatic`

bcg morc qucstions d】 an

thcy Iˉ

‘

cquiⅤ alcnt`

csolVC,as is

noxs morc or less辶 111iversally rccognised in thc Hcld of translation studies F∶ solnc of the rcquircn△ ents n、 ay bc sCCn to conflict

mcnt bcinε leR to thc translat。

inally,

Ⅴ vith cach。 thcr,the nnaljudgC-

r,

3 Transitivitv:the evidcnce In thc h:ht of all this, 、 vc rcturn to thc initial qucstion∶

°f

unif° rn1ity of PracticC

、 vhat cvidcncc is thcrc

、 vithin institutions?For thc PurPosCs of analysis, a basic

m()(ld。 f transitivity ks as use〈 ],bascd。 nd1° sc

ad、

anccd b)Halliday(1985),si】 ul)SOn

474

IAN MAsON

ˉ Γablc31 1 Process,Participants and(ircun`stanccs Proccss

PtlrrjciPtlnfs

Irdrc"d″ a啊丿

C” c【

n ccs

`msr口

lcror/C;@vl∫ P1ˉ

iI)August

ic c`s loll

Ijc n、 adc thc c∴

丨 Vr3df‘ 、 ‘ ,'inf丿

sc9ˉ

。11tc

cr/T口 .Jcr/rcr占 idJc

Shc askcd hiln a qucStion TlK k)lccast warns oΓ rmn l∫ cヵ r‘ l氵

sc刀

lxc,,sinJ丿

s口

r/Phcno2刀 Cnon

Hcr11cad achcd Shc lorgot his11an1c Rc灿 ri。 n口氵仙召 inf,宀 dl氵 r2ε 丿

C(Il” c`/△ Jill、 JiⅡ

、 as

rrrib1Ι

rc

at brcaklast

talkati`c

has n1illi()ns

il】

thc、

bank

°n、 odka

Jill got clrunk

(1993)m1(l Mtlrtin,Mattllicsscn and Paintcr(1997) schcmaticall)=,t11is can bc rePrCsCntcd and cxcmPhnCd as in Tablc 31 1 using a small corPuS of rand° n11y selcctcd tcxts in Enghsh,Frcnch and SPanish and thcir translations into each other languagc,shifts of transitiⅤ

ity、 Ⅴ crC

tracked in

thc translati。 ns ofsPecchcs dch、 crcd in thc EuroPcan Parha1nent and of articles that

aPl)earc(lin d1c uNEsCO c。

vrj口 r

Attc1111DtS at quantiIicatic)n ofthc h11dings pro、 cd

Γ hc irst problell△ is that, givcn struCtural/systen1ic clifferenccs betwccn languagcs, a nun1bcr 。f shiis arc obhgat° ry (Calzada P芑 rcz 1997:13o)and、、ill be intr。 duccd aut° matically b)any con1pctcnt translator,Thcsc t。

l)c fraught、 ith dif6culty

thcn giⅤ c n。 indicati。

translators’

n at all c,l′

thcrc is no c∴ hoicc l)ut t。

st1ˉ

atcgics or sPontaneous bchaì。 ur sincc

shift Conscqucntly, they havc to bc⒔ ltcrcd out。 f any

analⅤ sis、vhich sccks t。 c。 unt shifts i11troduccd bv thc translat°r as a dehbcratc action

。n

thcir Part・

An examPlCiSthe Pron° n1inal

vcrbal c。 nstruction in sPaniSh,、

a ProcCss can l)c PrCsCntcd in an agcntless xsaⅤ natiⅤ c strtlctu1・

Ⅴhereby

and thc translator has to Hnd an altcr~

c il)English(oiCn thc i′ C) ThuS,d1c scquencc,

Dc n。 haccrsc asi~vn。 se ha hCch°

as∫

~cl riesgo quc se coI・ rc⒈ (CalZada P誉

I

rcz1997:153),

‘ n1ight bccomc if jt is not donc in this、 vav~and it has l)ot in foct l)ccn d。 nc in t11is way~the risk that is run卜 t11c translat。

runs thc risk’

‘

l∷ But cvCn in thcsc cascs,thcre is choicc and

r oPtcd hcre f。 r if he fails t° do this~and hc has nOt donc it~hc

,i(lcnu1in:thc agcnt of thc matcHal action proccss Tllc shift t11cn

bccomcs a cant 。nc but if aⅡ shiRs 。f sPaniSh Pron。 countcd, the rcsulting Rgures

、

òul〈

n】 inal

Pr。 ccssCs are

l 11ndOubtcdl、 obscurc thc rclati、 c incidencc

on translations。 f translat。 r chOice

A sccond pr。 blcrll is thc b。 undary bct、 vcCn disallo、 ved structurcs and thosc 、、hich arc(n・。re or lcss str° ngly)(hsPreferred It、 v° uld for cxan△ PlC l)c lDossil)lc to tra11slatc

TRANsITIVITY AND INSTITUTIONAL CULTUREs

475

Cela Permct d’ 造Ⅴacucr raPi(lCmcnt lc Pcrsonncl

(A/1ossoP1990) as‘ This

allows raPid cⅤ acuatlon of staf±

ˉ ’ 。r

cⅤ cn‘

This hohtatcs cⅤ acuating tl△ c staf

‘

quickly’ But ncid△cr° f thesc is a PrCfcrrcd。 Pti° n in Enghsh∶ In this、 vay staf can bc cⅤ acuatcd quickly’ (N】。SS。 P1990: 343)is a far rn。 rc likcly oPuon Thc diⅤ iding

hnc bct、 vcen this catcgory and thc prcvious Onc is fuzzy, lcading to cndlcss Pr。 lc1ns° f classiHcati。

n,Th。 sc

b~

shi∴ s、 vhich arc Pr。 Pcrly t11cf° cus of attcntion in this

studv arc thc °ncs vvhich rcsult fron1thc indcndcnt cxercisc of choicc by the translator∶

n△

0rc-or lcss automatic shiRs° bscurc thc truc picture Finally,therc is

thc issuc of thc rclatiⅤ c signiHcancc° fshiRs Many altcr the sensc in、 vhich a Pr。 ccss maⅤ bc Ⅴic、 vcd bⅤ thc tcxt rccciⅤ cr in a signi丘 cant vvay, particularly、 vhen thcy /ith othcr shifts in thcir tcxtual cnⅤ ironmcnt. 【,thcrs, h° vⅡ cvCr, maⅤ c。 n11)inc Ⅵ

aPPCar relatiⅤ cly insigniscant, F。 r cxamplc, a Frcnch Mcn11)er of thc Eur。

Parliamcnt(MEP),c。 mmcnting on an in(lustHal acodent,°

Pcan

ffcrs,

卜1a PCns。 c va aux Ⅴicdlncs, ‘ 、 Ⅴhich is translatcd as∶ My thoughts arc Ⅵith the victilns’ uttcranccs rcccivc a(liffcrcnt transitiⅤ Rclati° nal Pr。

itⅤ

Tcchnically, thc t、 vo

analysis, as N1atcrial Acti°

n Proccss and

ccss rcsPcctivCly Including such shifts in a quantiscation of total

shiRs,h。、 vcvcr,、 vould tcll us vcry littlc ab° ut translat。 r bchaⅤ i。 ur and、 v° uld。 Ⅴcr_ 、 Ⅴhc11n any⒔ gurcs rrCsenting siε nihcant shifts Yctit is dif丘 cult t° dc6nc a rehablc

~i c rhcablC~b° undary bctvvccn thc insigniHcant and thc rcst For rcasons such as thcsc, quantitativc analysis、 vas abandoncd at this stagc in

the rescarch NcⅤ crtheless, thcre is scoPe f° r a quantitatiⅤ c study of rnore liFnitcd featurcs,such as thc trcatn1ent in translation。

f ParticiPants in ProcCssCS rrcscntcd

by Pcrsonal Pronouns, 、 vhcre there 、 vould seen1t。 be grcat variation 、 vithin thc 严 corPus 、、 hat f° ll。 Ⅵ・ s is a quahtatiⅤ e analysis of the。 verall PattCrns of trcat1ncnt of in thc tcxts studicd Bcf° rc prcscnting these trcnds,t、 vo hnal °bscrva~ tions arc in ordcr First, thc analysis is in no Ⅳ vaⅤ intcndcd to bc n。 rmatiⅤ c No transitiⅤ ity

ju(螅 Cmcl.ts or cHdcisms of translator√

intcndcd as a contribution t°

捉J。 ns aK intendc(l Rc△ thσ ,tl△ c bttl【 ly“ Dcscriptivc Translation studics, in thc intcrcsts of

learning m。 rc of rcgularities of translat。 r bcbaⅤ i° ur sccond, the singhng out of instanccs of shiRs is n° t intcndcd t。 bc takcn as a Plca f° r litcrahsn△ in translation C)n the contrary, thc translat° selⅤ es

r’

s crcatiⅤ

itⅤ

and thc lin1its、 vhich translators thcm-

imPoSc° n this are the focus。 f our attcntion,

4 unif。 rⅡ lity of aPProaCh /c noⅤ 厂return to thc⒔ rst。 fthc t、 vo qucstions Poscd at thc。、、 utset Thc Hrst broad

an(l gcneral⒔ nding is a Prcdictablc()nc (Dvcrall,thc translations° f the sPccchcS to

thc EuroPcan Parhamcnt stay1・ clativcly closc t。 thc transitiⅤ ity Patterns obscrⅤ ablc in thc sOurce tcxts(sTs) ThC scnsitiⅤ

ity of pron° uncen△ ents by Pron△ incnt P。 hti

cians and the nccd to a、 okl n1isrresenting not only intendcd mcanings but the

、・ °rds actually sPokcn by thcln coukl conccivably bc a n△ °tivating factor hcrc Converscly,the UNEsCO CouiIcr translat° rs disPlay grcatcr latitudc,as be丘 ts thc

476

IAN MAsON

neld。 fj。 urnalism whcrc easc of Processhg by thc rca(lcr of thc仔 anslau。 ns may ie、 vcd abovc) In the casc 。f the Parha1ncnt translati° ns, n△ any shifts aPPCar t。 havc bccn cffcctcd f° r thc sakc °f idiomatic Prefcrcncc For examplc, Enghsh n△ atcrial

bc scen as a high Priority(cf, thC Gui(lchncs rcⅤ

ProccSSes frcqucntly bccomc Frcnch non1inahsations; Frcnch actiⅤ c ProcCSscs ‘ bccomc Enghsh ives; sPanish ‘ sc hacc、 ctc bccomes Frcnch °n fait、 and s。 on;in Enε hsh,therc is。 ften l)crs° nahsation° f actors in matcrial ProccsscS,`Ⅳ hcrc ・ in Frcnch and spanish thc act° r is not made exPhcit Γ hcse are,of c° ursc,fan1ihar contrastivc rcgularitics °f natural cxPrCssion in thc lan思 uagcS c° ncerncd and a

r1uay、vcll rcgard such shifts as r。 utinc tactics Yet thc rcⅤ erse

scasoncd translat。

Pr° cCssCS are also cⅤ inced in thc data、 Ⅴith signiHcant rcgularity Pcrsonahsation lnay

bc addcd in translations from Enghsh into French and Enghsh non1jnahsations bccome Frcnch material action ProcCSsCS∶ ￡nJrⅠ s乃

nt,J,lintaFistlr1°

ad° Ption

n5

Frcncfl rl,tzFcricIr Pr。 ccsses

thc saration

ad° Ptc maintenir∶ ,11’ cart

irnplclncntatlon

n1cttrC cn∝ uvrc

co-opcration

coopcrcr

l’

(:∶

Ab° vc all, it is aPParcnt that a heterod。 x rangc of aPProachcs to thc task co~cxist in l)。

th institutions In s。 mc cases,therc is a hi8h incidencc° f calques° f sT tran~

sitivitⅤ

,

That such cascs are common isin no、 Ⅴay surPrising sincc thcrc is oRcn no nccd t。

altcr sT transitiⅤ ity in any、 vay A ProcCSs Iuay bcst bc rrcscntcd in thc targct-

languagc tcxt(TT)by the Samc Proccss tyPc Examplcs1-4bel。

w,h。 wcvcr,sccm

to go bcyond this and arc charactcristic of a、 vidcsprcad strate思 y~cvinced in b。 th institutions—

—of adhcring as closcly as Possil’

le t° thc f° rmal

arrangcment ofthc sT,

1 sT By destr° ying accumulatcd 、 vcalth and thc sOurccs of futurc Pr° duction,

total

、 var has sharPly incrcascd thc Prcssurc of cxistin8

PoPulati° ns uPon thcir rcsOurccs and has thcrcby sharPly curtailcd the libcrtics of Ⅴast nun11,crs °f lncn and、von1cn, l,elonging not only t。

thc Ⅴanquished nations,but also t。 thosc、 vhich、 vere suPPoscd to bc

victorious, TT Al destruir la riqueza acumulada y las fucntcs de la Producci。

n futura,

ha aumcnta(lo httnsamcntc la pK“ on dc la Isitl P° bla ciones cxistcntcs sobre sus rccursos, y, por lo n△ ismo, ha n1utilado grascmcnte l洲 libσ h(lcs de un v灬 to nomcro de hombles y mtllcrCS PertCnccientcs no solo a las naci。 ncs Ⅴencidas, sino tambi。 n a aqucⅡ as que sc suponian Ⅴict。 riosas la gucrrca mu【 lcli耐

(Couriσ ,Dcccmber2001)

2 sT It Ithc accident]rcndCrcd a largc nun△

1)er of h°

uses uninhabitable

and affcctcd thc clcctricity distribution systcm TT Il a Par aillCurs rcndu inhabitablcs(lc nombrcuscs⒈ naisons et affect誉 lC syS忄 mc

dc山 st1ibution。 lcctoquc (WallStr。 m,1Oct° bcr2001)

TRANSITI∨ ITl/AND 1NSTITUTIONAL CULTUREs 3 ST I

l Parcc quc l’ Etat ct la n)“

ric n’

477

ont Pas v° ulu imP。 scr lcs

n1csurcs nccessalrCs

TT I

l becausc thc govcrnment and thc town hall did n° t want t°

in1PoSC thc ncccssary mcasurcs

(LaguillCr,1Odobcr2001) 4 sT La oricntacion dc la PAC ha faⅤ 。rccido la aParici。 n dc ciert。 s ivorccc Pr° blemas La bosqucda de la con1IjctitiⅤ idad a cual(luicr Prcci。丨 la intr。 ducci。 n

dc m誉 todos Ⅴt。 cnicas cuyas c。 nsccucncias a largo plaz。

sc descon。 ccn, TT L’ 。ricntadon dcla PAC a hvohs爸

La rcchcrchc dc la con1P。 n1芑 th。 dcs

PaS

titivit芑

l’

aPPahtion dc certons Pr。

Δt。 ut prix fav。 risc

l’

bl志 n1cs

introduction de

ct dc tcchniqucs d。 nt lcs c。 ns。 quc11ccs;l。 n:termc nc sont

c° nnues (Jov芑

PCrcs,6JunC 1996)

Certttinly, thc hi8hcst incidencc of such calqucs is to bc f° und in translations bct、 vcen

Frcnch and sPanish,as111ight l)c cxPCctcd givcn thc syntactic sin1ilaritics

of thc t、 v。

languagcs t・ hc calque is thc lo、 /est comn1on(lcn° Π1inator, as it、 vcrc,

of translating and may, for s° mc translat。 rs, bc a default mcchanism, to bc oⅤ

cr-

riddcn° nly、 vhcrc ncccssary, But calqucs arc also frcquent in translations in bod△ dircctions l)ct、 vccn Enghsh and Frcncb °r sPanish・ p诃 °rcOvcr, this is truc。 f both instituti° nal

in

scttings~desPitc thC institutional Prcfcrcnccs refcrred t°

al)o、

e

ariadon Co cxisting with thcsc calqucs,hoⅥ ・ c、 cr,thc1ˉ c is striking sT/TT、 traI1slati。 ns to bc忆 und h tl△ c immcdiatc cnⅤ ironmcnt of thosc just re“ ewcd

In thc C° uricr, a frcqucnt, if not constant, trcnd is attcnuation of agency (in a11 translation Pairs) This Il9ay bc c∶

sahcnt P°

siti°

n 。r

￡ cctcd

by agcnt dclcti° n, disPlaccment to a lcss

re-lexicahsati。 n of Pa1ˉ ticipants fr° ln n△ 0rc to lcss sPCcisc

designati° ns

In thc casc° f Frcnch~t° ~Enghsh tra11slati° ns of onc ParhamCntary dcbatc,thcrc arc instanccs of a m。 Ⅴc

to、 vards

inCrcascd directncss affccting Pr°

ccss,ParticiPants

or circumstanCcs In cxamPlcs5^9,highhghting has1)ccn addcd to dra、 v attcntion to modi⒔ cations Ⅵ,hich scrvc to intcnsif\Ⅱ sOmc asPcct of thc。 Ⅴcrall Proccss

5 sT Mais Pcut^。 n、 ohˉ sc succodcr lcs catastroPhCS qui° nt fraPPo∏ 1。 n Pays l l Sans quc la sohdarit芑 Puissc se maniftstcrP ∫Bur cdn。 ne Ⅱ'drt乃 J。 f`° ″ c￠ ch0r为 Cr rhc c虿 rdsrroPhcs ll hic乃 co″ nF~「

li iFf’ °〃f sofiddII⒐ b。 n刀 dbè∞

h口 vc

srruck mr

md刀 I/t’ 斑 jrsc`丿

TT But can wc just sit back and watch thc disastcrs that ha、 e struck ˉ I 丬、 ith° ut dcm。 nstrating somc Eut・。 Pcan s。 hdarityP (BCr志 s,1Octobcr2001)

6 sT c’ cst un hon1icidc Jr is口 ∫

h° micjdcJ

TT It is1murder (Lag1】

illCr,1Odobcr2001)

478

IAN MAsON 7 sT La rcsPonsal)iht。 du trust TotalFinaElf[ ]cSt entl苔 rc TJ,c″ .sP。 n"幼乃 c Tl・ /Fl刀汩 d￡ “〃 sr … 厶 comPFcrc丿 ∫ 9oF淌歹

TT Thc TotalFinaElf corP。

ratl° n丨

l is fully rcsPonsiblc (LaguⅡ lcr, 1 Oct。

ber2001)

8 ST Lc gr° uPc TotalFinaEll r。 cidivc,dc n△ anj心 rc tragiquc cΠ ’ ・ zl` rT/,cr。 FdlFJnd￡ rJr° u`^commirrjnJ dn@F为 σ 0毋 ncc,j刀 d rr啊氵

TT Thc T。 talFinaElf

gr° uP丨

J has actcd Cri【 minaⅡ y,oncc ag“ n (KhⅤ inc,1Octobcr2001)

9 sT P° ur quc l’ on acctC dc P。 scr la qucstion(lc[ f1n

rdcr °

丬

rht,r clnc dccrs r。 dsk r乃 c甲 ucsFionJ

TT beR)rc xx・ c

agrcc to discuss (Islcr B。 gui11, 1 Oct。

1′

hc intcnsi⒔ cati。 n occurs through

Ⅴari° us movcs∶

ber20O1)

rc lCxicahsati。 ns,affecting Pr。 ~

cesS(9)。 rt・ tt。 bute(6),a(l(lCd m菠 erial Proccss(5),Shi竹。f ciKumstcinual【。m CxPreSSi° n of attitudc to accusation (8) and shift from PrcsuPP。 aⅡ c8ati。

to、・ ards

T11Ⅱ bec°

Siti。 n

to dircct

n(7) (It iS intcrcsting that at same ti1ne thcre is sOmc cvidcnce°

fa n△ 。 Ⅴ c

convcntionahscd j刀 dirCCtness 、 vhere routine cOurtcsics arc c。 nccrncd,

忐 v。 qucr“ la s。 li(la"t aⅤ cc lcs“ ctimes丨 I shall CⅤ okc solidc△ rity witl1,… r ,‘ ・ mcs ‘ I "cl1JFd Fi大 εfo cxPrcss n1y sohdarity with the 、 ictims∷ ) What is most j’

strikiI1g,ho、 :cⅤ cr,is a gcncral tcndcncy in these translations to n1oⅤ (lirccti°

n of PcrcciⅤ cd intended mcanings, Tl)at is, thcrc arc I)lCnty

e l`Jrthcr in thc

°f discoursal

signals in thc co_text of thc exan△ I)lCS citcd, 、 vhich P° int t° a(liscourse of bla1η c (亿 ll。 whg a scHous industrial acci(lcno and can bc sccn t。。 Ⅲcr jusuHc荻 i()n brthc

moⅤ cs h唿 hl唿 htc・ dh5-9,whch℃ rⅤ e tcD intcnsi△ d1c blamc Or“ g1al山 sscnt h thc c。 ntcxt of this particular dcbatc, t11en, signs of a c∶ 。hcrent translator stratcgy cmcrgcin the Frcncb-t° -Enghsh pair But this aPPr。 ach is n。 t gcncrahscd and、・ i(lcly Ⅴarying apProachcs arc aPParCnt in thc translati。 ns of(liffcrcnt sPceches T11us,in thC SPanish~t。 ~Frcnch Pair,calqucS such as exan11)lc4ab。 Ⅴe c。 -cxist、 Ⅴith transla_ 冖 tions sho、 ving a large nun11)cr and variety()f signi丘 cant transitiⅤ ity shilts Γ hc san1e is t1ˉ uc ofthc C。 ur1ε r translati° ns,Ⅵ 广 hcre cxtreme litcralncss in t11c transfer of Pr。 ccss tyPcS fr。 m French to spanish c° -cxists 、 vith Consi(lerable latitudc clse、广 herc In sh° rt,thc trcat】 ηcnt° f transitivity pattcrns、 ,aries、 videly、・ ithin cach institution and 、 vithin cach languagc Pair,

5 DiscOursal shifts Individual shifts n△ ay bc individually signi⒒ cant and proⅤ ide soll△ c CluCs to transla-

aPProachcS to thcir task Thcy arc,ncⅤ erthclcss,gcncrally unhkcly to havc a cant imPact on thcir 。、 Ⅴn on thc recePtion of the 、 vh。 lc translated tcxt 严、、 hcrC,on thc° d1cr hand,shifts c。 ncatenatc and estabhsh a trend Ⅴ vithin a tcxt,a tors’

、 Ⅴholc(liscoursc lnlay bc shifted, such that a diffcrcnt in△ PrcSSion may bc rCccivcd of thc ST Pr° ducer’ s attitudC °r intcntions, In thc casc 。f the C。 uricr, a singlc cxamPle “i1l scrvc t。 illustratc thc P。 int Thc hnal cdition of thc pcriodical

TRANSITI∨ ITY AND INSTITUT10NAL CULTUREs (Deceml)cr2001)carricd the tcxt of a specd△

deliⅤ

479

crcd by thc French⒖ ritcr and

statcsrna11Andro Mal1ˉ aux at(JNESCO h1 1960,In it,hc11ailcd the launch of an intcrnational calnPaign to Prcscrvc d)e n10numcnts of ancicnt EgyPt Wc n。 ted ea1ˉ

ial ProccsscS to bCcon)c Enghs11 。r Frcnch acti、 cn】 atc】 ˉ a gcneral tcn(lcnc) ∫

li`|I・

i、

es and suggested that this n△ ight be a standard Frcnch_to-Enghsh translatOr

vcⅤ Cr,thc luovc is ra1・ cly systcmatlc and、 ould n° t ProcCdurc H。、

attcntlon to itsclf But xx・

16 instanccs of aCtiⅤ

normally cl1ˉ a、

ˉ

hcn,xl lthi11a1500_word articlc,thcrc arc no k、 vcr than

c l)r°

ccsscs bcc° n1ing ivc oncs, an ovcrall trend is cstab-

hshcd in Ⅵ.hich ProccssCS lnlay l)eìc``cd as haPPcning indcndCntly°

fa8cnts°

at lcast thc dynalnisn1of actors in ProccSScs is rcduced h)thc Enghsh translati°

r

n

ol thc N1alraux spccch, this trcnd is accon11冫 aniCd l)y t`vo in、 tances of Rclational

’

Proccsscs (of bc"、 g - otrc’ ) bccon1h1g NIcntal Processes (of seen△ ing) and of a ˉ gcncIˉ al rcduction。 f thc rolc。 f Egypt⒒ on1Actor t。 Actcd uPon,aS in 10and 11

’

10sT I氵 FgyPtc conquit丨 j sOn autonomic E陟PF"on hcr durcliaoi丐 Ⅱ丿 ∫ TT E‘ Pt can)c into helô、 n :)∫

11 sT la myst忐 s’

ricusc Pr。 sCncc lDar laqudlc lCS臼

u、 tcs(lc

l’ EgylDtc

unisscnt aux statuCs dc nos cath。 drales

k,rks犭 frhc n丿 ‘rc№ us Prcsen∝ 吖hcrcⅡ rhc Π cdFhcdr。 FsJ

E莎Pr

u力

iFC llJrh r凡 c srdF〃 cs

′ σ our

TT thc incxPhcablc quahty、 vhich brings tl)c EgyPtian n1astcrPiCces into 、n cad1c(lrals C0Π 1111union、 vith thc statues()f our。、

‘ thin the subject hl thc sT of both 10and 11,not° nly docs ΓEgyPte’ iaturc、・ Phrasc l)ut thc Ⅴcrbal Proccss itSClf is a Iuatcrial action onc '`scn△ antiC shift in thc TT of10tun】 s this acti° n intcntion ProccSS into Ⅵ hat simpson(1993∶ 89)

n° un

calls an action suPcrvcntion Process,that is、

vhcrc thc Pr° ccSS n1ay0ccur indcnd-

hilc,i1111,thc EgyPtian111astcrPicccS havc cntly ol thc vohti。 n ofd1e actor R/Ican、、 turncd from actor to goal and arc thus sccn as aCtcd uPon rathcr than as acting ’ Thc EuroPcan 【 arhan△ ent t1・ anslati。 ns arc not imn1unc s・。n△ thcsc (hscoursal shifts(f° r h1g cvi(lcncc, scc the exccllcnt analysis in Calzada P芯

rcz2001)

。f a sPcCch crnn1cnt’ s handhng of the dch、 crcd by a SPaniS11 A/1EP, critical ()f thc British goⅤ c11sis ovcr BsE (Bovi11c sPongif。 rm I三 nchaloPathy Or, n1ore P° Pularly, 、1ad Co、 Discasc)and thc Eur° Pcan conuuissiOn、 s allcgcd lack of6rnl1】 css in dCahng Vhcrcas thc Enghsh translation° f thc sPeech(lisPlays a nun1bcr 、 vith thc Iuattcr 、

A good cxamPlc is ProⅤ ided by thc Frcnch and Enghsh translations

。l cascs° f attcnuation affecting the t1ansitivity of Pr。 ceSsCs,thc Frcnch translation cxhibits a ccltain an1。 unt of intcnsincati。

n Thc cxamPlcs are PrCsCnted as 12~17

bclo、广

12 ST La suPcditacion dc las decisioncs Politicas a las Prcsj。 ncs econon1icas cn el Rcin。

unido csti cn cl origen dc la Pr。 blcn1idca inhcr~

entc a la EEB 爪 ∫T乃 e sub。 r山 ndhon犭 Po山 hcd′ dc0xIOns∞ ∝ onom丿 C Prcssurcs in油召辽 rhc Jo。 F ol rhc inhcrcnr Prob`cn2l・ l BsE J

1s dr

480

IAN MAsON TT Thc undcrlying Problcm 、 vith BsE is that pohtical dccisions have bccn sub° rdinatcd to cc° n° n1ic PrcSsurcs in the1Jnited Kingdom

13 sT N° sc ha llcvado a cab。 la crradicacion dc la cnfcrmcdad f「 Jlc σ口dic口 Fion刂 △为e山 seds召 h口 s nor becn c'川召d@ur rfirσ d`,,h口 s noF cdr” i∠

cd

scr。 u吵 J

Π Thc(liscasc has n° t bccn cradicated

14 ST No habr。 °tra soluci。 n quc Pcnsar quc la C。 dccisiones que Pucdcn Presentar ricsgos, ∫rJ,cre"iF`nor dd。

PFed d召

bc虿

cisJ° r,s

n° r为 er soF1Ι r1° n

n1isi。 n

ha ad。 ptad°

Fhdn ro b召 fi召 Γ召 Fh口 r rhc Con,il,ission乃 ds

whicf,cdn Pres召 nF rIsks J

TT The imPrcssion will inc呐 tably bc giⅤ en that thc C。

ml△ △ ission

has

adopted dccisions vvhich luay Prcscnt risks,

I5 sT La cnfcrmcdad sc°

rigin。 con la introducci。

n dc harinas dc carnc

Flc山 se虿 se b昭 dn″ 1rh rhc1nrr° d口 crion ofb° nc mc口 J丿

Fˉ

fˉ

TT Ccttc lnaladic est due岌

l’

intr° ducdon

dc%rines dc viandc,¨

∫「J,is discds召 is du召 ro Fhc inFrodtIcFion?∫ bone mc口 F`

16 sT[cl g° bicrno brit;nic°

l forzand° la adoPci。 n dc dccisioncs

crnmcnt … brong the adoPti。 n° f dc0si° ns] TT[lC g° uvcrncmcnt britanniquc 丬c° nt菹 gnant l’ Uni° n;adoPtcr IthC British GoⅤ

dcs docisions ∫Fhe Br1rJsh Corernf,,cnr

、forcinf

rhC tJr,i° nF° ddoPF dε cisionsJ

17sT Preguntarn。 s si no es cl m° mcnto dc quc la PAC(lcjc de ccntrarse solo en 丨 ] fds女 Fo s芒

°urscFvcs ri∠

is n。 r

oP conCε nrrd历 iaJ so庀

he J,,omcnF`/or r乃 ε

’on …

cG1P rComm。 n丬 JricuFFurd`P。

乃⒐ 丿

TT nous dcmander silc1η oment n’ est Pas vcnu dc ccsscr d’ axcr unique_ `

mcntla PAC sur⒈ f口

,,l

sk。 urscFΓ es rrfle历 z,,召

h虿 s

nor com召 ro xroP bdsin召

rh召

G1Ps。 /c,,on

AS Previ。 usly obscrⅤ cd,thc shifts rnay occur in a nun11)er。

… J

f diffcrcnt、 vays and

may,indiⅤ idual1y,bc° f httle signi⒔ cancc But thcy are mutually rcinf° rcing in that, 、 vithin a tcxt,thcy all go in the samc
i,,,s thc sub° rdinati° n

and rclcgatcs tllc uK△ om b。 n:ll’ art oO thC Actor tc,a CircumstanJal h13,tl△ e ST PrCsCnts an aCtion intcntion Process(、 vith an imphcd human agcnt hcld resP° n_ sil,lc f° r

thc8oal n° t bcing attalncd) In thC TT,it simPly allCgcd that the goal

has n。 t bccn attained In 14,the Enghsh translation(lclctcs thc goal。 (t°

whom is thc‘ imPrcssion’

f thc proccss

giⅤ cnP)an(l allows thc in、 rcncc that thc‘ imprcssion’

may bc unbⅡ unatc and eⅤ en%lse;in thc ST,howcvcr,thC Ⅴcrb‘ pcnsar’

(bcliCvC)

TRANSITIVIT′ Y AND INsTlTUTIONAL CULTUREs is accon1PaniCd by(lcOntic modahty(thc n° si°

ti°

481

n ofbcing obhged to reach thc c° nclu~

n)and associatcd、 vith an in△ phcd11uluan scnser~〖 us∷ ConⅤcrscly, thc Frcnch translation in 15 introduces direct causatlon(Cst duc

;/is duc t。 )and thus cnhanccs thc aCcusatory illocuti。

nary forcc,its forcc as a sPCcch

act that Perf° rn1s the acti° n of accusation,by luaking it cxPhcit・ ThC translation。

f

16adds a goal(Γ uni。 n)t° thC acti° n intcntion Pr。 cCss of‘ forcing’ ,thus cxPhcitly idcntil、 ˉ 1g the Et1rc,l)can tInion as thc vicdm。 fuK ε m∶ crnmcnt attion Flnally,in i】

cxamplc17,、 vhcrcas thc ST prcscnts thc CAP(C。 mn1。 n

Ag1・ icultural Policy)as actor in a Π1cntal ProccsS,thc TT makcs thc CAP thc goal of a matchal acti° n Pr°

ccss ′ vith an i111Phcd human actor In this 、 vay, the caⅡ

institutions bcc。 mcs morc dl1・ cct(i

k)1・ action by the Eu c itis timc忆 r us to stoP basing Policy solely

on

) The combincd cffcct。 f thesc various shifts is a subtle changc to thc Osten/iIson 1986)in tl`c translated tcxt,luaking thc criticisms l)1o rc si° n(sPerbCr and、、 °r lcss dircct than in the c。 rrCsPonding sT,

6 Conc1usions In gcncral,thc limitcd cvidcncc On、 vhich this study is l)ased suggests that,° Ⅴcrall, thc Eur° pcan Parliamcnt translations stay⒘ 疝rly dosc to thcir sTs.Tbc uNEsCO Cou】 icI translations cxhibit Ill。

re latitudc,、 vid1a In。 rc frequcnt incidcncc° f shifts

in transitiⅤ ity 、 Vithin this general trend, h° 、・ cⅤ cr, thCrc is a surPrising degrcc °f data Ⅵ,ith 。f variati。 n Cl° sc calqucs of sT transitivity co-cxist in both scts ra(lical shifts, inⅤ 。lvi11g jncrcascd di1ˉ cctness, attCnuati。 n, PcrS。 nahsati。 n a11d so 。n OccasionaⅡ y,a sct of shiRs with similar inten蚯 △ing° r attcnuating eⅢ ccts scrⅤ cs h。 lc tcxt η 冂1crc is, then, littlc to construCt a(]iscoursal shiR at thc lcvcl of thc vσ uniforlt1ity of Practice。 r cvidCncc。 f in∏ ucnce。 f institutional guidclincs° n trans-

lator behavi° ur Thc Ovcrriding imPrcssion is onc of translators eithCr adhcring as cl° sel)

as P。 ssiblc to thcir source tcxt or, in(larting6・ on) it, displayh1g traccs

vhich are prcscnt in thc of。 thcr discourses, faint echoes of ide° logical stanccs 、 cnvironmcnt(and、 vhich,by thcir Ⅴcry11aturc,arc transindividual),GiⅤ en thc11eaⅤ y use l11adc of sˉ cclance translators by b。 th institutions,this1nay n° t seelu surPrisin思

Yct thc Parhalncnt cxcrts Closc c。 ntrol oⅤ cr thc recruitlucnt of frcclanccrs and rc1najns rcsPonsiblC f0r quality control of all t1・

anslati° 1)s,UNEsCO,lncamⅥ hilc,

issucs practical guidchnes to thosc it cn11,loyS o1′ a frcclancc basis,A furthcr consid~ cration is thc、 aguencss of the gui(lclines issucd,thcir inhcrcnt c。 ntradicti° ns and thc qucsti。 nablc assun1Ptions

‘

1ucssa(:c’

°n Ⅵ1、 ich

s。

me conCts (‘ authCntic’

,

‘

accuratc`

9Ctc)are bascd Thc cⅤ idencc adduccd hcrc suggcsts that thc、 vholc issuc

of institutional culturcs of translating,in comPa11S°

n to thc trcatlncnt of transitlvity

by translat。 rs,is、vorth) of iu。 re systcn1atic cxPloration,across a range ofinstitu~

tions and languagc pairs

Chapter 32

Lawrence Venuti

TRA NSLATION'COM M U NITY'UTOPIA

Langua:e is a rosit。 ry of ancicnt errors

and a trcasury of Potential

truths,

Jean-JacquCS Lecerclc

An antinomy in thcOry Ⅴ EN

THOuGH No oNE seemsbkelvt°

dcnv that communication is E thc Primdy alm tlrld hncd。 n of a tlanslatcd text,tclday wc泸 c%r iom thinkln8 that translating is a siIη inf° rmed

Ple conununicative act In contcmPorary translati。 n thc° ry

by Contincntal Phil°

s。 phical

traditions such as cxistcntial Phcn。

mcn。 logy

and PoStStructurahsln, languagc is constitutivc of thought, and meaning a sitc of n△

ultiPlc(lCtCrn1inati。 ns,s° that translation is readily sccn as inⅤ esting thc forcign~

languagc tcxt、 vith a domcstic signihcancc(scc,f° this

r cxamPlC,HCidcggcr1975,LcⅥ is

Ⅴolume, Bcnjan1in 1989). Translauon ncⅤ cr co∏ 11nunicatcs in an untroublcd

;;1fT∶ 〗秽毙 lJ|△ ;:虫占圭 (抵庄 : (拄变凇irT崴扌 f熙 λ ￡ t:y∶ 点 F(渫找廴 f ∶ f∷ ∷ l∶;∶

:刂:∶ 1nl讠 |丨 :fⅠ {∶

:∶

;讠 l∶ t【

,s&【 l∶

is totahzing, cⅤ cn if nevcr total, ncⅤ cr sean11css。 r⒔nal It can bc said to° 2000/'evised 2oo4

Pcrate

TR苎 ANsLATION`

COMMUNITY` UTOPIA

483

in every、 vord of thc translation l。 ng beforc thc translatcd tcxt is furthcr Pr°

by readers, madc t。 bcar other d。 mcstic mcanings and t。

scrⅤ c

cessed

Othcr domestic

intcrests seen as don△ cstic inscriPtion,ncⅤ cr quitC cr° ss-cultural con11nunicatiom,trans-

lation has m° vcd thc° rists brmul敲

t0、 Vards an cthical reflection 、 vhcrcin remcdies are cd tc,K虻 0re or PⅡ SC"c thC bre唿 nncss ofthc忆 m唿 n text(sCc,忆 r exam~

unters Ple, BCrn1an, this volumc, and Venuti 1995, 1998) Yet an cthics that c。 the domcsticating cffccts of thc inscriPtion can only bc f° rmulatcd and Practiccd Prin1arily in domcs芒 iC tCrms,in domestic dialccts,rcgistcrs,discourses,and styles And this rncans that thc linguistic and cultural direrenccs ofthc f° bc signallcd indirectly,by their disPlacement in the translati°

diffcrencc introduced into

rcign text can only

n,thr° ugh a domestic

Ⅴalucs and institutions at home This ethical attitude is

thcrcf° rc siluultancOus、 vith a Pohtical agcnda∶ thc d° mcstic of the inscriPtion

bccomc the focus° frcvcriting in thc translation,discursivc stratcgics、 vhcre thc hicr_ :alucs in thc (l。 mcstic culturc arc disarrangcd to sct 8oing archics that rank thc 、 Pr。 cCsSCs of dCfan△

iharization,canon rcforIuation,idcol。 gical critiquc,and institu-

tional changc /`translat° r may Hnd that thc Ⅴcry conct of thC domcstic mcrits intcrrogation f° r its conccaIlaacnt。 f hctcrogcnCity and hybridity、

vhich can comPh-

catc cxisting stcrcotyPcs,can。 ns,and standards aPphCd in translati。 n /hcn n1° dvatcd by this cthical Pohtics。 f(liffcrcncc, thc translat。 r seeks to 、、 build a comn1unity、 vith forcign culturcs, to sharc an understanding、 vith and of thcm and to c。 llal)。 ratc on ProjCcts hunded on that understanding,going so hr as :it to rcvisc and(lcⅤ cl° alues and institutions Thc Ⅴery imPulse to all。 Ⅵ P(l。 mestic Ⅴ to seek a community abroad suggests that thc translator 、 vishcs t。 cxtcnd or

complctc a Particular d。 mcstic situation, to compcnsatc f。 r a dcfcct in thc trans~ lating languagc and litcrature,in thc translating culture As Maurice Blanch。 t ar8ues, thc vcry n。 tion。 fc° n11nunity ariscs、 Ⅴhcn an insuf丘 ciency Puts indiⅤ idual agcncy int。

qucstion(Blanch。 t1988∶ 56) ThC cthicaⅡ y and Pohtically m° tivated translat。

r

cannot faⅡ to see the laCk° f an cqual f。 oting in the translation proccss,stilnulatcd

by an intcrcst in the foreign, but incscapably leaning to、

vards the recePtor ThiS

translator kn0、 ˉ s that translations ncver simPly communicatc f°

rcign tcxts bccausc

thcy makc P° ssil)lc Only a domCsticatcd undcrstanding,hoxxcⅤ er much defan1ihar~ izcd,h° 、・ cvcr much subvcrsiⅤ e or ivC of the don1cstic In thc abscnce of crOss~cultu1ˉ al comn1unicau。 n11na;:cctcd bⅤ d。 n】 cstic intclli~ Ⅴhat kinds of c。 n△ munitics can translation P。 ssil)ly fostcrP 8ibilitiCS and intcrcsts, 、 XVhat con11nunitics can bc bascd 。n thc domcstic inscriPtion of the f° rcign that hn1its and rcdirccts thc c。 mmunicativc airn of translationP

Con△ 1nunication in translation In thc 1970s, thc f° rmahst thc° rist Gideon T° urⅤ tried to dc丘 nc translati。 n as a CoΠ 1FnuniCatiⅤ c act、vhilc ackn° 、 dcd8ing thc domcstic valucs that con1c into Play, the tar:ct n。 rms that constrain co∏ 11uunication,Translation,hc、 is comΙ l,unicdFion Jn rrtins′ drCd mcss口

vr° tc,

cs VVithin a ccrtain cultural lin8uiStic

召

systcIn,witb all rdcⅤ ant c。 nscqucnccS龙 r thc dcc。 mPosidon of thc

484

LAⅥ /RENCE

∨ EN

UTI

source1ncssagc,thc cstabhshment°

f the invariant,its transfer acr°

ss thc

cultural-hnguistic border and thc rcc。 mPositi° n° f thc targct Fnessagc (T。 ury1980∶

“

Thc cstabhshmcnt。

f thc invariant’

17;his cmPhasis)

n11munication in translati。 n is de丘 ncd as

` if c。 thc transn△ ission of an inⅤ ariant, docsn’ t thc Ⅴcry nccd to cstabhsh thc inⅤ

ariant

mean that translating docs somethln8m。 rC and PCrhaPS。 tbCr than communicateP Thc s° urcc mcssagc is alxxays intcrprcted and rcinvcntcd, csPecially in cultural forms oPen to intcrpretation, such as literary texts, Phil°

sophical trcatiscs,

subtithng,advcrtising copy,confcrcncc Papcrs,legal testim°

ny I△ o、Ⅴcan the sourcc

mcssagc cⅤ cr bc inⅤ ariant ifit undcrgocs a Pr。 ceSs。 f“ cstabhshmcnt’ ’in targct lan8uage and cultur It is al、

⒔l1n

‘

a‘ ccrtain”

.ays rcc。 nstructed acc° rding to a diffcrcnt sct

°f valucs and al、 Ⅳays variablc according to different langua思 es and culturcs T° ury ultiInatcly rcckoncd、 Ⅴith thc ProblCm 。fc。 mmunicauon by sidestPing it altogcd△ cr: hc shiftcd thc cmphasis a、 vay from cxPl° ring an equiⅤ alcncc bct、 vccn thC translation and thc forcign tcxt and instcad f° cuscd° n thc acctabⅡ ity ofthc trans~ lati° n in thc targct culturc, Thinking about thc f° rcign is thus prccmptcd in faⅤ ° r of rcscarch that dcscribcs domcstic cultural n° rms But lct’

s Pursuc this prccmptcd hnc of cnquiry. What formal and thcmatic

fcaturcs° f a forcign noⅤ cl,f° r instancc,can bc dcscribcd as invariant in thc translati° n

Pr° cCSs? Sincc canons of accuracy vary according to culturc and hist。 rical

momcnt, de丘

niti° ns

of、 Ⅴhat c。 nstitutes the inⅤ ariant、 vill likcⅥ hse Ⅴary Lct’ s ask

thc qucsti° n of currcnt translation PracticCS Today,translators。

f novcls int。 lllost

lan8uages scck to maintain unchangcd thc l)asic clemcnts of narratiⅤ e form Thc :ritten to altcr Plot isn’ t re、 actions is dclctcd。 r rcⅤ ised acters’

cvcnts or thcir scqucnce, And none°

f the charactcrs’

Datcs,historical and gcograPhical rnarkers,thc char~

names~cvcn whcn d)c names are rathcr comPhcatCd and fclreign sounding

~ these arc gcncrally not altercd

°r 。nly in rarc cascs (c,g, Russian namcs) Contcmporary canons of accuracy are based on an adcquacy to thc foreign text∶ an accuratc translation of a noⅤ cl rnust n° t only reProducC thc basic clemcnts°

f narra~

u:hly thC same number of Pagcs, In 1760, h° 、 vcvcr, Abb忐 Pr誉 Ⅴost clai1ned that accuracy governcd his Frcnch Ⅴcrsion of samucl Richards° n’ s Pdmcrd cⅤ cn th。 ugh hc rcduccd the seven En:hsh “ Ⅴ。lun△ cs t。 four in French I havc not changcd anything Pcrtaining to thc auth° r’ s tivc f° rn、 but sh° uld do so in r°

intention`’ thc Abb。 asscrtcd,“ nor haⅤ c I changcd much in thc rnanncr in、

’

Ⅴhich

hc

Put that intcntion into、 vords’ (LCfCvCrc 1992a: 39) To us, such statcmcnts don’

t

merely substitute a(hffcrcnt canon of accuracy (foundCd on notions ()f authorial intcnti°

n and stylc); d・ ey alSo sccm t0 CXcccd thc vcry gcnrc of translati° n

Pr忐 vost’

s tCXt involvcd abridgcmcnt and adaPtation as、

ⅤeⅡ

In currcmt Practiccs, a translation of a novcl can and must con11nunicatc thc basic clcmcnts of narratiⅤ c stⅡ l n。 t

f° rrn

that structurc thc f° reign langua:c tcxt But it is

truc that thcse elcmcnts arc frcc f⒈ on1variation Any language use is likely

to Vary飞 hc standard dialcct by samPhng a(liⅤ crsity of subStandard。 rn△ in° rf° rma-

tions:rcgional。 r grouP dialCctS,jargons,chch芑 s and slogans,styhstic innovations, archaisms,neolo要 sms Jean Jacques Lccσ dc∞ lls thcse varhtions thc“ lem汪 nder” bccausc dacy cxccCd c° n1111unication of a univocal rncaning and instcad dra、 u。n t。 the c。 nditi° ns

v attcn-

ofthe c° n1Inunicative act, conditions that arc in thc

⒔rst

TR‘

ANsLATION` COMMUNITY` U TOPIA

485

instancc hnguistic and cultural, but that ultilnatcly cmbracc social and P° htical

fadors(LccCrdc1990) ThC rcm缸 ndcr

in htcrary tt,xtsis muCh morc comPlict△

n198⒈ 140-1),

as wdl as PrcsCnt lJamcs°

Any c° Ⅱ)rnunication thr° ugh translating, thcn, d。 mcstic

tc(l,

urscs,PaSt

°f coursc,usually a scdirncntation of formal clcmcnts and gcncric disc。、 vill

inⅤ olⅤ c

the release of a

rcmaindcr,cspccially in the case° f htcraturc Thc foreign textis rcvvrittcn

in d。 mestic dialccts and disc。 urscs, rcgistcrs and stylCs, and this rcsults in thc

ˉ 阝 odttmon o± tcxttlal c腚 ∝s th波蚯p心

ˉ thC rc画 “吒 lallguagc and culturc,Thc translat° r may Producc thcsc cffccts to c。 Π

od” n

thC hi丈 o”

o±

tcXt, trying to inⅤ cnt domestic analogucs for f° rci8nf° rms rcsult vvⅡ bⅡ itics

l al、

`1nunicate the forcign

and thcmcs But thc

Ⅴays go bcyond any communication to rclcasc targct-orientcd P°

ssi~

of rncaning

el,DecFd'es Pc'eird,Patrick Considcr a rcccnt Enghsh translati° n ofan Itahan n° Ⅴ Crcagh’

s 1995 Ⅴcrsion °f Antonio Tabucchi’

s sosFicnc PereⅠ

rd (1994), Crcagh’

Enghsh consists mostly of thc currcnt standard dialcct But hc cultiⅤ

s

atcd a noticc_

ablc strain of coll° quiahsm that s。 mctin1cs vcCrs into undcrvv。 rld argot, Hc

‘ rcndcrcd ‘ taccva”

’

) as

‘ ‘

’“

‘ f° ur (‘ “ mcn with a sinistcr air” )as“ bur shadyˉ lookng characters,” stare con gh occhi ’ ‘ “ ‘ apcru” stay、 vith your cycs oPcn’ ) as‘ kc your cycs pcclcd/’ un PCrs。 naggio “ dcl rcglmc” C%丘 gurc in thc rc垫 mC” )as“ hgw唿 sCn⒛ p诬要am矿 (“ with° ut (“ g° t。 slceP勹 as“ bCddy and′ aa(lc,rm沁 c” as hn hiS b订 tllday stllt,” Pyjam灬 → (“ silCnt’

gaggcd,’

quattr° uon1ini dall’ aria sinistra”

(‘

,”

13, 19,43, 73, 108, 196; Crcagh 1995: 5, 9, 25,45, 67, 127).Crcagh also mixcd in s。 llle distincuvcly Br⒒ lsh words and Phrascs He

bycs” (TabucclⅡ 1994∶

“ una cr⒒ ica molto ncgatiⅤ 矿 Ca ’ ‘ little b° arding house’ )as“ httlC Ⅴ cry negatiⅤ c criticisl△ )aS“ slating/’ Pcnsi。 ncina” ’ “ ‘ ’ ’ “ 叮lu in troublc” )as“ Γrn jn a pick1c氵 Parlano” thCy doss~h° use/’ sOno nci guai’ ’ to takc a dekk° ”(Tabucchi 1994∶ ‘ ’ ‘

rcndcrcd“ orrcn(lo”

(“

horr山 lc勹 as“ bl。 ody awhl,”

’

“

(‘

l’

(‘

(‘

talk’

)as“ nattcr/’ and‘ a vcdcrc”

(‘

t°

look’

)as“

80, 81,84, 104, 176; Crcagh 1995: 50, 51, 54,64, 115) Within Parcnthescs I havc inserted altcrnatiⅤ c rcndcrings to highlight thc rangc and inⅤ cntiⅤ eness of Crcagh’ s translating, The altcrnatiⅤ cs should n° t bc rcgardcd

as someho、 i

rn。

rc accuratc than his ch° iccs In cach casc,b。 th rcndcrings estabhsh

n~ 思raPhical Cquivalcnce,a si1nilarity to the Ita1ian tcxt Consistent、 vith clicti° ary dc6niti° ns Crcagh’ s choiccs c。 ∏11nunicatc mcanings that can be callcd ’ ‘ ‘ a lcxic。

inⅤ ariant’

only insofar as thcy arc rcduccd to a basic1ucaning sharcd by l)oth thc

Itahan and thc Enghsh rl,l.lDwσ σ,xa"Cs ths mcaI△ l℃ ,Tl△ C Ⅴ a11ation mi吵 t be CrCa型 rs订 anu耐。 ‘ ’ shift’ as that c° nct has bccn(lcvcloPcd in translati。 n studics sincc thc

callcd a‘

1960s(see,for cxamPlc,Cat忆 “11965;Blt】 m~Kulka th“ volumc;Toury1995) If Crcagh’ s En思 hsh is juxtaPoscd to Tal冫 ucchi’ s Italian, lcxical shiRs can indccd l)c dctcctcd, shiRs in registcr fron△

dlc current standard(lialcct。

f Itahan t。

my qucrics,

colloquial dialccts in British and A1ncrican Enghsh In resPonsc t。 Crcagh adn1ittcd that“

s°

vari。 us

mc Phrascs arc luorc colloquial in Enghsh than in Itahan/’

lnaking clcar that his shifts arc n° t rcquircd by structural diffcrcnces bct、 vccn thc tˇ v°

languages, but rathcr motiⅤ atcd by litcrary and cultural ailus:

‘ ‘ I even ’

Crcagh stated,“ t° usc° nly idioms that vvould haⅤ e bcen currcntin1938,’

°fthe

‘

n° vcl,‘ and to hand thcm t° thc right sPcakCr,t。

enccs bctwccn thc charactcrs”

tried/’

thc Pcri°

lnakc shght hnguistic differ~

(PerSOnal coⅡ csp0n(lcncc∶

8Dcccml)cr1998)

d

486

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTl Yct the n。 tion of a sh"td。 cs n。 t cntirely dcscribc the tcxtual effccts sct

εoing

by Crcagh’ s choiccs ⒈ 】 is translation signiflcs beyond his litcrary and cultural intcn~ tions by rclcasing a l)ccuha1ˉ ly Enghsh rc1uaindcr∶

∶

thc(li∏ 辶rcnt dialccts and1・

gcncric distinctions,Tabucchi’ s novclis a l)ohtical thrdlc∫ dictat。

cgiste1・ s

ns In tcrms 。f

cstabhsh a rclation t。 Enghsl` litcrar) stylcs, genrcs^ and traditi°

sct undcr thc P。 rtugucsc

r'\ntonio de C)hvchˉ a salazar,it rccounts h。、 Ⅴ。nc Percira,thc aging cultural

cdit。 r° f a Lisb。 n nc、广 sPaPCr,is slo、

1y radicahzcd oⅤ cr a fc、・Ⅵ:CCkS``hich chmax

、 vhcn he Prints an attack on thc f`scist rcgin1c Crcagh’ S Polyhngual luixturc 。f standard and c。 lloquial,British and Amcrican,gi、 cs his Pr° sc an cxtrcn1cly c。 sational quahty that is consistent xs=ith Tabucchi’ Pcreira’ s narrativc takcs an° ral f。 rn1,an of丘

n、

cr~

s prcsentation of thc thriller Pl。

t∶

cial tcstilnony to an unnanlcd authority

(hCncC the curi。 us titlc) Yet thc Slang) Enghsh also altcrs thc charactcrization

。f

Pcrcira l,y suggcsting that11c is lcss stai(l and l)c1ˉ

haPs)oungcr than thc clderly

journahst l冫 CsCntCd in thc Itahan tcxt 1ˉ

At thc same dmc,thc BⅡ tish and American slang rckrs to molllcnts in thc hist°

ry of Enghsh languagc⒔ ction, It rccalls thrillcrs that address shnilar Pohtical

tllcmcs,n° t小 Ⅱ su山 llc,wls° fG涮1am Grccne灬刀2c Coi,ndc,,rI口 F=1Jcnr(1939), 、、 ich,hkc Tabucchi’ s,is sct(luring the sPanish civⅡ XlVar and inⅤ 。lves an attcmPt 1】

aid the Rublican si(lc against Franco By virtuc of this htcrar) rcfcrcnce, cadcr t。 (listi11guish l)ct、 ⅤCCn Tabucchi’ Creagh’ s translati。 n in ci￡ect inⅤ itcs thc】 ˉ

t°

lcRwing oPPosition to hscism an(l Grccnc’

1996: 180 1) Grccnc sa、 v11is ‘

s

sm。 rc cautious hl)cralism(DiCmcrt

‘

thrⅡ lcrs as‘ cntcrtainments’

’

cngagcd in social and

Pohtical issues,designcd‘ not to Changc things but to giⅤ e thcn、 cxPreSsion” (`llain 1983∶ 81) The linguistic rcscmblanccs bct、 `ccn Crcagh、 s transladon and Grccnc’ s n。 Ⅴ cl

highhght thc idcological diffcrenccs that(listinguish Tabucchi’

trcatn△

cnts of thc samc historical cvcnt,

s and Grccnc’

s

Thus,ald1()ugh Crcagh’ s tlanslatiou caI1be said to conlmunicatc d1c rt)rm and

tbcn1e。 f Tabucchi’ sn° vcl, ncithcr of thcsc fcaturcs c`capes thc、 a1ˉ iations introduccd by t11c inscriPtion。 fan Eng⒈ sh languagc rcmaindcr Thc rcmai11dcr d。 es not just inscril)c a don1cstic set oflh`guistic and cultural differenccs in thc∫

orcign text,

but supPhes thC loss。 fthc f。 rcign lan:uagC(liffc1ˉ cnccs、 vhich c。 nstitutcd that text

Thc loss °ccurs, as Alasdai1ˉ ‘

‘ ‘

lNIacIntvrc has obscrⅤ cd, bccausc in anv

tradition~

bcaring con1n1unity” thc 1anguagc-i11-usc is closcly ticd to thc cxPrcssion of thc

‘

sharcd bchc人。f that tradition/’ and this ε ivcs a‘ historical chmcnsion”

to languagcs

、ˉ hich 。Rcn ⒒⒒ls tO survivc thc translatlng Pr° ccss (MacIntyrc 1988∶

384)

N1acIntyre argucd that this Pr。 blCn1。 f untra11slatability is n10st acutc、 1th“ thc intcr_

nationah'cd languagcs in~usc i11 1atc t、 vcnticth-ccntury 111odcrnity,’

’

likC English,

、ˉ hich“ havc1△ 1inilnal PresuPP。 siti。 ns in resPcct of P。 Ssil)|y riⅤ al bchef systcms” and ‘ so Ⅴ 。ll‘ neut1ˉ ahze” thc hist。 rical(hmcnsi° n of thc forcign tcxt(ibid,) In Enghsh translation,thcrclorc, a kind of tcxt xxˉ hich cann。 t be rcad as Fl,c rc、 F jr js out of

contcxt1s

rcndcring it, it

is turncd

ncⅤ crtheless

rendcrcd contcxtlcss, But in s。

into a tcxt、VhiCh is no longcr thc author’ s,n° r such as、 nizcd bⅤ thc audiencc t0、 Ⅴ hom

voukl bc rccogˉ

it、 as addressed (ibi〈

l: 385,MacI11tyrc’

s

cml)11asis)

TRΛ

NSLATION` COM MUN1TY` UTOPIA

487

CrCa思 h’ s translati° n at oncc inscril冫 Cd an Enghsh-langua:c cultural history in 1âbucchi’ s noⅤ cl and disPlaccd thc historical dirncnsion of thc Itahan tcxt This tcxt

°ccuPiCs a Placc in a narratiⅤ c tradition that includcs rcsistancc novcls during and

nd、 V° dd、 Ⅴar,as wcll as noⅤ cls al)° ut hk undcr hscisrn,Albcrto ’ MorcaⅤ ia’ s刀 corlformisε 口 (1951;「 fle Co,,/orm^r),hr instancc,and Gior妒 oB灬 sa血 s a⒒ cr

F′

J】

thc Sec°

″山n。 d。 F,n为 ~Conrini(1962;「 llc Gdrdcn ofr乃 c凡 nz立

Italian 11ist。

1・

y ContaiI1s a fascist traditiO11 ensuI・

C。 n冖 n^),Tllt’

Ⅴcry h哎

tlltat

ccl that Tabucchi’ s rca(lcrs 、 v° uld

undcrstand the salazarist regin1e in distinctivcly Itahan tcrn△

s,not n△ crcly as an allu_

sion to Muss° hnrs(hctat。 rshiP,but as an allegory of currcnt cvents sosFicne Pcrcirtz “as Ⅵ!rittcn in 1993 and PubhshCd thc f。 llo、 ving ycar, 、 vhcn a ccntcr-right coah~ ,ith thc clcction、・ ictory of sⅡ Ⅴio Berlusc° ni’ s Forza Itaha tion gaincd P° 、∷ cr in Italy、 Λ ‘ ho(lidn’ tl。 vc thc Itahan lll oVCn1Cnt As Tabucchi hil△ △ sclf sakl of his noⅤ cl,‘ th° sc、・ liucal situation took it as a symbol of rcsistancc【 °m wit11in” (Co“ onCo199⒌ 105,rny translatiOn) InvCsted、 :ith this Pccuharly Itahan siε niHcancc,sosricnc Pcrcircz

P。

k1 300,000coPies、 vithin a ycar。 f pubhcati。 n Although hvorabIy recei、・ cd by Britis11an(lAn1crican rc、 =ic、 Ⅴ s,CrCagh’ s trans lati。 n hardly bccame a bcstscllCr 、 Vithin t、 v。 yCars of Pubhcation thc Amcrican cdition Pubhshed by Nexx E)irections sold 5,000 c° Pics Crcagh maintained a lcxic。 vas insuf⒖ cient 8raPhical cquiⅤ alcncc, l)ut thc I・ cmaindcr in his translation 、 s。

c1・

to rcstorc thc cultural and Pohtical hist。 ry that n1adc thc noⅤ cl sO rcsOnant Ior Ita⒈

an rcadcrs,as、 :cll as rcadcrs in othcr EuroPcan countrics vvith si1nilar historics,

such as sPain・

ConⅡ munication through inscriPtion Can a translation evcr con△ n△ unicatc to its rcadcrs thc undcrstanding of thc forcign tCxt that foreign readers haⅤ Ycs, I、 vant to arguC,but this co∏ 1Inunication、 ill al、

ays be Partial, b。 th inc。

n】

l,lctC and ineⅤ itably slantcd tovcards thc d。 mcstic

scene It occurs 。nlⅤ 、 vhcn thc d。 mcstic rcmaindcr rclcascd bⅤ thc translation includcs an inscriPtion。 fthc f° rcign contcxt in、 vhich thc tcxt nrst c1ncrgcd

Thc龙 rm。 fc。 mmunication菠 work hcrc is sccon(l or(lcr,built uPα 1btlt Signi~ ng t 冖勹 bCy° 11cl a lcⅩ ic° graPhcal cqmⅤ alcncc,cncoming but cxcccdlng wh【 △ 、Valtcr BcllJamh caⅡ ed`nR)rmat0n” or“ sublect matttj・ F(BC巧 amin ths v。 lumc)

“

TmI1slati° ns dnt tarc more than tlansmis蚯 ons of mlDlcct mcltttxr,”

Bclllamin wrottA,

“

comc into bcing`vhcn in thc c° ursc of its surviⅤ al a xs。 ork has rcachcd thc age of ‘ its f`ln c” I understand thc term‘ famc” to mean thc ovcrall rcction。 f a litcrary text,not only in its。、 Ⅴn languagc and culturc,but in thc languagcs of the cultures

that haⅤ c transhted“ ,and not only tlac ju(蟪 mcllts of κⅤ ic、 Ⅴ crs【△ t homc and abroad, but thc interPretations of htcrary historians and critics and thc imagcs that an intcr-

nationally hmous tcxt may comC to bCar in° thcr cultural忆 rms and pratticcs, both chtc and mass ``translati。

n。 fa忆 rcign novcl can c° mmunicatc,not sin△ Ply

dictionary mcanings,not sil11Ply thC basic clcmcnts of narratiⅤ c forn1,but an inter_ PrCtati° n

that ParticiPates in its

“ Potentially ctcrnal aRcrhfc i11 succecding

generations” And this intcrPrctation can bc onc that is sha1・ languagc rcaclcrs忆 r wh°m thc tcxt was Writtcn Thc translati。

cd by d1c f° reign_

ˉ

n will then± t,stcr a

488

LAⅥ /RENCE

∨ ENUTI

con1n1on undcrstanding xxith and of thc lorei:n cultu1ˉ c, an understanding that in

— althouJ) f° r don1cstic Part restorcs the historical contcxt of the f° rcign text rcadcrs

Takc, 凡r cxamPlc, Camus’ s novd I△ 红r￠ nJc厂 (1942),AS Camus himsclf ackn。、 vledgcd, the Pecuharitics° f stylc, Plot,and charactcrization that distinguish thc F1・ cnch

tcxt 、

`/erc (lcriⅤ

cd iom Amcrican ⒔ction

ccntury,csPecially thc、 Ⅴriting of Erncst Hcn1ingⅥ b。 ilcd or t。

du1・ ing thc cal・ ly t、、 =cnticd)

ày,but1n°

rc8cnCrally thc hard-

ugh guy pr° se of writcrs hkc JamcS M Cain,Thc styliStic炙 aturcs。 f

r, makC this intcrtcxtual c° nnection sFrt,n召召 r thc Enghsh丬 an8uagc rcadcr much m° re c"cCtively than Stuart Gilbert’ s 1946

Matthc、v Ward’ s 1988translation, Tf,召 f°

vcrsion, The dif1orcnces arc aPParCnt°

n the oPCni11g Pagc∶

A叼 ourd’ h血 ,maman e呲 mo⒒ c Ou Pcut&re hicr,jc ne sals p洲 ,J’ 西 ‘ ‘ ∶ u unt〈 ∶∶ gralnlne de l’ asilc: M〈 re d造 ctidoc, Enterrcment dcmain scntin1cnts(hstingu忐 s” Ccla ne、 =eut ricn(hrc C’ 志tait pcut-:trc hicr, L’ asilc dc vicⅡ lards cst Δ N1arcngo, ⒊quatrc~Ⅴ ingts kjlom志 trcs

rC~;∶

|l〈

:∶

Alger Jc Prcndrai l’ aut。 bus⒊ dcux heures ctj・ arrivcrai dans l’ aPr心 s~ midi Ainsi,jc pourral vcillcr ct jc rcr1tlcrai dem菹 ns° ir,J’ “dcmand。 d’

deux jours(lc con思忐吝n1。 n patron ct il nc P° uvait lDas n1c lcs refuscr avcc unc cxcusc Pareillc M“ s il n’ tlx甜 tp灬 a△ content Jc lui“ m爸 mc dit:“ Cc n’ cst Pas de1na hutc” Il n’ a pas roPondu J’ ai PCns。 alors quc jc n’ aurais Pas dG ltll(lire ccla En sommc,jc n’ avais pas;m’ cxcusc1・ sCntcr scs Condol芑 ances Nl【 ais il le fc1・ a sans C’ otait Plut♂ t⒊ lui (lc lD1ˉ 忐 doute aPr。 s^dcmain,quand ilrnc Ⅴerra cn dcud P° ur lc n10n1cnt,c’ est l’

,

un pcu con11nc si Ina11△ an n’ otait PaS m° rtc. APr。 contrairc,cc scra unc affairc class。

sI’ cntcrrcmcnt,

au

ct tout aura1・ cⅤ ♂ tu unc allure PluS

。f6cicllc, (Can9us1942∶ 1) M° thcr dicd today (Dr,rnaybe,ycstcrday;I can’ t bc sure Thc telegram ⒒om the Homc saⅤ s∶ YOUR rⅦ OTHER ED A、 VAY FUNERAL TOMORRo、 V DEEPsYMPATHY 、Vhich lea、 es thc matter dot11)tfttl; it could haⅤ c bccn ⅤcstcrdaⅤ The Homc for Aged PersOns is at Ma1・ cngo,s° me sRy miles i° m rith the t、 v。。’ Algicrs,、、 cl。 ck bus I shoukl gct thcrc、 ⅣcH l)cf。 rc nightfall Then I can spcBd the11ight thertˉ

,keing thc usual、 igd bcsidc the

body,and bc back hcrc t。 n△ orro“ cⅤ cning I havc⒔ xcd uP、 vid)my emPloycr for t、厂。 days’

lcaⅤ c; obviously, undcr thc circumstanccs,hc c° uldn’ t rchsc still,I had an idca hc l。 okcd annoycd,and I said,、 Ⅳithout thinking:“ sorry,sir,but it’ sn。 tn1y fault, v。 u

’

kn° 、∷

ARcr、 ards it struck lnc I nccdn’ t havc said that I had no1^cason to excusc myscl凡

it、 vas

Pr° bably hc、 Ⅴ ill

d°

uP to hirn to cxPrcss his SyIη

Pathy and so forth

so thc day aftcr t。 n1。 rro、v,vvhCn hc sccs rne in black

For the PrcsCnt,it’ s alrnost asif Mother、 vcrcn’ t rcally dcad,The funeral xi・

ill bri11git home tO I11C,put an ofEcial seal on it,s。

to spcak (Gilbc欣

1946:1-2)

TR^NsLATION` COM M UNITY` UTOPIA

489

v I got a tclcgrarn ˇIaman(lied t。 day (Dr ycstcrday n1aybe,Id° n’ t kn。、 “ om thc homc∶ ~】 other deccased Funcraltom。 rroⅥ /,FaithfullⅤ Ⅴ。urs”

sˉ

That docsn’ t lucan anyd讧 ng,A/Iaybc it、 'as yestcrday, The° ld Pe。 Plc’ sh。 mc is atˇ Iarengo,about ci8hty kilomctcrs from Algicrs I、 ll take thc t、、。o’ cloCk l,us and gct thcrc in thc aRcrnoon

That、 vay I can bc thcre f° r thc vigil and c。 mc back tom° rr° 、 night I askcd n1y boss for t、、o days o″ and thcrc xxras no vvay l】 c was going to refusc n1e、 vith an cxcusc likc that But hc、 cven sai(l,‘ sh。 uldn’

‘

It’

vasn’

t too haPPy ab。 utit I

s notl11y fault” Hc didn’ t say anyt11ing 1ˉ hcn I thought I

t havc said that Altcr aⅡ , I didn’ t havc anyt11in8t。 aP。 Iogizc

for Hc’ s the。 nc、 vho shoul(J have° ffcred his c° ndolenccs But hc Prob_ :, 、 t dcad ARer thc funcral,th° ugh,the casc it’ s al△ n。 st asif Maman wcrcn’ will bc dosed,and cvcrytbing v。 ll havc a】 uorc omcial、 cl t。 it

ably、 vⅡ l day aRcr ton10rro、 v,飞 Ⅳhcn hc sces I’ rn in Ilaou1ˉ ning For no、

(Ward1988:3) Thc Enghsh in bod1vcrsio11s is cast in a fairly c°

Ⅱ。quial rcgister,but° ncc thcy arc

juxtaposcd,thc differcnccs bcgin to Pr°

Gilbert translatcd icely,Hc ad(lcd

、 Ⅴ 。rds

‘

li炙 ratc

for clari⒔ cati° n,cxPanding‘ jc Pou1ˉ ai veillcr” 1ˉ

(“

I shall bc able t° kceP vigil”

into“ I can spcnd thc night thcrc,keing thc usual vigil bcside thc b。

and soRcncd thc abruptncs:ofthc Frcnch phrasi11g,turnin思

“

dy'’

I△

e rcⅤ

)

iscd

Ccla nc vcut rien dirc”

’ ‘Vhich lcaⅤ cs thc lnattcr doubtfu1,” And hc C‘ That does not lncan anything’ )into‘ Ⅴ ’ vcd his pr° se`vith a for1uahty and Pohtcncss,rcndering“ n1aman” as“ Mothcr,’ cnd。、

“

‘

Patl^c)n” m)′

‘

and‘ Cc n’ cst Pas dC lua fautc”

as‘ cn△ PloyCr/’

fault, you kn0、

v,”

‘

as‘ sorry, sir, but it’

s not

Ward,in sharP contrast,translatcd closcly I1c rr° duccd

thc lcxical and syntactical Pecuharitics of thc Frcncb, darting Fron1 Gilbe1・ t not only l)y luaking choices likc‘

‘

‘

‘ ‘

’

That doesn’ t1η can anything,’

bricf, Prccisc sCntences∶

by adhcring to Camus’ s ’“ It’ s not n1y fault” As a

N1alnan” and‘ b。 ss,’ but als。

rcsult, Ward endo、、ed his Pr。 se 、△th a I;miharity and(lirectncss Whcrc Gill)ert rcsorted to phrascs hke“

’

t、

vo(lays’ lcave”

(“

ha、

”

),“ Homc

ft〉 r Agcd

Ⅴ leillⅣ ds勹 ,ancl“ I11ad n。 eason tl,cxCuse mysdr C、 cn’ Js ‘v° (lays off,” “ ’and‘ ‘ ΔΠ exc’ ’ sh° mcΓ I didn・ old PcoPlc’ t ), Ward uscd‘

Poˉ s()ns” (η asilc dc

pas

deux j。 urs dc c。 ng。

t、

1’

e anything to aPoloε

t、 :0、

ax・

tˉ

izc R冫 r”

、 Vard hin1sclf descril)cd thc(liffcrcncc bctxxˉ ccn thc ‘ ’

crsions as dialecta⒈ he callcd Gilbcrt’ sa“ Britannic’ rcnderin8,’ and saxx his

own as“ 思iving thc text a morc‘ AΠ1erican’

quality”

(、

Vard1988:v-Ⅴ i) And、 Vard

knexs that hc was draⅥ ring a cultural diffcrcnce as vVcll,rclcasiL1g a litcrary I^cn△ aindcr

d1at leads d)c Enghsh-languagc readcr t° “

an Arncrican narratiⅤ c traditi° n, to

Hc111ingway,Dos os,Faulkner,Cain” (ibid). ()ilbcrt’

s Ⅴcrsi。 n, cⅤ cn though frcc in Places, cstabhshcd a lcxicograPhical

cquivalcncc that dOcs in fact transnDit the disti1)ctivc Plot and characteri7ation of

Camus’ s novel 1△ cncc, 11is translati° n can als。 enablc Enghsh— languagc rcaders to PCrcCiⅤ C the Arncrican litcrary ori8ins。 f thc Frcnch tcxt cven、、 hcn thcy d° n’ t kn0、 v its largcr Frcnch c°

ilson ntcxt Thc lcading Arncrican critic Edmund V、 ′

Ⅴcrsion for t1△ e Nc" yorkcr d1c year it “・ as PubliShcd, °ffcring ‘ a relllarkablc of his rcsP。 nSC 【 Ιc k11cv￠ that Can1us、 vas‘ onc of thc Prin~ ciPal CxP。 nCnts in litcraturc of、 vhat is callcd thc Existcntiahst Phil。 S° Phy/’ but hc ‘ ‘ ilnmcdiatcly addcd a confcssi。 n。 f ign。 rancc∶ l havc read、 'cry little。 f sartrc and rcvie、 vcd Gilbcrt’ s

490

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTI

找晷 ;浪 ∷ ∷蔬I戋 ∴ ∶ :烈 k耦虫 tJ￡写扌 i∶

:rJ【 t扛 i浅

圬∷ j1叶

ledgc Wllson hcaded straight1or Ⅵ'hat was hn1ihar and cmphasizcd thc d° mcstlc rcfcrcncc in GⅡ bcrt’ s translation∶

`廴

“ Onc

fccls surc/’ hc、 vr° tc,“ that M.Can1us Inust

批然茁擀 #W斟:燕晒燕f

Arnerican f°r1ns to eXPl。 rc Europcan Phil° SoPhical thcn△ es The abscncc 。f thc brcign c° ntcxt was suPPhcd by thc rcalisrn that has l。 ng dominatcd thc AmcHcan narratiⅤ c traditi° n,so that Carllus’ s main charactcr、 vas dismisscd as“ incrcdiblc;his bchavi。 r is ncvcr exPlaincd or rnadc PlauSiblc” (ibid.)

鞋 s诨盅挣燃芥谢抖 f楼拉挤群吝苜 ~i11thc unitcd statcs as vvcll as in many countrics、 v° rldvcide Gilbert’ ˉ s 、 ersion undoubtcdly hclPcd thc n° Ⅴel t。 achieve this status f。 r En8hS1△ ^languagc readcrs,

s at祆

i⒒

jt找

紧岷 FFc耳嫦 c汀 r∶ ∶∶ :;:∶ r叮【蓬扯 r虽脎 fn弦 :苕 :∶ both Arncrican and Frcnch In this、 vav, Ward’ s Ⅴcrsi° n con1Fnunicatcd an undcr~ standing of thc French tcxt that is aⅤ

ailablc to Frcnch rcadcrs This understanding

motiⅤ ated his(lccision,for examplc,to retain thc French‘ ‘ Maman” in the oPCning sentencc∶ In his n。 teb° 。ks

Camus rccordcd thc obscrⅤ

ati。 n

that

‘ ‘

thc curious

弥 :妆 \F铞 i&i打 F觜 L轼堞:亻t寥 J秽 ℃ 础 ° ∶ ll挞 T;℃ 拣∶ ∴雀∷ 亠 i抬 :F;i艹 ∷ s∷ 絮犭 ℃ r∶

:】

:∶

:￡

l:、

change thc naturc of D√ 1cursault’ s curi° us fccling for h氵

/ard1988:vii) 祗

Ward’ s writing rclcascd a rcm“ ndcr inscⅡ bc(l with Amc1・ lcan and French refl:r cnccs,and f° r thc Enghsh-language rcadcr thc rcsult、 Ⅳas truly(lcR】 rnilia1izing Not

only dkl Amcrican narratiⅤ c forms acquire a PhⅡ °s° Phical (lcnsity d)cy di(l not :∷

【 ∵ 盅岁 l氵

:∶

l;f⒒

1:°安 ∶ ⒒∶ Ⅰ 1:l环 l=t∶1∶【 Fi:C;t丨是 : 滞:ε 刂 IⅠ1t∶

but aPPrcciativc n° ticc that aPPearCd,aPPr。 priatcly cnough,in thc Ncl‘ ・y。 rk召 r: Thc cffcct of thc cl。 scr, sin△ Plcr rcndcring is to makc N】 cursault sccm

⒊ T导:iT萎 ⒒;:程牒:l11s岁 l1∶

sion】 css

l圩

l∶

J:fJ叶 l∶

∶ Ⅰ ∶ ;黹 :tc∶

:

hed° nis1n as a Psycholo思 ical study 、 vho is br。 ught, through a

gratuitous, sun-dazzlcd act and its n1crciless social c。 nscqucnces, to a raPP。 rt、 vith his (lcad mothcr and a rccognition of his fratcrnity、 vith

‘ ‘ ’ the gcntIc indiffcrcncc of thc 、 vorkl’ ~a PalPable huProⅤ emcnt up° n ‘ Gnbcrt9s思 randcr PhrasC‘ thc benign indiffcrencc of thc univcrsc” (Ne⒒ yo砝 σ

198⒏ 119)

TRA,NsLATION` COM M UNITY` UTOPIA

491

Thc“ impr° vclncnt,” jud妒 ng i° m this an° nymous reviewcr’ s rcsPonSc,involⅤ cd an incrcascd Plausibility, VVard gavc Camus’

s charactcr thc psychological rcahsm

that Wils° n found lacking in Gilbcrt, although for a latcr Amcrican rcadcrship,

厂、、 ard’ s translati。 n 、 vas morc acctablc t。 his rcadcrs, Partly becausc thcy knc、 v morc about Frcnch literaturc and Phil。 S。 Phy,but als。 bccausc° f his、vriting: his stylc was m° rc cⅤ ocauvC。 fAmc1・ lcan and French cultural忆 rms and thcrcfc)rc morc

con1municativc of thc Frcnch tcxt.

Hctcrogcneous conⅡ nunities Thc domcstic inscril)tion in translating constitutcs a unique comn1unicauⅤ c act, indircct° r、 Ⅴayward,It crcatcs a(lomcstic co∏ 11nunity of intcrcst around thc translatcd tcxt,an audicncc t。、 Vhom it is intcⅡ igiblc and、 vh° Put it t° Ⅴarious ¨ his sharcd intcrcst rnay ariSC SpontancOusly、 vhcn the translation is pubhshed, uscs Γ attracting rcadcrs s・。n△ different cultural constitucncies that alrcady exist in thc

h。、 vcⅤ cr

translating languagc It may also bc h。

uscd in an institution、 vhcrc the tIˉ anslati° n

is rnadc t° Perf° rn1differcnt functions,acadcn1ic or rehgi。 co1η mcrcial

us,cultural° r Pohtical,

or municiPal Any community that arises aroun(l a ttanslation is hr

fr。 m hom。 gencous in language,idcntity,。 rs。 cial p° sition Its hctcr° gcncity lnight bcst be undcrsto。 d in of vchatlMary Louise Pratt calls a“ hnguistics of /’

in、 ˉ hich languagc-bascd c。 ∏1Inunitics arc sccn as dcccntcrcd acr。 ss“ hncs。 fs° cial

‘ ‘

(Pratt 1987∶ 60) A translati。 n is a hnguistic zone of ’ bctⅥ 广 ccn thc f° rcign and translating culturcs,but als。、 vithin thc lattcr, diffcrcntiation”

’

Thc intcrcsts that bind thc c° ∏11nunity through a translati° n arc not sirnPly R)cuscd on thc f° rcign tcxt,but rcHcctcd in thc d。 1ncstic values,behe人 ,and rrc~

scntations that thc translat。 r inscribcs in it

And thesc interests arc furthcr 、 vays thc translation is uscd In thc case of foreign tcxts that haⅤ c achievcd canonical status in an institution, a translati° n bccomcs thc sitc of dctcrn】 incd l)y thc

intcrpretive corllmunitics that rnay or challcngc currcnt canons and intcr~ Pretati。 ns, Prcvaning standards and idcol。 gics(cf, Fish 1980and thc c1・ iticisms in

Pratt 1986: 46 52) In the case 。f forcign tcxts that have achicvcd lη ass circula_ tlon,a translation bcc° mcs t11e sitc of uncxpccted grouPings,fostering colllll△

unitics

°f rcaders 、 vho 、厂 0uld 。thcr、 visc bc saratcd by cultural cliffcrcnces and sOcial (li“ si。 ns yct are now ed by a common hscination A tlanslation can answcr to thc intcrcsts of a diⅤ crsc rangc of domcstic audienccs,so that the f°

rn)s。 f rcc~ translating traf丘 cs in thc foreign, in the intr。 ducti。 n of linguistic and cultural diffcrences, it is equally caPable °f

tion lxill n。 tt)c enti1・ cly con△ mensurablc.Bccause

crossin8or reinf° rcing thc boundaries bct、、ccn don△ cstic audicnccs and thc hicr~ archics in 、 vhich thcy are P。 siti° ncd Ifthc d。 mcstic inscriPtion includes Part of thc sOcial。 r lati° n a1】

hist°

rical co11tcxt in、 ,hich thc f°

rci8n text Fi1・ st cl△ △ Cr思 cd,thCn

a trans-

can also crcatc a con△ munity that includcs f。 rci8n intClligibnitics and intcrcsts,

undcrstandin思 in c。 1η n1° n、 vith anothcr culturc,anothcr t1・ aditi° n

Considcr the readcrshiPs that gathcr around a Poetry translation In 1958thc Arncrican translat° r Allcn ˇ【 andclbaum PubhshCd d△ c nrst l)。。k lcngth Enghsh

Ⅴcrsi。 n ofthc m。 (lcrn Italian poct GiusPe un:arctti It was warml)wdc。 med b)・

Itahtl11 acadcmic sPecialiStS at Alη

c1・

ican uniⅤ ersitics, s。 n△ e

of wholn wcrc

492

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTI

f,,P″ 虿 riΓ c Ι ire仰 ru″ Giovanni Cccchctti,、 vrotc his reⅤ ic、 v in Itahan and c。 ncluded that Mandclbaun`’ s ‘ translation‘ d。 cs honor t。 Itahan studics in Amcrica and can be rcc° n11ucndcd to anyonc who wishcs t° hmiliarizc himsclf witll tllc work。 f。 nc。 fthe m句 or PoCts

tllcmscll cs Itallan nat卜 cs Thc rex:icwcr llc)r tl△ c journal C。

,

。f° ur ti1ne” (CecchCtti 1959∶ 268, rny translati。 n),ThC‘ ‘ 。ur” suggests thc cxtcnt 。f Cecchetti’ s estccn1for ungarctti’ sP。 Ctry, an asscrtion of universal Ⅴaluc But sincc hc、 vas revic、vin思 in Itahan thc hrst En8hSh translation of d)at P° c° uldn’

etry,thc“ our”

t bc uniⅤ crsal bccause it didn’ t Ⅴet includc British and Alnerican rcadcrs

lacking Italian,Cccchcttiimagincd a c° mmunity that was Pardy actual,Pr° 炙SSional, and Partly Potcntial

Thc ungarctti Pr叻 ect also aPPliCd a stanclard of accuracy consistcnt with thc intcrPrctati。 n that prcⅤ ailed in thc Itahan acadcn1ic c°

n11nunity,Mandclbaum main-

taincd a fairly strict lcxic° graPhical cquiⅤ alcncc and cven imitatcd【 Jngarctti’ s syntax

and linc brcaks, He rcad ungaretti’ cff° rt“ t。

s achicⅤ cmcnt, likc thc Itahan scholars, as an

bury thc cadavcr° f htcrary Itahan” by deⅤ cloping a sParc,PrCcisC Poctic

languagc clcvoid°

f“ all

that was but ornament’

’

(lMandelbaun△ 1958∶ xi) It Ⅵ・ as in

that thc κvicwcrs judgcd Mandelbaum’ s vσ Dlls su∝ essftll,“ If° nc is ⅥTOtc Carlo tcmPtcd to。 bscrvc that in many Places thc translation is too litcral,” tllc陡 tσ ms

si〈

ecti° n、 Ⅴ ill sh。

G° hn° ,“ furthcr reΠ

wisc and still retaln thc

Mandelbaun1’ s

Ⅱch

、 v thatit

othcr-

vvould havc bccn impossiblc to d。

allu“ vcncss of ungaretti’ s wor(ls” (G。 lin。 1959∶ 76),

’

translati。 n、vas thus the site。 fan acadcn1ic c。 lnlnunitⅤ s intcrcst

in Ungarctti’ s PoCtry, an An△ erican rcadcrshiP that nonetheless sharcd an Itahan

understanding of thc tcxt and in fact includcd Itahan natiⅤ

es In this contcxt the

translation ultirnatcly achicvcd canonical status In 1975,ahn° st t、 Vo dCCades after its6rst Pubhcation,it、 vas rcissucd in a rcviscd and cxPanded cdition from C。 rncll uniⅤ ersitⅤ Press.

All thc samc, it is PossibIe t° PcrcciⅤ c an aPPcal t° an。 thcr comn1unity in

’

N1andclbaun】 s translatl。 n,a do1η cstic rcadcrs11ip that is inconuncnsurablc、

・、 ith the

interests of thc Itahan acadcn△ ics and thc prcvailing interPrctation of Ungarctti

Whilc Mandclbaun△ adhcred cl。 scly to thc tcrsc fragmentation of Ungarcttrs Itahan tcXts,hc also introduccd a P° ctical rcgistcr,a noticcablc strain of Vict°

rian PoCti^

cism,Manddbaum rcndcrcd“ m。 rirc” dic” )as“ pCrish,” “ buttclto” thr。 wn)as ’ ‘ “ ‘ ‘ ‘ an illusi° n is cnou8hf° r)'° cast,” ti basta un’ illusi。 nc” you nccd but an )aS‘ ’“ tr♂ ’ ’“ ” CStCd” ‘ “ riPosat° roscdΓ illusi° n/’ sonno” slC’ )as“ Slun11)cr,’ p° )as‘ 叮can、 Ⅴatch hcr’ ’ I can gazc upon hcr” (lMandclbauna 1958∶ 7, 13, (“

(“

u’

(‘

(“ 1・

(“

guardarla”

(‘

)aS“

25, 37, 145).Hc usc(l syntactlcdl inⅤ

crsions∶

、 Ⅴcre the results of litcral translating, calques° t°

PoCtical archaisIus in Enghsh: LonF口 n°

Lontano l。 ntan。 comc un c1cco n1’

hanno POrtato Pcr1uano

DisFdnr夕 Distantly chstantly

hkc a bhnd man by thc hand thcy lcd mc,

'crc somc、、

a(lclc(l,whilc。 thcrs

f thc ltahan Both kinds am° untcd

TRANSLATION` COMMUNITY` UTOP1A CoFon,bd

IJIa虿 E)’

493

altri diluvi una c。

l°

mba asc°

lt°

,

△ Dovc ()f othcr Π。°dsI hear a d° Ⅴc

(MandClbaum195⒏ 35,53) s。 mcumcs

thc pocticism dcviatcd【。m thc Othcrwisc simplc language of thc

contcxt,as in thc last six lincs of“

Giugno”

(‘

june’

’ )∶

H° PCrs。 il sonno oscillo al canto(l’ una strada

comc una lucci°

la

Mi morir♂ qucsta nott I haⅤ

c lost slurnbcr

s、 vaⅤ

at a street-corncr hke a nreΠ Ⅴ XA/ill this night(lic

△om

mc? (MandClbaum195⒏

On。 ther

39)

occasions the Poetical registcr s、 vclls、 vith a lush R。 manticisln,usually to

match a m° rc cxPanSiⅤ c PoCtic linc in ungarctti Compare N1andclbaun1’ s vcrsion

’

of the VirgⅡ ian sestina,“ Rccitativo di Pahnurn°

,’

vvith Tcnnyson’ s“ LⅡ ysscs” Both

English texts werc writtcn in an Eli'al)cthan Pcntamctcr(ShakesPearCan,Marl° Pitched at an ic height: Pcr l’ uragano all’

aPicc di furia

Vicin° non intcsi farsi il s° nno;

Olio h dilagante a slnal△

lc d’

。n(lc,

APCrt。 camP。 a hbcH兮 di Pacc, Di cffusi。 nc in丘 nita

il Hnto emblcma

Dalla nuca Prostrandon△ im° rtale. I could not,f° r thc hurricanc at furⅤ sun11η it,sensc thc con1ingˉ

An° il

on° f

that oⅤ crspread the raⅤ

’

slun△

s

bcr;

ing brcakcrs,

Ficld。 Pcn t。 thc f1eedon△ that is PcacC,

OfinHnitc Outpouring thc fcigncd cmblcm Thrusting at thc naPc d° 、 vndashed1nc ln。

rta1,

(MandClbaum195⒏ 145)

Ⅴ ian)

494

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTI I cannot rcst⒒ LiJ(∶

oIη travc⒈

I will drink

i:::to thc lccs:all umcs I haⅤ

e e巧 oyed

Gready,haⅤ c suffercd grcady,b°

th、 vith thosc

That lovcd mc,and al° ne;on sh。 rc,and、 vhen Through scudding driRs thc rainy Hyades Vex tllc dim sca:Iam bcc。 mc a name卜 j (TCnnys° n1972∶ 562)

、 Vhat madc Lh1garetti’ s Poctry sccn△ so innovatiⅤ e in Italy 、:as thc hard~cd思 ed language,an1odcrnist PreciSi。 n that turncd a、广 ay fr0n△ the ornatc,rhet。 rical stylcs ˉ dcⅤ cl。 vritcrs likc Gabrielc Γ Annunzio Mandcll)aun1’ s 、 crsion Pcd by(lCcadcnt、 rcinscribcd thcsc stylCs in ungarctti, rcstoring 、 Ⅴhat thc translator hirnsc⒒ callcd ‘ —alth° u8hn。 xx=transmogri⒔ cd into archaic Enghsh thc‘ cadavcr。 f htcrary Italian” — )’

P° et1・ iCs

In rclcasing this(lomcstic remaindcr,Mandclbaun1’ s translati。 nn。 t only Positioncd Ungaretti in Enghsh-language P。 etic traditions, l)ut afshated hirn Ⅵidl thc don1inant trcnds in contcmporary Poetry translation。

1950san△ ixturc of currcnt standard Enghsh、 (lisc°

For thc lhct is that during thc

vith poetical archaisn△ s constitutCd thc

ursc for translating Poetry hⅤ ored by lca(ling Amcrican translators Richrn°

n(l

Lattirn。 rc’ s

1951 vcrsion。 f the fF1dd,、 vhich became thc most、 ⅣidclV read transla~ ‘ ’ don in thc Unitcd statcs,clai1ned to haⅤ e aⅤ °ided any‘ poetical dialcct。 f Enghs11’ ‘ ‘ `c clo n0tl)avc a P。 ctic(lialcct/’ and‘ thc languagc of sPcnscr bccausc‘ in 1951, 、 ’ 。r tlac Klllg JameS Version” ℃ cmc(hnaPpmP"ate to H° mσ s“ Pl“ nncsF(Lc・ tdm。 rc

“ as whcn1・ lⅤ crs ’ “ battle,’ his bcl。 vcd son/’

1951∶ 55) Yct1ˉ attimore’ s text is dottcd with Vict° ian poctlosms∶ 1ˉ

“ ’ “ in、 Ⅴ inter sPate/’ sol△ c sP° kC,vauntin8,’ hC Strklcs int。 ‘ ‘ ’ that accurscd night’ (il)id ∶ 125, 131, 279, 438) J。 hn Dante’ s力巳陀rn。 ,which n△

ciardi’

s 1954 、 crsion of

hr ovcr%ur dccades haq bccn c。 ntinuously

a、 ailablc h a

ass-n1arkct paPcrback,ahncd f° r“ s° mcthing likc idiomatic Enghs11’ ’to

anti_rhetorical character of thc Ita⒈ an;“ sParSc,dircct,and idi。 matic/’ Dantc’ s langua思

‘ sCckS

CⅤ okC

、 vr。 tc

thc

Ciardi,

t0aⅤ oid clcgancc simPly for thc sakc of elcgancc” (C)iardi 1954: ix~x) YCt this l)arad° xical undcrstanding of Dantc’ s Itahan als° (lcscribcs c‘

Ciardi’ s tcxt,、 Ⅴ hiCh,alth。 uε h mOStly in a Plain rcgister of currcnt usagc,is strc、 “ “ “ ’“ ’“

Ⅵ ith poctical、 v。 rds and Phrascs;“ drCar/’

PitCOus/’ ‘ ‘ “ “ ’ “ thy/’ ane、 it sccmcd to scorn alll)ause,’ bitc “ ’ hiS w。 °lly joxxls” crucciare” ∶don’ t bc distrcsscd’

PrcSSed/’

“ non

ti

flccrs/’

/’

),“

bcsct丿

Perils,’

vn

s0rCly

back)・

。ur

(ibid∶

28, 30, 36, 38,

sPlCCn”

(f°

r

39,43,44,45) Mandelbaum’ s vcrsion bri(lgc(l thc cultural gap bctwecn ungarctu’ s actual Itahan rcadcrshiP and hiS Potcntial Arnerican audiencc Translating a modcrn Itahan P。 ct i11to thc discoursc that don△ inated Amcrican P。 Ctry translation、 :as c竹 tctiⅤ

el)=a canoni'ing gesturc,a Poctic′ Ⅴay of linking hi1n~for Amc1ˉ ican rcadcrs luentlon thc ech° cs。 f Tennyson,

to canonical Pocts hkC H。 mcr and Dantc(not t。

s1akcsPcarC,Marlowc) Yct this domcstic inscHPtion dCvicltcd iom LI11gcaretu’

s

significancc in thc Itahan PoCtic tradition, thc vic、 v, as Mandelbau1n Put it, that

‘ ‘

’ 。rnamcnt’ (N1andclbaun】 1958:xi),Thc° rnatc Enghsh Ⅴcrsi。 n 、 vas addrcssing anod1cr audicncc, distinctly Arncrican, Poctry rcadcrs fan1ihar、 vith British and An1crican PoCtic traditiOns as、 ⅤcⅡ as rcccnt translati° ns that、 vcrc imn1cnscly PoPular tIngarctti purgcd thc languagc of aⅡ

TRA NsLATION` COM M UNITY` UTOPIA

495

Indced, NlIandclbaun1’ s translati。 n(liscourse、 vas so fan1ihar as to be invisible G。 rman,an

to thc reⅤ icwcr for P@cr,f magazlne,Nc(lO’

Pubhshed his Hrst c。 llcction of Poems in thc samc ycar

Amchcan Poet wh° C)’ Gorman f° und

’ 、 vhilc qu。 ting and c° n)mcntin8on thC t1ˉ ansl荻 ion as ifit werc thc Italian tcxt(O’ G° rman1959a∶ 330) 、 Vhat O’ Gorman hkcd ab° ut(Mandclbauln’ s)Ungarctti was thc hct that it、 us Poctica⒈ hc Pra`cd thc Itahan P° ct忆 r writlng“ ofa w。 dd transformcd into poctry” and Prod“ mcd“ thc ungaretti’ s Poetry“ truly rnagni⒔ cent,’

∠ iΓ c”

as“ his丘 nest P。 cm” (ibid∶ 331) Thc P° emsin O’ G。 rman’ s Hrst book thisjudgmcnt Thcy includcd“ An Art° f Poetry/’ whcrc he、 vrotc∶ “ Poctry l)cgins whcrc rheto0cd。 cζ ’ (O’ G° rman1959b∶ 26) Recir虿

rcΠ cctcd

ll11ncnsurable Even though 、 vrittcn in Enghsh, the translation 、:as intclligiblc to cach of thcn△ in different hnguistlc and cultural ter∏ 1s Thc Itahan acadcmic c。 n△ 1η unity also(hd n。 t rcc。 gˉ A/landcll)auΠ 1’ s rcadcrshiPs、 vcre fundan1cntally inc。

nize the VictO11an Pocucism For thcm,howcⅤ cr,this styliStic%aturc was inⅤ isiblc l)ccausc Enghsh、 Ⅴas n。 t their nativc languagc and bccausc,as forcign-languagc acad~ clllics,they、 vere1n° st conccrncd、 vith thc rclation bctⅥ 厂 een thc Enghsh vcrsion and thc Itahan tcxt:lexic。 graPhical cquiⅤ alcncc,Cccchctti noticcd onc of Mandclbaun1’

s

P。 ctical turns,his rcn(lcring of“ smcmom” (òl° Sc° ne’ s

)

with d)e arch汪 sm“ disrcmcmbcr￠

’

memo叮

“

,”

to忆 rgct”

51;cf,O￡ D) Yct thiS ch0cc was sccn as ‘ aPPropriatc to‘ the rarc and suggcstivc Havor” °f thc Itahan and indicativc of thc translator’ s“ Poetlc Scnsibility”

(il)i(l∶

(Cccchctti1959∶ 267)

Thc f`ct that in English this sensil,ihty n1ight bc alicn t。

ungarctti’ s rnodernist

Poetics seems to haⅤ c l)ccn rccognized~ in Print only l)y a British rcadcr,intcrcstingly cnough,A rcⅤ iewer f° r thc Lond。 n乃 mes,、 vho agrccd、 vith Cecchetti that ungaretti、 vas“ one ofthc rnost distinguishcd P° translatcs、 :ith a quitc exctional inscnsitiⅤ

’

cts ahⅤ c氵 fClt that“ N1r,NΙ

andelbaun△

(TJ,c Tjn,cs1958: 13C),Thcrc can ’ bc n。 doubt d1at thc rcvic、 ˉ cr had Mandcll)aun△ s PocticiSms in rllind, since he 。 d crib,” tllc very dosc French version that Jcan PKkrrC(lt()rcc。 mmend a℃ 。 ” Lescurc ptll)lishcd in1953(whCrc“ D’ alth diltlxl una col° ml)a ascok。 was tur1△ cd into‘ j’ ocoutc unc cololη bc Ⅴ cnuc(l’ aut1ˉ cs(l誉 lugcs” (LCscurc 1953: 159)), Only a natiⅤ c readcr。 f Enghsh Poctry′ Ⅴ h° also kneⅥ 广the Itahan tcxts and thcir position in thc Itahan poctic tradition、・ as able to Perceive the Enghsh-languagc rcmai11der in Mandclbaum’ s 、crsi(〉 11 Thc rcadcrships that gathercd ar。 und this Poetry translati。 nⅥ ˉ erc liInitcd,ProFcssi° nally°r

ity”

institutk)nally dchncd, and detcrn1incd by their cultural kn0、 vlcdge,

'hcthcr()f the forciε n languaε c and litcraturc Or thc litcrary traditions in thc trans、、 lating languaε e Thc translati° nl)ccame the focus of divcrgcnt communitics,R)rcign

and(lomestic,scholarly and litcrary And in its ability to suPP° rt their linguistic and cultural (lif{辶 rcnces, to l)c intcⅡ igil)lc and intcrcsting tO thclll in thcir°

thc translation f° stercd its o、 vn

community, onc that 、 vas

、 vn tcrms,

jmdJiz’ 召 c/ in Benedict

Anderson’ s scnsc∶ thc men11)ers‘ I neⅤ er kn。、 Ⅴn1ost of their felloⅥ ・mcmbcrs, `vⅡin thc n△ inds of cach liⅤ cs thc imagc of thcir mcct thclnl, 。r cvcn hear ofthem, yct comn△ union” (Andcrs。 n1991∶ 6) In thC casc Of a translati。 n,this in△ agc is(lcriⅤ cd from thc 1・ rcscntation of the foreign tcxt constructcd by the translator, a com-

ˉ munication don1cstically inscril)cd T。 translate is to inⅤ cnt f° r thc f° rcign tcxt nc、、 :a】 ˉ rcadcrshiPs、 vho arc a、飞 c that thcir intcrcst in thc translation is sha1ˉ cd by other rcadcrs,f° rcign and don1cstic- cⅤ cn、 vhcn th。 sc intcrcsts arc incon△ 111cnsurablc

496

LAⅥ /RENCE

∨ ENUTI

Thc imagincd con11nunitics that concerncd Anders。 n、vcrc natlonahstic,bascd 。n the sensc of bclonging to a Particular nation Translations haⅤ e und° ubtcdly f° rmed such c° mmunitics by ilnPorting forcign idcas that stirnulated the risc ° f largc-scalc political ln。 Ⅴcments at homc.At thc turn of the tvvcnticth ccntury,the Chincsc translat。 r Yan Fu chosc、 v° rks0n cv° lutionary thcory by T,H,Huxley and Hcrbert Spenccr Precisely to build a national Chnese culturc Hc translatcd thc Wcstcrn concts of aggrcssion emb。 died in s。 cial DarⅥ :inisln to forn1an ag8res~ siⅤ e Chncsc i(lcntity that would withstand、 Vestern colonial Pr句 cc“ ,n。 tably British(schwaⅡz 1964; Puscy 1983).Hu slllh, a contcmp° rary obscrvcr,latcr rccalled the irnPact

°f

IIuxlcy’ s

‘ :ersion: ‘ ￡vofur】 ° n 口 nd ￡rJlics in Yan Fu’ s 、 aRcr

China’ s frcqucnt Inilitary rcvcrsals,Particularly aftcr dlC hurllihation°

yearS,thC sl° gan‘ SurⅤ iⅤ al of the Fittcst’ (ht.,‘ suPcrior tlle nt survive’ 1964∶

)becamc a kind。 f 259,n. 14)

clari° n call”

fthe B。 xcr

Ⅴictorious,inferi。 r dcfeatcd,

(tranSlated and qu° tcd in sch、 vartz

Thc irnagincd con11nunitics fostcrcd by translation Pr° ducC Cffccts that arc r examPlc,thC rnass audiencc that gathers ar。 und a translatcd bcstscller Bccausc of its shccr sizc, this con1111unity is an cnscmblc of thc1n° st divcrsc domcstic constitucncics,desncd by C0∏ 11nCrCial,as、 vcll as cultural and Pohtical Considcr,f°

thcir sPeci⒖ c intcrcsts in thc f° rcign text, yct a、 varc of belonging to a collcctiⅤ c

movcment,a national markct忆 ra%reign litcrary fasonau。 n Thcse constitucncics、vill ineⅤ itably rcad thc translation diffcrcntly,and in sOme cases the differences

will be incommcnsurablc Ycttl△ c gret△ tcst Communication gap here may be bctween n thc f° rcign and domcstic cultures Thc domcstic inscriPtion in thc translati° cxtends thc aPPeal° fthe f° reign tcxt to a mass audience in another culture But vvidcning thc domcstic rangc ofthat apPcal rneans that thc inscriPtion cannot include

much ofthe f° reign context.A translatcd bcstsellcr risks rcducing the foreign text t0、vhat d° mestic constituencies haⅤ e in coΠ unon,a(lialcct,a cultural discourse,an idc° l。 gy

s Enghsh vcrsi° n of

This can bc sccn in thc rcction that grcctcd Ircnc Ash’ :。 l’

J。

t′

r

Γrisresse(1955), Fran♀

oisc sagan’ s bcstsclling n° vc1, In , thc Frcnch

vork of art: it 、 tcxt had bccn acclai1ncd as an acc。 mPhshcd 、 von thc Prix dcs Critiqucs and sold200,000coPics, In England and the united statcs, thc translarablc c° ∏ 111△ Cnts on its stⅤ lc and like、 visc staⅤ cd on the bcstscllcr lists tion(lrc、 v faⅤ 。

r manⅤ months But no rcⅤ ic、 vcr failcd t° aband° n c。 nsidcrati。 ns of acsthctic rm f° rm。 rc functional standards, cxPrCssing amazcmcnt at thc youthful agc of thc auth。 r(19)and distastc for thc am° rality ofits thcmc:a17year° ld girlschcmcs t。 PrCⅤ Cnt hcr、vido、 vcd fathcr壬 r° l11remarrying,so that he can c° ntinuc to cngagc f° f°

‘ ‘

in a succession of afFairs, Thc Ch1cdJ。丁 ribun召、 Ⅴas tyPica⒈ I adnìred thc craRs~ manshiP,but I was rePellCd by thc carnality” (H灬 s195⒌ 6). Ths gcncral rcsPonse varicd acc。 cncy addrcsscd by thc rcⅤ

ic、

rding to the Ⅴ alues° f thc particular constitu_

vcr,Thc Cathohc、 veekly Comm°

n″ ccz`sternly Pron。

unccd

the novcl“ chⅡ dish and tircs° mc in its singlc rllindcd dcdicati° n to(lccadence” (Nagid r rc、 rrcd simPly to the“ 佰tl△ er’ s 195⒌ 164),whcrc“ tl△ c soPhi虻 icatcd Nc″ yo砝召 hcdonistic in1agc/’

subtly Suggcsjng that at 40 hc dcscrⅤ es

‘ ‘

Pity”

(Clill 1955∶

114 15),ln P° st sCcond VV° dd XArar America,whcrc the Patliarchal hmily assumCd ‘ f。 re the badge of‘ fan1ily lllan’ nc、 v importance and‘ husbands,csPccially fathcrs,、、 ’ ’ as a sign of virility and Patri。 tisn△ (May 1988∶ 98),sagan’ s plcasure-sccking fathcr

TRA苫

sLATION` COM M UNITY` UTOPIA

497

and daughtcr`Ⅴ crc ccrtain to make her n° Ⅴcl an objcct of b。 th m° ral Panic and tltillation,Thc rcⅤ icwcr br thc Nc″ srdFcs,,,￠ n口 nd NdFion was uniquc in trying to undcrstand it in distinctiⅤ cly Frcnch tcrms, describing thc youthful hcr° inc as “ a chnd。 f the bcboP,the night clubs,thc cxistcntialist caf芑 s/’ comParing hcr and hcr htl△

σ t° “ M Camkls’ sam° ml Ou“ i(lcr” (Raymond195⒌ 727-8), Ash’

n。 Ⅴ clto

s Enghsh vcrsi。 n 、 vas of c° ursc thc dccisivc fact。 r that cnablcd Sagan’ suPP° rt a spectrun)of Vcry differcnt rcsPonSCs in Anglo-Arncrican culturcs,

Thc translati° n、 vas it、vas

in△

cast in the m。

s

mediatcly intclligible to a、 vidc Enghsh-languagc rcadcrshiP∶

st fan△ iliar dialect°

f currcnt Enghsh, thc standard, but it also

containcd sOmc liⅤ ely colloquialisms that1natched sin1ilar formsin thc French tcxt

Ash mndcKd“ le dσ 血cr dcs salauds” CtllC la哎 ° f tlac dut￠ )as“ thC m。 st awhl “ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ cad/’ l。 upo” failcd’ )as“ Π unkcd/’ and“ cc fut la Hn” that vvas thc cnd’ )aS“ d・ ings ctalnc to a hca(l” (Sagan1954:32,34,45;Ash1955:25,27,35),Shc ailncd1or a (‘

(‘

high clcgrcc of∏ ucncy by translating frecly, making dclctions and additi°

ns to thc

Frcnch to crcatc lnorc PrcciSc for1nulations in Enghsh∶ Au caf芑 ,Elsa sc lcⅤ a et,arrivoe宜 la p° rte,sc retourna vcrs nous(l’ un air langourcux,tr志 s insPir誉 ,容 cC qu’ il1nc scmbla,du cin忐 maam芑 ricain ct n△ cttant dans s°

n intonation dix ans dc galanteric frangaisc:

‘ ‘/ous 、

Ⅴenez,Raym° nd?” (After c。 ffee, Elsa st°

od uP and, on reaching the door, turncd back

towards us with a langu。 rous air,vcry insPircd~S° it sccmcd to n△

c~

by American cincma, and inⅤ esting her t。 nC、 Ⅴith tcn ycars° f French

“

Arc you coming,Raymond?”

flirtation∶

)

(隘 gan195⒋

38,my订 anslati。 n)

ARcr coffcc, Elsa、 ⅣaIkcd。 Ⅴcr t° thc clOor,turned ar° und, and struck a langu。

r° us,

vas tcn ycars of Frcnch moⅤ ie_star posc, In her Ⅴ°icc 、

coquetry:

“

Are you c° ming,Raymond?”

(Ash195⒌ 30) Hcrc thc translat。 r cut doⅥ 广 nf° rty、 vords。 f Frcnch to tvvcntyˉ

Ⅱc

of tl△

eP。 ptll【ar“ m。 oc st茳 pos卩

(忆 r叮 u

ninc in Enghsb,Thc

choma am&kain勹

is s卩 uPt。

matk

of thc drivc t° 、 vard readabilitⅤ

By incrcasing thc rcadabihty of thc Enghsh tcxt, such frced°

ms cndo、 ∴ cd thc

narrativc、 vith Ⅴcrisimihtudc,Producing thc illusi。 n° f transParcncy that pcrn1ittcd

thc Enghsh-languagc rcader t。 takc thc translati。 n for thc f° rci8n tcxt (、厂 cnuti 1995∶ 12),ThC rcⅤ ic、广er【 0r thc Hr`dnFic,imPrCSsCd that“ the novcl has such a sohd “r。 f rcality ab° ut it,” commcntcd on Ash’ s writing as ifit wc1・ c Sagan’ s:“ simPle, crystallinc,and c° ncisc,hcr PrOsC flo、 vs al° ng s、 viRly,crcating sccne and charactcr with striking imlncdiacy and assurance” (Rolo1955∶ 84,85) Ash’ s freedoms rnay haⅤ c bccn inⅤisible,but they ineⅤ itably rclcascd a d。 mestic rclnaindcr, textual cffccts that varicd according to the sPccinc agc、 Ⅴ hcrc they occurrcd,but that、 verc gcncrally cngaging,cvcn ProvocatiⅤ

c The revievvcr for thc

Nc″ sFdresmdn dnd Ndrion was also uniquc in notlon8hcr f1ˉ Ccd° ∏1s(“ shC has not

498

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTI ’

bcen afraid t° ParC and chP thc tcxt to suit thc Enghsh readcr’

),and hc discussed

罩衤 rl111I∶ 芒 ∥ 芏 W驷驸提:鞴虽韪 toncs of the Frcnch∶

il avait Pour cllC dcs rc￡ qu’

:ards, (lcs gestcs qui s’ adrcssaicnt⒊ la femn1c on ne conna↑ t Pas ct quc l’ on(l。 sirc c° nnaitrc~dans lc Plaisir

(忆 r hCr hc had lo。

“ [ancl]gcsttlKS tllcat are addⅡ

wh°m onc docs n。 t bow yct desircs t。

kn° w~in

sscd t。

the Ⅵˉ oman

pleasurc)

(sagan 1954: 378,1uy translati。 n) I noticcd that his cvery look and gcsturc bctrayed a sccret dcsire f°

a woman whom he hacl n。 tP。 ssesscd and wh。 m hc longcd t。

r hcr, enj。

卜

(ASh1955:29) Ash’

s transladon,h。 Ⅵ・ cⅤ er【 cc in places,maintaIncd a sumcient dcgrcc of lcxic。

_

graPhical cquiⅤ alcncc to communicatc thc basic narratiⅤ c clen△ cnts

。f the Frcnch ‘ ’ tcxt Yet the addij。 n Of、 vords likc‘ ‘ l)ctraycd” and‘ sccret’ in this agC Sh° 、厂 s that she madc thc narrativc availablc t° an Enghsh languagc audicncc 、 Ⅴith rathcr n△ its Frcnch c° untcrPart, a morahty that xx。 uld restrict scxuahty to marriagc or othcr、 △sc conccal it This is a rathcr° dd cffcct in a novcl

difFcrcnt n△ oral valucs fr°

、:here a fathcr docs not conCeal his scxual pron1iscuity from his adolcsccnt dau思 Ash inscribcd Sa‘

:an’ ∶

S noⅤ cl、 :ith a domcstic intcⅡ

i‘

htCr

::ibility and intcrcst,addrcssin{::

a con11nunity that sharcd littlc。 fthc f° reign contcxt、 vhcre thc n° vel⒔ rst cmergcd,

The utoPian di1mension in translation Thc c° mn△ unitics f° stcrcd by translating arc initially potcntial,signallcd in thc tcxt,

lT{ltI找

三 c扌 c扯三生 f谓篱捃 cultural c。

l咒 Ft⒊ t:∶

t￡

JnI;t叮

谳蕊 i∶

nstitucncics among、Ⅴhich thc translati。 n、 vill circulate T° engagc thcsc

constitucncies,ho、 vcⅤ cr,the translat。 r involⅤcs thc forciε n tcxt in an asyn1n△ ctrical act of co1η rnunication, Ⅵ厂 ci8hted idC。 l° gically toⅥ ・ ards thc translating culturc Translatinε

is al、

・ ays ide° l。 gical becausc it rclcases a clomcstic ren△

tion of Ⅴalues,bchefs,and rePrcscntations linkcd t° Positi° ns in the Pr° vides an idc。 f。

hist°

aindcr,an inscriP_

rical n1on1cnts and social

rccciving culturc, In scrving don△ cstic intcrcsts, a translation l。 gical

res° luti° n for thc linguistic and cultural diffcrenccs(〉

f thc

rcign tcxt Yct translating is als。

ut。 pian

Thc d° mcstic inscription is lnadc、 Ⅴith the、 cry Ⅵ=ith thc anticiPation

intcnti° n to c° ∏1】nunicatc t11c forcign tcxt,and so it is hlled that a c° Π11nunity

Ⅵill bc crcatcd ar° und that text__although in translation In thc rcmaindcr lics thc hopc that thc translation、 ill estabhsh a(l。 mcstic readcrship, an ima8incd coIη munity that shaI・ cs an intcrcst in thc f° rcign, Possibly a markct fr。 n1 the Pubhs11er’ s P° int 。 f、 ic” And it is 。nly thr。 ugh thc rcmaindcr, 、 vhcn inscribcd 、ith Part 。f thc f° rcign context, that thc translation can cstabhsh a

TRANsLATION` COMMUNITY` UTOPIA

499

Co∏ 11n0n undcrstanding bctvvcen d° 1ncstic and foreign rcadcrs In suPPlying an idcological res° luti。 n,a translation projccts a utoPian comn△ unity thatis n° t yet reah7cd,

Bchind this linc of thinking lics Ernst Bl。

ch’ s the°

ry ofthc ut。 Pian functi° n of

culture, although revised t。 ht an aPPhcat1。 n to translati。 n Bl。 ch’ s is a AIarxist ut。

Pia Hc saˇ v cultural f° rms and Practiccs rclcasing a

excccds thc idc。

l°

gies of thc d° n1inant classcs,

‘ ‘

surPlus’

‘ thc‘ status

’

that n° t only

quo/’ but anticipatcs a

future“ conscnsus/’ a classlcss s° CiCty,usually by transforming thc“ cultural heritagc”

°f a Pardcular class,whcthcr dominant。

r dominatc(l(Bl。 ch1988∶ 46~50),

I construc Bloch’ s ut。 Pian surPlus aS thC d。 mcstic remainder inscribcd in thc forcign tcxt durin思 thC translati° n ProcCSs Translating rclcascs a surplus of

mca而 ngs whtll Kkr to domc蚰 c cukurd tra山 dons thrc,ugh de“ atlons currcnt standard dialcct° r othcr、 vise standardizcd languagcs一 f°

r cxamPlc, or c。 lloquiahsms

thr。 u思 h

i°

m the

archaisms,

ImPhcit in any translation is thc hoPc for a

conscnsus,a communication and recognition ofthc f° reign text throu8h a domcstic inscription, Yct the inscriPti° n can ncⅤ er bc sO C。mprchcnsivc, sO total in rclation to

domcstic c° nstituencies,as to Crcatc a con11nunity。 f intcrcst、 vithout cxclusion or hierarchy It is unhkely that a f° rcign tcxt in translati° n、 vⅡ l bc intclligiblc or intcr~

esting (or b° th Sirnultane° usIy) to CⅤ Cry rcadCrshiP in thC rccciving situation

And the asymmCtry between thc brcign and d° mestic cultures PersistS, even 、 vhen thc f° reign contcxt is Partly inscribcd in thc translati° n utopias arc bascd° n ide° l。 gies,

Bloch argued, on intcrcstcd rePresentations of social diⅤ

isi。

ns, rrc-

sentations that take sides in th。 sc(livisi° ns In thc casc。 f translating,thc interests

are incradicably domcstic, al、 vays the intcrcsts of certain domcstic constitucncics

ovcr othcrs Ⅴarious sOcial grouPs at any hiSt° rical In。 ment are non-Contcmporanc。 us or non-synchr° nous in thcir cultural and idc。 logical ’ ‘ ‘ rcmnant of carhcr tirllcs in the prcscnt’ dcvcl° Pment, 、 vith somc containing a (Bloch1991∶ 108) Ctllturd± orms ancl Practk6aK hctcr。 gcneous,comPo⒃ d° f Bl° ch

also Pointcd out that thc

difftDrcnt clcments with dlll:erent tcmPoralitiCs and aⅢliatcd with dif%rcnt groups In language,thc dialccts and disc°

urses,registcrs and stylcs that cocxist in a Particu~

lar Pcri。 d

can bc ghmpscd in the rcmainder relcascd by cⅤ ery coΠ 11nuniCatiⅤ c act, ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ vithin The remaindcr is a (liachrony~vvithin~symchr。 ny” that stagcs thc rcturn 、 language° fthe c°ntradictions and strugglcs that rnakc uP thC s° cial;it is the Persistcncc、 ithin language of Past contradicti° ns and strugglcs, and thc anticipation 。f httlrc Ones” (Lecerdc199⒍ 182,215).HcncC,dlc domcstic lnscrΦ tion in any translation is wht△ t Bl° ch calls an“ antlciPat° ry illtlmination”

(№rsch。 n),a way。 f

irnagining a f辶 ture reconciliati。 n of hnguistic and cultural dircrenccs,、

VhCthcr th° sc

that cxist among domestic groups or those that diⅤ idc the f° rcign and d° mcstic culturcs,

In Λ 没andelbaun1’ s Ⅴcrsion of ungarctti’ s Poetry, dlc ut° Pian surPlus is thC Vict° han

P。 Cticism, This Enghsh languagc rcmaindcr didn’ t just cxcccd thC

con】 munication of thc Itahan tcxts;it als。

ran countcr to thc rnodcrnist cxPCrirncnt

they cultiⅤ atcd in thc c。 ntcxt of Italian P° ctic traditi。 ns

During thc 19,0s,

mmunio° f

hteκ qt h Ungarctti by rcc° nciling the diRtrcnccs bct、 vccn t、 vo readcrships, Itahan and Arncrican, scholarly and litcrary. Today, vc n△ ay bc morc inchncd to n。 ticc,not 、

h。 wcvσ ,Mandelbaum’

sP° etic“ m Pr叻 ected an Ⅱcal

c。

LAⅥ /RENCE VENUTI

500

the idcal, but thc ide。 logies oF this con1111unity: NIandclbauIn’ asⅤ ltl1nctrical

s translati°

n、vas an

act° f con11nunication dlat at° ncc ad∏1ittcd and excluded thc Itahan

context,、 vhilc ing incon1mcnsurablc responses among American constitucncics Yct thc idcol° gical forcc 。f thc translati。 n madc it utoPian in its o、 Ⅴn tiI1)c, °f thc f° rcign tcxt through a PCRⅡ of c° ∏11nunicating thc forcign signiHcancc

h°

domcstic inscriPti° n And this ut° Pian ProjCction cⅤ cntually Pr。 duccd rcal cffccts, ˉ The Arneri(lan readcrshiP latCnt in Mandc⒒ )aum’ s l)。 ctical rcnàindcr Ⅰ eflccted a d° n)inant

tcndcncy in Arncrican poctry translation, hcIPing his vcrsion aCquirc

cultural auth。 ritⅤ in and out° f thc acadcmⅤ

・ can1ofa co∏1rnon undcrstanding bet、、 ccn f° reign a1ld domcstic culturcs n1ay inⅤ olⅤ c litcrary tcxts,、 Ⅴ hcthcr chtc or rnass But TranslatiI1g that harb° rs thc utopian d】

usuaⅡ y it takCs rnuch rn° rc1nundanc f° rms,scrⅤ ing technical° r pragmatic Purposcs

Consider con11nunity or liaisOn intcrpreting,thc oral,t、

vo~、 Vay translath1ε

done for

rcfugccs and ilnllligrants、 vho lnust dcal xsith thc s° cial agcncics and institutions of thc h° st c° untry Co∏11nunity intcrpretcrs perforn)in a、 .ariety of lcgal, mcdical,

and cducational situations, including requcsts for P。 anccs,hospital adn1issions, and apphcatio11s for、

htical asylun、 court aPPcar^

:cllarc, C° dcs of cthics, `vbethcr

formulated by Pr。 fcssi° nal ass° ciations or by thc agencics and institutions the1△ 1“ ‘ ‘ vhich allo、v f° r the sclⅤ cs, tcnd to insist that interPrCtCrs be Pancs °f glass” 、

commu血 cation rcscntation”

of i(k“ ,oncc again,wit11oLlt m° dl⒔ mti。 n,a曲 ustmcnt。 r misrcl)

(schwCda Nich°

ls。

n 1994: 82; sce also Gendlc, Ozolins and

Vasilakakos 1996) But such codes d。

n’

t take int° acc。 unt the cultural and Poht-

ical hicrarchics in thc intcrPretir1:situation,thc fact that~in thc、 v° rds。 f a Britis11 ‘ intcrPreting lnanua】 ~‘ thc chentis part ofa po、 verlcss cthnic1nin° rity grouP、 vh° sC

nceds and slishes arc oRen ignorcd° r rcgarded as n。 t legitirnatc by thc m句 °Ity 1・

group” (shackman 1984∶ glass’

’

18; scc also Sanders 1992) And° fc。 ursc thc‘ ‘ panc of

analogy rePrcssCs thc d° n)cstic inscriPtion in any translath1:,thC rcmaindcr

that PrcⅤ ents thc intcrPrcting fr° m bciI1g transparcnt conu11unication cⅤ

cn vvhcn

thc intcrpretcr is lilnitcd to cxact rcndcrings of foreign vvords In Pratˉ

ticc,many community intcrPⅡ

tcS“

qccm to rccog1ize tl【

in thc interPrcting situation and make an cffort to c°

Ⅴarious stratcgics(WadCnsl♂

1998∶

mPcnsatC f°

c灬 ylumctrics cn1through

r tlη

36) Robert Barsky’ s study of reftlgce hearings

in Canada dcn10nstratcs that thc intcrPretCr can Put thC refugcc on a cqual f°

oting

x△

ith thc adjudicating body only l)y rclcasing a distinctiⅤ cly don)estic rcllaaindcr,Thc

f°

rcign~languagc tcstilnony must l冫 C inscribcd Ⅵ 厂 ith Canadian ⅤaIucs, behcs, and

rresentations,Producing tcxtual effc・

cts that、 vork。

nly in Enghsh or French Lcgal

・、 aluc hncar, transParcnt discoursc, but thc cxPcriCnccs that rcfugccs n)ust(lcscribe~cxilc, Hnancial hardshiP, imPris° nmcnt, torturc- arc morc than hkely to shakc their cxPrcssiⅤ c abⅡ ities, cⅤ en in thcir。、 vn languagcs “ Rcstricting institutions

the interPrCtCr’ s rolc t。 rendcri11g an‘ anccs-ˉ

accu1・ atc’

transIation° f thc reRlgcc’ s uttcr~

、 vhich may c° ntain hcsitations,gra∏ nnatical crr。 rs and Ⅴari° us infehcities

~me“ 忆bly

iCoP汀 az“ tllc d“ mallt’ s chanCcs° f obt缸血ng rcfttgcc≮ atⅡ ,irrc (Barsky 1996: 52) SiruⅡ arly,thc interPrctcr sPCctivC of thc vahdity of thc clainl” must reconcⅡ c the cultural diffcrcnces bctⅥ ,ccn Canada and thc rcfugcC’ s country by adding information about thc forcign contcxt,historical,gcograPhical,P° hucal, or sociological dctails that lnay bC° n1ittcd in tcstirnony and unkn° 、 Ⅴn to Canadian judgcs and la、 vycrs,“ Insisting uPon an intcrpretation lirnitcd cxclusivcly toˇ vords

TR伶 NsLATION` COMMUNITY` UTOPIA

501

Ⅴhich could bc csscntial to thc refugee’

uttcrcd cⅤ acuatcs thc cultural data、

s clain】

’ ’

(Barsky 1994∶ 49).

idcs a tclling cxamplc of a Pakstani clairnant “'ho sPoke Frcnch Barksy pr。 Ⅴ during the hearing,aPParently in an cff°

rt t。

lcnd、 vcight to his casc、 vith thc Quobcc

auth° rities But his Frcnch vvas、 vcak,and his clailn vvas previously denicd bccausc

°F intcrPreting Problcms, as hc tricd t° cxplain: M。 i dcmandcr,rn° i dcmandcr Madamc,s’ il v。 us Plait,cctte translation 厂 lui Parlc frangais 、 ous dcmandcr, Parlc frangais Parcc qu’ elle n1’ a v° us qu’ est ce qu’ cllc a dit D诳 oi compris, D诬 adamc nΓ a dit, dosol芑 M° nsicur,scul anglais c° mPris,

(LltCrally∶ Mc灬 k,mc ask Madame,plcasc tlais订 anslauon叩 cak t。 him Frcnch You ask,spcak French Becausc shc undcrst。。d lnc,you that is 、 vhat she said A/Ic understand N】 ada∏ 1 said to mc, s° rry sir, °nly

Enghsh,) (BarSky1996:53,his translad° n)

Thc d拉 mal△ t was tcsn幻冖ng

witl△

a Pah艾ani hterPK∞ r who"ndcrcd thc br° ken

French intO intelligiblc and con1PClling Enghsh: Hc has a corl△ Plaint vvith thc interPreter thCre He sPeaks bctter Frcnch than Enghsh,but the intcrprctcr、 vas intcrprcting from urdu t。 Enghsh

Hc is not too good in Enghsh,bcttcr in Frcnch,、 vhich hc could under~ stand An intcrPrctCr、 vas ProvidCd t° interPret the hearing into Enghsh,

、 vas having a hard tiFne cxprcssing vhich hc did n。 t agrcc to. so hc 、 himsclf° r undcrstanding the O, lawyCrS,hin1sclf, and thc inter~ PrCtCr, Thcrc is nO satisfacti。 n in thc hcaring And that is One reasOn 、 vhⅤ Il° st thc casc VX/hcn cFfcctivc, c。

n△

nnunity intCrprcting ProⅤ idcs a c。 n△ Phcated ide°

res。 luti。 n for the linguistic and cultural diFcrcnccs of thc rcfugcc’

l° gical

s or imlnigrant’

s

spccch, Thc interPreting inevitably communicates the foreign text in domcstic tcrms, in thc of thc h° st c° untry, but thc d° mcstic inscriPtion als° nccds to includc a signiHcant Part of the f° reign context that givcs mcaning to tllc claim This s° rt °f intcrprcting, although sccn1ingly partial t。 thc chcnt, is not in fact ideol。 gically onc-sidcd∶ it serⅤ cs both f° rcign and domcstic intcrcsts Thc idcol。

°fthe rcs° lution is fundamentallⅤ

gy

dem。 cratic insofar as thc airll is to overcomc thc

asyn1mctrics that cxist bct、 vccn thc chcnt and the rePrcscntauⅤ cs。 fthc s° cial agcncy

“ˇ ithin and outsidc of thc intcrPrcting situation According to thc British manual, ‘ ‘ ProfcsSi° nal and chcnt, vvith Ⅴcry diffcrcnt backgr° unds and PCrctions and in an uncqual rclationship of PoⅥ /er and kno、 v~ thc c。 Π1rnunity interPrCtCr pcrn1its

ledgc,to communicate to thcir mlltual satishcti° P° rtant rcquircment for this rnutual satisfacd。

n”

(Shackman198⒋ 18)An im~

n,clcarly,is thc idca that a c° nscnsus

as to thc vahdity of the clairn, shared by the tvv° PartiCS,has cmcrged in rational

communication Yctthe c° n11nunication can be seen as rational onlⅤ

、 vhen the intcr~

prctcr s。 interⅤ cnes as to cnablc both thc chcnt to participate hlly and thc agcncy

rrcscntatives to arriⅤ c at an informcd undcrstanding of thc clai1n

502

LAx/yRENCE

∨ ENUTI

Comn△ unity intcrPreting that takes an interⅤ cntionist aPPr° ach thus PrcsuPP° sCs 、11菠 JtlrgCn Habcrmas calls an“ ideal sPccd1蚯 tuation,” distinguis11cd by con(lid。 ns ’ that arc normally“ counterfactual’ bccausc“ ilYlPr。 bablc” :d△ cy include“ °PcnnCsS to thC Pubhc,inclusivcncss,equal rights to Participation,irnmunization against extcrnal or intcrnal c° mPulsion, as un(lcrsta】 1ding(d1敲

、 vcll as thc particiPants’ oricntation toⅥ

is,the“ nccrc cxPrCssi° n of utteranccs)”

àrd rcaching 367⒈

(Habcrmas199⒏

In PrCSuPPosing such conditions, the con1rnunity interPrCtCr、 vorks ultirnately t。 f°

stcr a domcstic colnmunity that is rcctiⅤ c to forcign constitucncics,but that is

not Ⅴct reahzcd~。 r at lcast its rcahzati。 n、 vill

n。

t bc advanccd until thc chcnt is

givcn pohtical asylu1n, duc Pr° cCss, lucdiCal care, or、 Ⅴclfare l)cnc⒔ ts, as thc case may bc, EⅤ en thcn, 。f coursc, the rcctiⅤ C domcstic comluunity is PriFnarily a Pian Prqccti。 n that d。 cs n° t din吐 natc thc social hicrarchics in which thc rchgec or in11uigrant is actually positioncd Still, it docs cxPrcSs the hoPe that linguistic and cultural differenccs xsill not result in thc exclusi° n of forcign constituencics ut°

⒒°m thc d° n△ estic sccnc,Transladng n1ight be modvatcd by much m。 al)le things

rc question~

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Amos,FR(1920)￡

dr,T/`° ”es σ

llirh G幻

hdm Grccnc,tl m1s G

on,New York:C° lumbia Univcr“

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ty

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Andelson,B(1991)JillgJincd cô仞 muni冖召 sj Rg闩 cchor,s oIa rllc OⅡ 驴n cnd sP″ dd gf N口 rion虿 fjsm,revised cd止 ion,L° ndon and N(:w York:Vcrs° Al)dσ s。 n,D (1983)Pound、

d`c口 nri;△ C口 Γ

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” Translator、 in「 Jlc

Condusi。

es,0‘ rcms,tireId9

FⅡ m an(l TV B'bd35(4):193-218 11∶

semio冖 6gfsubε ir如 n卩 ,Manchestcr∶ ⒏ Jer。 ns’

Valtcr Bcnjami11’ ; 、

Rcsisr口 ncc Fo rJ,co9、

R/IlnncaPohs∶

mc

s ‘ The Task of thc

univc1・ sity of N/Iinncsota

Prcss

Dcnham,J(cd,and trans,)(1656)「 h召 ’

冫 srrucrion gf Fr⒐ ,Ⅱ n Bsq厂 uPon FJle sec° nd

s￡ nos 「丨钿Frcn in Fhc尸 d∴ 丿636,London∶ HumPhrcy Mosc19 Dcrrida,J (1979)“ LiⅤ i11g On/Bordcr Lincs,” tra】 1s J Hulbert,in Dε consr,ucrjoヵ Boo大 of I1昭 j′

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P, Kamuf,Ne、 vY° rk;

—

-ˉ

—

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「I口 dtJtˉ rion ΙirF犭 rdire

————

sch° ckcn.

Qu’ cst ce qu・ unc traductl° n‘ rclc、 àntc’ r tI・

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(2001)“ 、Vhat Is a‘ Rclcvant’ 27: 174~200,

P”

in QLIinzi宀刀召s=1ssis6dc`虿

Actcs sud,lDP2⒈ 48

TranslationP’

’

trans L Vcnuti, ChricdF Jnqui9

Dc s封 nt Exup芑 ry,A,(1946)Ι 召PcFiF

——-ˉ (1962)孔召ΙiFrfe

Princc,廿

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———… — — —

(1974)Ι 召B° n sexc∫〃usrr莒 ,Paris:Les Editi。 ns dc RIinuit (198⑴ L’ ￡咖盯口u`r口 sm山 n,PaⅡ ⒌ L~邙 E山 d。灬【 le Mh“ ⒈

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,T。 kyo∶ Hayakawa sh° bδ ExtCnding thc Thc。 ry of Translation t° IntcrPretation∶

),cd N Todaand T,ucn°

Norms as a Casc in Point,” Shuttlew° rth,M,and

.

‘ ‘

Shlcsinger, M (1989)

rd昭 cF1:111-15,

M Cowic(1997)DicrⅠ on虿丿

st JeromC, ⒏ ermarl,Κ (1983)rf,e su勿 cc芒犭

gr TrdnsFdrion srudi召 s,Man

chcstc・ r∶

lx・

⒌mon,S(199+lI召 cois召

— —

,Montrca⒈

ri・

s召 miorJcs,Oxfc,1・

fcd召 sF￠ nJue⒌

d:Oxf°

lˉ

cl ul.lvcr“ ty Prcss

Trdduc西 on召 F cuFFu犯 ddns`σ 为‘ r犭 rdrurε quJbV

Bor芑 al

(1996)Gcnder in rI・口nsfdri@n:t^tzFrur￠ F fdcnri,dnd Fhe P。 Firics∝ ‰ nsmis“ on,

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lMontrcal∶ V芑 hiculc,

⒌mon,S,and P c。 F° nicI`￡

⒌ Picrrc(c(lS)(200Ol C乃口nJi卩卩 rfl召 ‰ rIl,sf rd, OttaⅥ /a∶ univcrsitⅤ of Otta、 va Prcss

D〃 ns`d冖 nJ

Ⅰ n r乃 e PosF

522

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Spcrbcr,D,and D,Wilson(1986)R召

Fε

Ⅰ dncc Communicdr1on dnd C叼

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c冫〃c办 inì∫ ‘ 7c山 inc,

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Tabucchi,A,(1994)s°

s‘

1′

Ⅰ 召nc助 Fc夕口;U%d rc,srinaoni口

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ltatiⅤ

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,”

Tanaka J (1980)N1h。 n￡ i召 d

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f^fisF°

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FⅠ

c肫b丿 99O,

′i。 , I~ol)(]ol⒈

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mdsc凡 jnc`杨

r lJlD召 rseFz un逆

Zubcr,R,(1968)Ι

7,Ttlbingcn:Nicmcycr,

es‘ 3c″ cs乃

’ 召F′ 口j%rn2￠ F1on du Jo氵 ∠cF口 ssiqLlc;P召 rroF

乙εd爸

cr GlIcz dc Bc,`zdc,Paris;Cohn

ès’

d’ ⅡbFdnco1Ι rr

Index

abridgement484

Alain277,282

acadeIllic institutions 13-14, 180,211,

241,244,2521306, 315, 316, 342,

376, 379,398-400,416,427,429,

430,441,454,461,491-2 acctabⅡ ity of translati。

n149, 163, 165,

208,249-50, 357, 360,484 accuracy5, 15, 77, 105, 121, 125, 156,

Albee,E 359 Alcacus67 allcgory241, 355,433,487 Allcn,W∶ l/l/lldr`t/F’ ,ri孑 σΙ 〃

allusion298,407,487 Almotanabi99

'P464

Amadiumc,I 375

222,473,484,492

An△ crican Bil)】 c socictⅤ

theory of translation222-31227-8; 5cc口厶°agency

AmeIIcan Litcrar、 Translators Assooatlc川

actio1】

113, 121, 134-5, 155,

176, 178,222,241,278,484 addrcsscc in translation232;seε

Amyot,△ 32 anachr。 nisn1 102, 112, 165, 353 analytical Phi1oS°

dfst’

audience,readcr and rcadcrshiP

phy111,331,390

Anaxi1nandcr112

adcquacy∶ of translation t° forcign tcxt 5,

Andcrson,B 495-6

149, 160,203-4, 208, 210, 398,427,

Andradc,lNI dc:lf。 cum。 if,l口 287

442,484;scc‘ Ι `so accuracy, corresPondCnce,equiⅤ alcnce,丘dehty,

dn1z,,c466-7

idcntitⅤ

anthroPol°

Acschincs13,23,36

gran1mar334,474,477,479,480-1; transitiVitⅤ Al【 l△

ter,F 376

244,251-2

gy 1,4, 111, 150,226,325,

anti-Sclnitism73,437

agency369,370, 371,411-12,483;in action theory of translati。

anth。 logics223,241,

377,380

Aeschylus∶ ⅡJdmen’ n氵 n19

sec d丿 s°

l

315

Am° s,F 310

Adam° Ⅴ,A 359 adaPtati。 n16,64,

113

n,

APollinairc,G 197

APPiah,K A 7、

8、

330—

1,389-401

1rdbidn^山 Jhr、 73^ 102;、 cc。丿 scl dnd t,nc NV宀

r/,c Tl,。

rs

Arabic language95, 104, 157, 371, 372

1Ι

sunJ

【NDEX

528

72-4, 101, 105, 112, 154,266,

arcl,aisnη

Bclloc,H 73

338, 352,364,419,484,492,494,499 ArchⅡ ochus67

Bcngah languagc 330, 372, 376, 378

arca studies226

194,264,426,443,487 3c氵 ls方 1454,457,461-2

Arguedas,JM287 AHosto,L 65

Bcndey,E 239, 242,2+3-51 Bcr:eron,L 340-1

istoPhanes113 Arist° tle29, 32, 112, 114 A1ˉ

Arlt,R 283-5,338;Ι °s sjcrc

Bcrman,A 2,7,8,225,226,276-89, I。

329,334

s281,

c°

Bcrman,R 292

285

Armand,O 318 Arnhcim,R455 Artaud、

bestscllcrs in translation496 Betz,Λ 犭 288

4,73,96, 16O

Arnokl,~】

Bl)al)l)a,H8 Bible translation 14-16, 23,25-9,64,72, 83, 113, 142, 154, 155, 156-7,

A 252

Asad,T 226 Aschcid,A 450-1 Ash,I 496-8

159-60, 163 7, 170,240, 338-9, 364, 428

Ass造 ns,R,C,98

bilinguahsn159, 130, 134, 162, 293, 342,

Assises dc la T1・ aduction

audicncc65, 154, 155-6, 158, 162, 166,

241,257,296-7,363,450,463,465, 491;scc clfs°

rcadcr and readership

Augustinc4, 148, 194;Dc docrrind Chri“

Black,GA 163 Blake,W 74,76

’

Blanch° t,ˇ】483;Ι △rrε F de m。 r‘

,A 399

Bl()olu1H 316 B】

un⒈ Kulka,S

7,222,290-305,327

Boas,F 141

Auth。 rizcd Versi° n。 f thc Bil)le 159;se召

°King James Bible

Boccaccio,G 101;Dccdmcr° n97 B。

hr,N 140

452

Bonncfoy,Y 281 Booth,lM 409

erv,P 399

Borchardt, R 72,73, 82

authorshil少

5, 14, 16,40,44-5, 307-19,

Babuscio,J 310-11

Borgcs,J L 73-4,94-108 Bory,J-L ￡ d Pcd″ dcs z♂ b″ s403

Bachclard,G 278

Bradstrcet,A 123

Bac° n,F

B1ˉ

189

agt,K van150

Bl^ccht,B 240,2411243-53, 341,464;

Bakcr,M 8, 327 Bakhtin、 NI Λ 压 287-8 BalibaIˉ

317

Bloch,E 499 Blo()n△

idnd14-15

Auhls Gelhus36 Auste11,J 396

A、

347,376

Littoraire;Ades

(ATLAs)444

d厶

V,7,8,71-2,7s-83,83-5,

BClllamlI,,、

△

r‘

uj。

Ui241;Thc Cduc日

244;Dσ

,R 358,368

n Ch口丿大Circè

n)244,354— s; 口￠s″ 口。 urtzJc口 nd ih″ Kinder(Ivf@rher

Balzac,H 279,282

Go° d「 1bf,ld刀

Barnet,S 251

lrurr召 rrˉ

Barrett,R 404 Barsky,R 500-1 Barthes,R 398,415~16

si口

n攵 b vo刀 sezuJz2(Tl,e fvrc l/t・

CovrclJe dnd方 cr Chifdrcn)239-40,242,

243-52, 361; 丬Rc.F,ecr口 ‘Fc 1i%ddinJ 355

Brisset,A 8,329,337凡 8 Bristo、 v,E

K 296-— 7

Bassnett, s : Tr口 ns`drj。 n sr1`dies221

Br。 ad、 vay

theatcr242,245,247,252

Bataillon,M,368

Broch,H 279

Bausch,K R 103

Bront志 ,E ∶Ⅳur/,cr订】 f HC1fhrs298

Bassani, G ∶ rdin。 '`J】口

dcj FInzi C°

Beauheu, V L, 351 Beerbohm,Λ 亻 159 bc``cs i,,fJJ丿

纟 s17,288,307,311

nrini487

Brower,R 114 Broxx△ 1,P,and

s L~evh1son8,408 Bubcr,lM,al1d F Rosenzwcig73

INDEX Buchncr,G 177

Chinese translati° n tradition496

Btlhler,K 172, 188

Chry“ PPus29

Burkc,E 384 Burton,R F 94,95,96,97,98-101, 102, 104, 105-6

Ffdrofd’ s Pi勿

Ciardi,J 494

Ciccro4, 13, 16,23,29,36,61,431;D召 Ji v召

Butlcr,J 411 Byron,L 98, 116, 118, 120, 122;Chifde

ⅡmdJe116,12⒎

lfdz叩 Pd

119

nrion召

229;Dc° PFimo Jenere。 rdFOrum

13-14,428 Cirizen K。

nc456

chcho 134,484 closc translation53,65, 134, 153-4,475,

476,481,484,489;s召 c clfs° Cabrera Infante, G i刀

∶Ιd Htaln‘ 7n‘ z

Pclrcl vn

Cain,JM488;TJ,c Posrm口 n△ fTl⒐s

RIn孑 s

65

cohcrcnce:in textual intcrPrCtation290-1,

Callimachus67 calque129-30, 132, 134, 135,476,477,

481,492 CamPbcll,G 159

C° lcridgc,s

translation

5

T 95;“ Thc 97

Rll△ lc0f the

Ancicnt N1arincr”

Camplon,T89

col° niahslI16,8,226,309-11,329-30,

Camus,A 488,497;I’ εrrdnJcr4::^91; 298 Camus,R 417; rric大 s4o8,415;N。 Fes mn,cr臼

296-303,305;intertextua1229 cohesi° n:textua1291,294;in

291-5,30午

camP333,405-12;in translation412-21

L’ Ff°

337-8,356, 362,430,440,463 Coctzcc,JM∶ F。 c381 cognitiⅤ e theory of translati。 n326_ˉ 7

了l91ce476 Calder° n,P

litcral

translation

codc138, 139,142, 157,222,272,314,

fonrc tlifLlnro318

Caesar,J 170

ofr占

347,348,371,376,377,385,496 colloquialislu113, 165,485,497,499 conununication∶ cross-cultura15,221,228,

483;intcrhngua1139;in languagc5-6, 71,81, 113, 150,224,257-8, 391,

Ⅱchrienncs417

Carroll,L:、 abberw° cky” 396 Castlghonc,B:「 hc C° urricr16

393;in litcraturc 5,75, 81, 221;in

translation5, 18,45,75,80-2, 147-8, 150, 159, 163, 168,224, 291,304,

cataChrcsis 272,427 Catalan languagc340 Catb1ˉ

529

d,JC 148,150,151,327

312-13,326,329,331,332,334-5, 337,393,463,482 91,495-6,

Cavalcantl,G 72,87-93 Cecchctti,G 492,495

498-501 conⅡ nunlty205,206,334-5,346,483;

Cclan,P 197,285 censorshiP 332

constructcd through translation

cerf,B 99

491-502;gay403,407,412-13,416;

CerⅤ antes,M

de104,279, 338;Don

Ⅱ279 Φ Λ。

intcrPrctiⅤ C223,491;linguistic8,

173,

176,297,339,343,344,392,393,

Chambcrlain,L 7,8, 225,226, 306-22 Chan1bcrland,P 349 严and D Pollard8 Chan S,、、

c。 mParatiⅤ

ChaPiro,M 28O,281

Conrad,J 286,384;Γ

vPho。

Chatcaubriand,F R dc 116

Constantinc the Philos。

Chauccr,G 101,106,338

Pher142

convcntions∶ linguistic45, 390-2, 394-7,

Chekh° Ⅴ,A 296-7, 329, 341, 358, 359; rl,c chcr9Òrth口 rd296;Thc「 l,rec

sisFe”

353-4; L/nc丿 c Γ口 n Γ cl358, 360, 361-2

120, 124-5 Chev丘 tz,E 329

397,404;sce dfx° sohdaritⅤ

e literature7,86

cc)rnParative styhstics 114, 187

n286-7

401,450,464;litcrary395-7;of subtithng455,457-8,462,466 conⅤ ersational rnaxiIns300, 326, 391

V A 158

Ch造 nier,A

C° ° PCr,、

chiasmus 162

coPyright83, 224,251 Corneille,P 67

Chincsc languagc372,466

corPora:of translated texts 150, 184, 327

530

INDEX

corPus linguistics32s,327-8

Dcvi,ˇ 】33O, 372,373, 374,376, 377-8,

corrcctness 5, 156 corresPondencc∶

385

bet、 Vcen r。

[)’ hujst,L 150

reign and

translatcd texts5,59, 147-8, 153-4, 156,431;dynan、 ic147-8;forn、 a1147, 154;scmantic 14, 148, 154, 161,259;

dialcct18,43; 338-9,341,352, 353,368, 465,466、 483,4s5,486,494,497;sec 口/s。 non~standard,standard

styhstic 14, 161;sce d厶 tl accuracy,

Diaz~[)iocarctz,N1 319

adequacy)cquivalence,6dehty Coxxlcv,A 17, 38,40,41 CoⅥ PCr,、V

308-9

445 Dil/lorcnce1n Tr口 nsf口冖on256

Crc吒 h’ P485-7 Cr怠 n△ icux,B 359 C1ˉ

E)icklnson,E 376 dictio11arics 132, 140, 222, 340-2,440,

diglossia347, 352, 363, 364

lsp,Q 405,406,408

Cuh。 h,A

Dionysius thc ArcoPagitc142

257

direct translation128;scc口

cultural studics7, 325-6, 328-9, 333,

translati。

334,409,453 ry4, 325 Czech languagc 142

325, 326, 333 domcsticating translation 16~17,49,55 6,

60,61-2,64-5,96, 195,224,262, 334,449,463,482-3

AbIancourt,N P 8, 16-17, 31-7,73

don△ inancc370, 375,403,416,494,499;

Daniel,s 120 D’

Annunzlo,G 87,494

sce d`so major⒒ y

Dantc Ahghicri72,73,86,338,494; J,,l∶

rn@494;￡

DaⅤ idson,D

Dc B° lla,P∶

8,394 rJle D心

Donne,J 89,1O6

Nuord87

d1ˉ 氵 r口

c。

ursc

Dostocvsky,F 281,279;BJOrJat,is Kdrdrndzol`280 o+r为 c subfil,,c drama translation23⒐ 53,329,341,

384-6

352-63

dcc(xling155, 166 deconst1・ uctiⅤ e sce d丿 s。

n

discourse analysis224,257-8,291, 304、

cultural thc°

D’

′ s0hte】・ al

Drant,T 310-11,312,314-15

translation224,264,464;

6dehty∶ abusi、

Def° c,D∶

R° Bins° n

Drydcn,J 4,8, 17 18, 19,38-42,73,

c

84,463

Cr12s@c381;R° xtIn tI381

dubbing450,454,457,461,469 Du BeⅡ ay,J 339、 342,349-50、 364

dcictics258, 332;autodeixis430

Ddille,J 64,66

Dub()is,J 343

Dc lN/lan,P 83,224,330;“ Thc1)urloincd Ribbon”

386

Dc lMille,C B 103

Dun10nt,M,and NJ1 Gr誉 goire357 t,T 417,420;Pdlst,卩 e dc∏ 2nFtlisic Duve】 ˉ

412,418-21

DcluOsthcncs 13, 23, 36

Denham,Sir J 17,39,40,41

DC Q11incc),T95

Dcrrida,J7,8,9,224,256,257, 260-74,316-18, 330, 331-2, 371,

423-46,464;「 flc￡ dr￠ rhc Orhcr31⒎ Dc`d clr。 n口 F@`叼 ic378;“ Living nl′

’

C)n/Bordcr LiI1cs’ 316∶

“ La luythok)gie

blanche” r′ vhiteˇ1ythology’ )262-3,

Eaglcton,T 315-16

Eco,u 314

cdlting222,223,237 Edn△ 0ndson,`∧′ 296

Edw扯 ds,O159 Elton,O 122, 125 eml)irical research150, 184,222,292,

296,303-5,325,328,324

265-74,4+8;Posjrjons264;“ Lc retrait

c1npiricisYn6, 113-14

de la m。 taPhorc”

n9'c/t’ ￡ Pctlid

(‘

‘ ‘ Thc Retreat of

)261,263 Descartcs,R 87,278 lMctaphor’

Dcsai,A 380

Dcutsch,B 122, 125

B2irdnnicd100,106,240,245

Enghsh languagc39,s8-90, 130, 132, 139, 157, 165, 166-7,257-60,292, 330, 331, 338, 347, 371, 376, 378,

383、 425 6,430,454,476;Alncrican

INDEX

531

129, 329, 338; Ehzabcthan88;Jacobean

432,451;abusivc224 5, 262-5,271,

465;Prc~Ehzabcthan92~3,353; standard485,494;、 7ict。 rian87,492

332,464; ,e召 so accuracy,adequacy, CorrcsPondCncc,cquiⅤ alence,identity tl丿

Enghsh translation traditi()n16, 17~19

Filln10re, C 296

cquivalcncc5, 14、 73, 139, 147-9,

εllll studies325,448,452,464

210-11,221, 224,263,287, 326,335, 428,431,464,473,484;dynan1ic 156-7、 159, 162~7,29S;of cffcct or

nhn translation332,448,461;see cllso dubbing,subtithng Finn° ~ugrian languages 157

rcsP。 nse

Fish,s 223

18,+5, 152, 158~9, 160~1,

162;⒒ 〉 rn△ a1147, 156, 158, 161~2; functi(〉

11a1 148, 168, 169;

Fltts、

Iexicographica1222,2+8,485,487,

489,492,495,498;pragmatic147-8; situationa1131-2, 134-5, 137;stvhstic 72; scc cI丿、 c,adequacy,accuracy, corrcsl)° ndCncc,丘 dchty,idcntlty Erasnnus, D 32 ethics° f translati° n8, 101, 197, 223, 22s, 226, 237,277-_8, 332, 334, 372,428,

483

小 Jht。 yΓ 口 Ι ,9 399

Flaubcrt,G∶ 106

J∫

dddmc B° rd⒐ 257;s口灿n,mb咨

Flolês,s 412,419 21 Πuency in translati。 n 18,73, 113, 115,

287, 329, 334,497

Fogdin,R 395 folk talc147

Fontanicr, P 272

Ethicr-Blais,J 343 cthnoccntric translation47,62,225, 278, 281, 329, 376 cthnography111, 113, 154, 155, 226, 331 Eticmblc、

D 1l3

FltzGcralcl,E99;TJ,c RubJ!vJr tn/Om″

R 135

n5, 19, 20,49~55, 59-63,65~6,72~4, 114, 150_1, 195,

reignizing translati。

225,263i276-7, 330,332,334, 377~8 forcign loan words 101, 129~30, 136-7, 140、

European uni。 n47O,471,481;European

Parhament473,474,475,476,479; Translation service473 Eustachc,J∷

f°

「 flc llf° rher dz2」

F/,c1I71° re462

I]ven~Z° har,I 7, 149, 150, 199-204, 330 cxi8tcntial Pbcn° nlcnolog)・

71, 112,482,

489-90

157,425-6,429

forcign languagc acquisition50, 51,61,

187,379,454 fc,rmdism7,72,150,483 Forstcr,L I58 F° ucault,N/I 277,380-1 Fo、刂er,R

421,471

,P 7

cxoticizil)g translation285~6

Franckhn,T 3o8~_9

CxPhcitatioI1222, 281, 292, 304~5, ;27,

Fm父 r,J328

428

Fra、

Cxpurgati()n 16, 35,96,97,99, 1O0 hlse c° g11ates(hlSe llicnds,hux amis)

129, 157 Fansha、、 c,sir

lcy,W 221-2

Ficc translati。 n8,

14, 16, 18,40, 50,73, 8I~3,84~5,96~7, 113, 115, 128,

132-6, 153, 197,257~60,281,286, 489,497~s;see口

R 17, 39

translation

`so Paraphrastic

e,J H 163

fantastic litcraturc 106

Fre1・

严 279, Faulkncr,、、

French lan8uage32, 129, 130_1, 132,

284,285,338

七minism7,225,3o6,316,318~19,325,

sexua1

136-7, 167, 173,257 60,281,286, 292,338,339,34o~3, 346,358-63, 424-6,43o,442 3,476;Antillais286; Beaucc352;Gascon285;Gasposic 352;

Fc11g Chi253

Old286;Normandy286;parisian329;

329,330, 334,369,371,373-81,399, 410;scc cI/xcl idcntity∶

Fe1ˉ

gender,identity∶

ron,J 352

⒔dehty5, 32, 50, 52, 81~3,93, 105, 121,

148, 197,224 5,232,236,261,298, 307, 309, 311, 314, 318,326,431,

Picalˉ

(1286;Qu誉 b苔 c)is134,329, cˉ

34O-3, 346 63;sagucnay352 Frcnch translation tradition16~17, 19,62, 6+、

280

532

1NDEX Ncw

Frcud,s 285, 372

Greck Bible117, 166-7,462;s召召dJx°

Frisian languagc 157

Te哎 amcnt Grcck languagc 14, 35, 130, 143, 157,

Front dc Lib合 ration dv Qu忐 bec342

function5-6,71, 147, 163、 169-72, 185,

205,242, 329,331,335,491 functi°

nahsln5,8, 14, 16,72, 148, 149,

150,222,325,463

Gadda,CE279,28⒎ brurr° Jc,

Ⅰ id

J∫

166-7 Grcel,e,G486;Tllc Cˉ orln山 nnd△ J召 nr486

Grcsset,NI 284,285 Grcvc,F P 105, 106

Grice,P 7, 300, 326, 331, 390~— 7 Q`cr

P口 sriLci口 co。

erufcIncl 338

Ghmm,1176

Guarani languagc287

Galland,A 73,94~8,1o1,106

Gu志 “n,R

game thcory 150

Gucrne,A 282

Garneau,lNI 340,345~6, 352~3,355

Gollemin Flcscher1J257-9,267,271

Gasch忐

,R 84

Ga、 tonsky,S

16o

Guillory,J 398

311~12

Gawcda language338,364

Guimar泌 s Rosa,J279,287

Gutt,E-A 9,326-7

Geertz,C 331,394 Gcnet,J,∶ N@r犯 ~Ddmc dcs刀 eurs408

Haberm灬 ,J 502

genrc 19, 394,486;translation as74,484;

Hagstr°

sCC tz丿 stn

text tyPc

Ge° rge, s 79, 82 GermaiI】

,J-C353,355,363

Gcrman language5,16,19,82,91,129, 157, 173, 338-9,441 Gcrman translati。 n tradition7, 19-20, 71-2、

73,74, 151,223,225,239,310、

334

461

286-7

cy,K 7,8,333,402-22

Hasd° f,O

168

,B,and I

ˇ1as。 n327

Hcath-Stubbs,J 399 Hebrc、 v Bible 141 15, 24, 25~9, 73, 162,

Gilbert,s 488-91 gloss translation93, 156 G° bard,H

329,339

462;sec d/x°

C)ld Tcstament

Hebrew lan811agc157,162,292,295, 299, 302, 305

Hcgel,G W F 194,196,262,331,383,

G。 bin,P,347

441,442,443

Go(lard,B 325

Godbout,J 365-6 Goethc,J 4,8,19-20,63,6仁 ‘,82, 158, 176,231,240,447,463

182

Gold吖 nidt,V A 285 Golin°

382 Har、

Hays,H R 239,240,243~51

Gide,A 95,105,417;as translat° r135,

G。 mn,R

150,327,473;a11d R Hasan

294 Hammer~Purgstall,J Ⅴ on6566 Harris,W3823;fJ,e GllT口 nd QLl口 rrcr

Hatill△

Ger° w,A

m,WO,180-1

Halliday,卜 1

Heidcggcr,M 112, 113, 155, 194, 195,

196,261,276,281,443,446;“ The Anaximander Fragmcllt” 112

Heinc,H 163 Hemingw卟、E 488;“ The KⅡ lcr￠ ’ 298-301

,C 492

Gombroˇ vic`,、 V: Trdns△ r`dnu・ k338,364

Hclnpel,c G 184

GoodsPecd,E J 159

Hcnning,RI 102, 105

Gottingen uniⅤ

crsky223

Herder,J G 19

Graham,J224

Hennans,T 224

grammar4,13-14,17,52,140— 1,161,

hermcneutics71, 197, 309 hcrmeneutic thcory oflanguage6,8,46,

163, 187, 196,258-9, 262,272, 273, 280— 1,291-5,304, 308, 330, 375,

392,449,459,465,471

71, 112, 150;of translati°

granunar lnanuals140,242

193-8,225,312 Herrick,R 89,90

Grass,G 287

heter。

glossia287-8

n15O,

INDEX Hindi languagc95 history51,62,67, 183;of translati° n65,

irnPhcaturc111-12,259,326, 332,391, 392, 395;sce czbcl conversational maxil△ 1s,G1・ lce,P

74, 114, 184-5,211,212-△ 3,221,

225,277,317-19,326,328,329,428,

irnPossibility of translation5,35,74,347,

433,443,453,455,458,463-— 4;of translation studics2,7, 191,461; historiograPhy223

434;sec d丿 so untrans1atability

incommensurabihty51,74,224, 335,491,

492,495,496,500

Hoby,⒌ rT 16 H。 lderhn,F 73,79,80,82-3, 225,276, 279,281 Holland,P 16

indetern1inacy: of addressce233;of

HollyⅥ

Ind° -Eur° PCan

òod96,454,455,456,457,458, 460,464,467 Holmcs,J 150,180-92,328

idcntity411;of language224,264,425; of litcrary systems241;° f rncaning211;

of reading398;of translation460 languages 157

infonmation∶ as comn1unicatcd in

translation75,80— 1, 140, 155,487;sce

Holz M莶 ntta1・ l,J222,233

口厶o rncaning

Homcr14, 18, 35, 36,63,71, 127, 197, 494;fiidd17, 19, 154,308,494; O⒋ ssc,19,39,154,238 homoPh° ne,homonym419,425,429,443 H° ra,J 142

informati° n thcorⅤ 181

Horace4, 16,20,67,84, 148,310-11;

intcntion∶

inscriPtion6, 19, 329,482-3,486-7,

491,494,496,498-9 instrumental thc° ry of languagc8, 18,

224,225

△rs Pocricd5, 14,23-4,38,39

authoria1175, 331, 395-7,484;

in languagc78, 369, 390-3;in

Housc,J 148,149

Hugo,F-V 432,435,440 Hugo,V 177,282 Humboklt,W von19,71, 176

533

trans1ation79, 169,214,223,224, 393,427,472,474,478,480;scc dfsc, function,PurP。 sC,Sk° pos theory interlinear translati°

Humphries,R 314

n66, 83, 153, 162,

179

Hungarian languagc 157

intcrnct466,473

Hu shih496

interPretation6,71, 112,113, 150, 153,

Hutcheon,L 411

326, 327;and cohcrcnce296;as

HuxlcⅤ ,T,H

translation93, 139, 317

496

intcrPrcting(oral translati。 idcahsn△

n)44-6, 186;

conuη unity or liais° n500-2;conference

112

idcntity∶ cultural and p。

208;simultancOus 135

htica18, 329, 330,

335,340,345-6,353,496;gay and lesbiaI1402-3,411,413-21;gcndcr

inⅤ ariants

in translation147, 178,484,485 Itahan language87,89-93, 130, 342;

Abruzzesc296

225, 373,411,450;linguistlc369, 372, 425;as rclati。 nl)ct、 vecn foreign text

and translation5,65, 147, 153, 163,

kamiJ∷ △%” n孑 9%m口 nR良 tIrns466 Iwasaka A 457

221-2,263,440;scxua1333,411 J次 k⑽ n,J215

idiolcct287 ideol° gy8,74,

151,223,242,249-51,

Jakobson,R 7, 113-14,138-43, 172,

337,430,444,463

329, 330, 331, 334, 335, 341, 342, 350— 1, 352, 355, 356, 357-8, 361,

Japanese languagc450,453,454,465-6

363,411-12,421,449_ˉ 51,458,459,

JavanCsc language 157

464,466,481,483,491,496

JCr。 mC4,

idioms134, 162, 166,286-7 ilnitation13-14, 16, 18, 19, 38,40,48,

50,52, 54, 59,62, 121, 196, 197,278 irnPeriahsn120,66,73, 151, 334,370,

374,378,380

15-16,21-30, 148, 194,428,

462 J°

hnson,s 101

Jonson,B 38,39 u口 `° J°

′329,352,

356, 358

wCtt,B160,161

534 IN DEx ke Jc,S∝ ,J279,396,426;Π nn昭 dns I丨。

Lcccrclc,J -J 484-5

287,427

Lec° nte de Lislc, C A/1 197

Juvena129

KaRa,F 1o7,279

Lc炙 verc,A

7,223,239_55

Le。 Pardi,G

87

Lescurc,J 495

Kakar,S 373 Kamishima K 453 Kant,I 428

Levcnston,E 292

Karccvski,s 141

Lcvinc, S J 225, 318~19

Le Tourneur,P 17 Lcuvcn-Z、 vart,K

Keats,J88,120;“ The Eve。 f saint M扩 r 119

L总 vi~Strauss,

van222

C 313, 314;△

nrhroP° ′ °

J1c

sri ucfurto`c 197, 312

Kdly,L 5 Kcnny,D,328

LeⅡ ,J148,150,162 Le、 vis,P

E 7,8,56-75,224-5,332, 334,448,464

Khahdasa66 KikLlli H458 Kikuyu languagc380

lcxicon5, 113-14, 163,392,413-14,

King,T 406

hnguistics 1,4,7, 111, 139, 148, 149,

459,471

King Jamcs Biblc162,494

150, 151, 181, 187,205,221,226,

Kinncll,G 281 Klcgraf,1183

325,326~8,332,421~2;comParatiⅤ

Klossoxs∶

sk,P 277

404,491;critica1421;functional-

Knight,M 170

systcn△ ic150,333,421,471

Knox,R A,160

hteral translation5,8, 19,40,50,53,72, 80-3,84,95,96-7, 101, 115, 121,

K° ller,W

147, 184 Kora11100,105

124, 125, 128, 140, 153, 156, 160,

Koscgarten,J G L 66 Koskinen,Κ 470,472,473

162, 197,225,237,266,281,286, 288,303, 330,378, 389,392,428,

Kramer,L∶

475,492;see口

F°ggors407 Krilov,I 122 Kristcva,J 375,384;C乃

`s@closc translation, word~ft)r word translation in召 se

I9o扌

ncn384

hterary criticisn1 1,4, 79, 86, 111, 116,

Kurosa、 va A,:R口 n464-5

150, 151,221,223,226,241, 325,

Kushner,T:△

333,427

nJε

c

or contrastive 187, 205, 257;。 f

Ⅱmeric@403,405,

406,407,408 în

htcrary cxPcrill△ cntation71_-3, 334, 372,

Kyd,T 123

462,464~6 hterary languagc 360-1

Labo,L 195

hterary PrOse279;in translati°

La Fontaine,J de 106, 117, 126 Lak。 r,R

4o4,406

Ldollcle,M348,351,352,356;DcFens召 i丿

sc,e口丿 so

丿srrdFi° n dc`d丿 dnJ1`cq1泌 ♂ε c@isc 342 1Ι

Lalondc,R 353~4 Lambelt,J 150 Lanc,E 94,95-7,99, 100, 1o1, 102, 104

Lang,A 100 Lar1)aud,V 114 Latin languagc 14, 32,39, 86,97, 104,

130, 339,342,351 Lattilnore,R 158,494 La、 iosa,s 327 Lcaguc of NatilDl1s135

LeaP,w 406

no、 el,prose ncti。

n279-88;

n

htcrary studics 181, 395 cr

hterary theory4, 233, 239, 315-16, 325 lite1・

a1ˉ

y tradition+86-—

7,494,+95,499

litcrary translation5,6, 16,71~— 4,

112-13, 149, 157, 199~204,223,234, 277, 327, 331,397~4oo;、 cc口厶。drama translation,narrative ncti。 n,p° ctry translation

Litt1uann,E 97, 102, 104, 105-6 Living Theatcr250 Loeb Classical Librarv314 logic52-3, 181, 264, 330, 370-1, 375,

434,+39 Lucas,I 405

ˉ

INDEX 535 hC lresse叼 ci σ古

Luoan16,3午 ‘

286, 338;see dfso sPanish languagc

lunfard。

Luthcr,M 16, 19,64,73,79,82, 195, 338-9, 351,428,443

424-5 n1etaPhrase38, 124 metaPh° r262,272,395,427 dy

machinc translation 131, 186, 259 machine-aided translati°

metcr sec Pros°

n 186

mctonymy262,314, 372,411,419, 427 Meycr,Λ 爪 411-12 MikrianunOs,P 412,415,417 Milligan,E E 159

MacIntyrc,A 8,486 NIacKcnna,s 195 Macnaghtcn,、 V H 102 Λ 压alcr,C 318-19 m句 ohty371,377,380,500

Mi1t° n,J118,251

malor languagc371 mal° r

Mlnh-ha,T T,449-50,458 廿anslation148 n1in。 rity8, 333, 344, 380,409 n1inor languagc328, 329,483

htCr.attll e149

minimax strategy ll△

N1alhcrbc,F de 116, 117 Mallarmo,s 80 Mal。

GoJs66

mctalanguagc 128, 129, 130, 141,

ne,J226

minσ

ˇ】 alraux,A

479

N】 andelbaun】

,A 491-5,499-500

litσ

at"e149

Miron,G 347,348,352,353 n△

NIanhcirn,R 243,245-6,248,249,251

issionary translators 165

modcrnis1n71-3, 114,334,494,499

maniPulati。 n:translation as224

modernizing translation 113, 338

Mann,T243;Dr F氵 usFus252;Jos方 dnd modtllation133,137 H1s Br。

Fhcrs252;Thc〃口gjc l/fo1InF口

1n

Montaigne,M de279,281,285

252,288 M.△ rdl“

Moore,M 376

,JC95,97,101-5,106,286

Mon、

marginahty340,376,402,403,411,417, 420 ~1arloⅥ fe,C

Marsol灬

as。

sF虿

487

A/1ossoP,B 470,471,472 motl1er tongue50,51,53,56,57,59, 339,347-9,351-2, 368;and

“

To His Coy Mi虻 ress” 119

Marx,K 249,372;CdP1F口 /240;Marxism 225,244,329,457,499 mascuhnism74,225 p岖

t ola/orm】

Morris,W 101 A/Iorrison,T 383,386;Bc∫ °Γcd382,386

494

s,G 360-3

ˇⅠ arvell,A∶

ìa,A:刃

Morgenstcrn,C 170

translati。 n78,309,311,352-ˉ nativc languagc

n,I 7,8,333-+,470-81

3;sec口厶o

1Mottc,A H dela17

Masudi101

A/Iounin,G 147, 151,337-8

Mukhc巧 cc,B380

n1athcmatics74,181,183,264

NⅠ ulkay,M 180

Matsui s 457

Matthcws,J158 MatIpln,A:‰

May,R,332-3

Mund叮 ,J472,473 I吵

406

M凹

aC459

musical theater246`7

`cs o/rlle cˉ

meaning77, 138-9, 153, 161,392,395; P。 tCntia1296;in

subtithng460,462;in

161-ˉ 3,

193, 288-9, 390,484-5,487

Mdx・ llle,H 283,341;/lro灯

Di汝

lMcrllck,J,and B T Ragan416 Mesch° nnic,H 8, 151,225, 285 nacssagc: in translation 128, 129, 131--4, 136, 139, 141, 143, 154-— 8, 161-6,

168,260,484

口fso litcrary Prosc,noVcl

252,282

lMcnandcr24, 36

Nab° kov,V 8, 112-13, 11s-27, 195 narrative fcti。 n396;in translation333;scc

translation80— 1,82-— 5, 131, 132,

nationalism5,16,19,73,ll4,329,332, 342, 345, 350, 351,373, 374,453,

454,496 national languagc5,6, 339, 340, 353, 356, 368

nati° nal htcrature5,6,73, 329

National Thcatrc(UK)244

536 INDEX native language50, 53, 55, 56, 59, 347-8, 352;and translati°

n352;sec口

tonguc

rnother

n 151, 164, 195,

ttânslati°

oltcga y Gassct,J 74,175-6,194 Ota T 461-2

195,288

ncok)gism74, 101, 140,484

O"d40,41

New En妒 ish BiblC159 Ne、vn1an,F.95,96, 160 Newtua11,S 164 Ncw11)ark,P 148

○zu Y ∶Pclssjnt,助 nqr459

Ne、 Ⅴ Tcstamcnt25-9,

Panactius36

Palgravc, F 86

Pammachius21, 3o

157, 161, 163, 164,

Panncton,G 133

166, 167

Ngu妒 wa Thi。 ng o380

Pann、 vitz,R

N此 d‘

paraphrasc 197,2221 237,265,437

`nfen64 Nida,E 7, 113, 147-8, 153-67, 182-3,

364;%“ .Ird

c s。 cntˉ eo/rrdns`dⅡ nJ

182-3;and C,Taber338,364

ParaPhrastic translation15, 18, 19,28, 3s,

48,50,60-2,66, 113, 11s, 124, 126, Par° dy116,

Nir洲 1jana,T8,329-30

121, 196, 338,406,411,

Par° n° masia143,265

Paru Qu。 b。 cois342 Pasternak, B 142

non-standard dialcct484;sec口丿 s。 slang,rc n1ainder,

vulgarls111

Pastiche278

in language usc292;in translation

147, 149,200,202,207-16,288,

297-8,304,330,327,357,483;in

Pastrc,G 405

Patronagc223, 242,421

Patrick,G Z 122

translation studics5, 147;socia1206~7 N° rnes,A M 8,447“ 9 N。 rth,sir T 195

Paync,J 102, 106

Peircc,C 139

Poguy,C 197

nouⅡ c‘ zu

rc,″

2dn418 No、 alis282,463

PE卜 σ315

noⅤ e1

106,279,283-4,287-8,396-7,

pcrR)rmatlⅤ

P⑾ dcll,c,J” aIld s J Wo⒒ 辶412

4s4

△ε Ftznric497;CJa口 n卩 c350; rribune496;Comm° n″ e口氵496; c。 mP口 rcl‘ ivc Ι crdε urC492;E山 nb口 rJ为 Rcr1e″ 100;￡ n卩 h∠ irtγ 口 ,Ffisr° il398;

。bhque translation 128;scc虿厶o iec

J。

i‘

translation

Bricn,J 160 Occitan languagc340 O’

Ogawa s and Iizuka T:'11`°

e272,433,438,442

PCri。 dicals∶ c乃 i仰

iⅤ cⅠ

r

ΙiFerd9

dnd NtIr1。 lic C口

447 o’ G°

n as64,469

418,419;translati。

Nizan】 i65,66 c° lloquiahsn、

72,82

153, 196,266,281,428,461

Nietzschc,F 4,2o,67-8, 151,310

nor】 us∶

om

n76~83,87,93, 307

0rr,C、 V 158

243,277;se召 tzJso don1cstjcating n:natural

translation,translati。 nc° classicisn△

3O6-7,311-15 original c° mpos⒒ ion:diⅡ erenccs丘

`s°

natuIˉ ahzi11g translati°

originahty57~9,223,224,240,253,

P`rdf

`。 Ffi5r°

" )or大

496; t,3server244;Pocε r/495;sfcv。 nic Re丙 c″ 122;「 d昭 σ208;rlmcs gfⅠ ondm 495;%hc⒐ 242,245,252;而 fv召 ‘Ⅰ hr

rman,N 495

i孑

Okaeda S 453,454,456

丁rdP450

C)ld Tcstamcnt 154;scc c/xt,Hebrcvv Bible

Petrarch 16, 92, 116

0hvier,L 454

Pcvrchtte,R 417

O’ Neill,E 35⒎ Desjrc tJnder onolnatoP0eia134, 165

9 265; Ⅳc⒒ srdFcsmcn er489~91,

n497;N口

rbc￡ Fms357

orahty283,285 6,351,354,361

Philetas67 PhilliPs,J B 157, 160 Phil°

s。

Phy 1,4,7,8, 59-60,71,73,74,

oral litcrature 331,400

106, 111-12, 150, 182, 183,221,2531

oricntahsm74,95, 104, 226, 330

317,331,332, 378,441,442-3

INDEX PhonCtics351,352, 354,355 physical scicnces74, 150, 183,250 Pic° della lXIilândola102

537

Proust,M 279,281,283,285,364,414, 428 Ⅴcrb 134,286-7, 372, 389,3941 396,

Pr°

400

Pidgin 195

Pindar38,40,82

psychoanalysis225,253,278, 373,383

Pi11ter,H:@`J「 jm召 s294-5,302-3

Psychol° gy 185, 326

Pirandcllo1 L 359

Psych° hnguistics 150,222, 296, 305, 328

ia,C 89 Pitoer,G 359

Pubhc Broadca哎 ing systcm(US)251 corncll university Press492;

Pist°

publishers∶

Plato23,6o,61, 112, 161;Platonisn1288 Plautus29

Grovc Prcss421;Inscl Vcrlag106;

Plctt,H F I68

Oxfc,rd univcrsky Prcss86;Pushkin

Phny thc E1dcr∶ \α rurdf Hisrt,r, 16

Press78;Random H。 use 122;

Macmillt△

l1122;Ncw Dirccuons487;

Phny the Younger13

univcrsity of Cahfornia Prcss 122;

Plotinus 195

pubhshing industry86,252, 377

P】

utarch 195

P。

Pure language72,78,80,81-2,84, 349

c,EA9s

purplc Prose 165

Pocticisln492-5,499

PoeticS114,223,242,244-9,253,495 PoCtry translati° n 5, 15, 16, 17-20,

38-42,64-6,67-8,721s7-ˉ 93,

PurP。 se∶ authoria1 154;thc translat° r’ s77, 154-5;sec d丿 s0functi° n,intcntion, skoPos thC° ry

PushkIn,A 112, 115-17, 119-20, 124,

112-13, l15, 118-19, I21-7,143,

126;Eugene○ ncgin112,115~17,

154, 158-9, 166,238,279,282, 491-5

122-7;Enghsh translati。 ns of122, 124,

・ Point of Ⅴie“ 471

125, 195;French translations of122, 124; Gern1an translations of122, 124

on338

Polish lan8uagc 338

Plqmd山

Pohtencss theory333,408-9 Pohtics° f translation5,6,8,73,224, 325-6, 329, 330_1, 334-5, 374,439,

Qucchua language287 quccr studies334,409,410-12

442,449-50,462 PolysyStem417,418;Position ol translatcd htcraturc、 ithin199 204;theory of

Quevcd° Qtllnc,、

,F G dc102

VVo8,lll-12,113,218,224

QttIntilia,113,114

149-50, 325、 330 P° P。

Pc,A 18, 118, 120, 127 PoⅤ ic,A 148

P。 rtugucsc

languagc292

PoSitiⅤ iSm72,

112

l。 niahsIn8, P。 Stc°

Rabclais,F 106,279

Rabin,C 1t3 Racinc,J B 285 racisn1332, 370, 372

226, 325, 329, 330,

334, 371,376, 379,386 PoStstructuralism6,7, 22← 5, 319, 325,

328-9,332, 371, 377

Pound,E 7,8,72,86-93, 159,334 pragmatics205、 325,326, 395,415 Pragn1atic tcxts232;translations of500

Raclin,DP 122,125 Rahcl,V 226 readcr and readcrshiP47,49, 50-55,71, 75— — 6,

154, 156, 162, 170,291,

296-301,303,327,335,378,384-6, 449,452,459,464,466-7,483,487, 490— 2i494-500;、 ec口

Pratt,NI L 404,491

`s(,audience readcr-resPonsc thC。 ry223

Pr总 Ⅴost,A

rcading as translation384-6

484

ProPCrtius20,67

PrOshad,R 373-+ prosody I9, 39, 52~3,61,63,65-6, 88-92, 116-19, 121-2, 126ˉ -7, 166,

414

rcahsllI165,378,383, 384,401,464,

490,491 Rcchy,J∷

Cioòrˉ

NiJhr406;=lriss0臼 .n^r

405; I丨 %@ri tI405

Rcclam,P 105

538

INDEX

rc、 renjal thco9oF mcal△ 1ng6,ll3-14,

222

n223,239,241-5,250,251,

253-4

saint~siln° scl1・

re思 ister)04,349,354,

isra1226

n,C de279

un‘ 口

samoyed `cl66 lan思 uagcs 140

356,358, 364,

407,409,417,419,483,485,486, 489,492-4 Reiss,K 148-9,168-79

Sand,G 368 sanskrit374 SaPir-、 vhorf

e autonom〉 òf trans1ati° n 5, 8, 14,

71,72,221,327, 335;sce.I丿 sc,ndehty: abusi、 e,translati° n: as third c。 de

hyPothe§ is 392

Saussure,F dc266 sav° ry,

T 159

schclling,I∶

88

Schiller,J C F 、0n230

rclativisn1399 relc、

t氵

said,E ∶(9ricnrtI丿

rcfracti。

rclatiⅤ

sagan,F∶ Bo刂 ° rr,^rcssc49⒍ S

ancc thcOrv8~~9, )26-7

schlcgel, A VV

rcmaindcr335,427,464,484~7,489, 490,494,495,497,498-500 Rcndall,s 83-5

schlcicrmachcr, F 4, 5, 8,43-63,71,

176, 197,225,309, 334

112, 150、

rcsearch n1cthod°

l。

gy1s0;in translati° n

studies184-91,217,325~6,421ˉ

2

Ⅴon63

schlcgel, F 79

schumann,C 306, 307, 319 scicncc c)f translation 150, 182 3

retranslation358~63

scienti行 c translati°

re、 titing

101,223, 278,283,442

厂:“ Thc LadⅤ °fthe Lakc” 119 scott,sir、、

rhet° ric4,

13-14, 17, 20,22, 29, 268,

scade,J393

272,282-3,330, 370— 1,375, 380,

n 131, 187,277

Rich,A 319

scgmentation209, 228,452 S造 guinot,c, 328 semantics131, 15O, 182,390, 395

Richards,I A 185

sciniotics7, 139, 375,412,451;scc‘

383

RichardsOn, s ∶ C`tI,i、 9口 484

Richie,D 452-3,466

s@

scnsc-for-sense translation 15~17, 23-5,

Richtcr,J P 279

28, 38,41, 114, 148,428

Rieu,E V 154 Rilkc,R M 195 Rimbaud,A∶ Ιc

I丿

slgn

stuagint 14-15, 25~30 shakcsPearC,、 v 63,65, 87, 88,98, 106,

118, 120,240,279,281,329,338,

ivrc97

Bdrcd口

RiPPs,R,and Y sauvageau357

341,353,454,494;H口 m丿 cF107, 115,

Roa Bastos,A 279,287

135,453;K氵 nJ Ιccr296,444;‘ lrdc`,crla 340,352-3,355;Tl,e lrcrchdnr P厂 1vnicc

Robbins、

H 242

RobinsOn,s,and D smith:Pr‘

zcricd`

ˉ n uc` σc口 ndd1dn FrcI,山 -Π 口 duˇ 虍 dnfd^c。 zn口 d冶 n340— 1,365

Ffdndbcol Pr口 riquc

卩450

R° b@c。

423,427,430 46;O∠ 279 shclley,P 88,118;“ Thc

Fjcff°

454;sDnr,cFs

T1・ lumPh c)f LifC”

316

Robyns,C 330 Rodd,L 466

shiRs bct、 :ccn f° rcign tcxt and translati°

romanticism20,71,74,76,79, 150, 195,

6, 148, 149,208,222,267, 335,409, 485-6;。 Γcohercncc222,296~303,

239,240,241、 242,252~3, 318, 334,

305;° fc。

463,493

forn1a1 157; of rcgistcr332,485;

R。 man

translation tradition36,67,462

Rosc° n11non,carl of38,39, 307~8, 309,

scmantic140,479;。 fP。 int @translati°

of vieⅥ「

and lii】 guistic

difFcrcncc i、

,B 158

Russian language120、

n∶

`cc d`、

G 87~8,153

Rousscau,J J 282;Ⅰ 口N° uΓ dfc刀 J`。 c122

142

csion222,291~5, 304-5;

471;c〉 f transitivity471,472,474-81;

312 R° ssetti,D

RusseⅡ

l、

129, 139, 140, 141,

shilluk languagc 155

shimizu C 459 shhnizu s 453,454,457,458-60 shutdevvord1,lM,and Rl Covvic8

n

INDEX sign, signiier,signi⒔ cd 113~14, 139, 224,

262,331, 355,428,431,440;sec clΛ

o

539

systcms apProach to litcrature223, 240--4, 254,421;sec口丿 s° PolysystCn△ thcory

scmlot〗 Cs

siInPson,P +73-4,479 skoPos thc° ry223,227-8, 325

Tabucchi,A 487;sosrjenε

Pe`cjr口

485-7 Taotus16,31,51 Tamura Y 457,458-60

slang74, 101, 165,286,465 slavic languages 142

smlthcrs,L' C 99

targct oricntation149,205,483~4

sociolcct287, 352, 354, 356、

357,363

Tasso,T 65 n 13I, 187, 235,277,

sociology 183;of translation 185

technical translati。

sohdarity379,407,408

326,500 Tennyson,A 88,95,107,494;JI,

sontag,s:“ Notes。 n CamP” 409 s° Ph° clCs80,82, 197,276;△ nr】 f° nc250

″emo,Idm119;“ ulyssc￠ 493

sOurce oricntation161-2

Tcrcnce23,24,36

soutcr,A 160

tern△ nology140,

SPalding,⒈ 】 122, 125

sPanish languagc95, 1O4, 165,279,286,

340,474;Argcntinc95,286,338; ˇ】 exican 129;Peruvian286 speech act thc° ry424 SPe1liI1思

sPCrbCr,D,and D

、 VilsOn8~9

SPitzCr, L 283, 285

ak,G C 7,8,330,369-89

text linguistics 171, 205,233, 326

teXt tyPe8, 147, 169, 171-3, 184, 187-8, 209,327;sce dfs° gcnrc 123~6, 148-9, 170ˉ 立1

tcXtua】 anal、 sis

288-9, 305, 326, 327, 332-4,421-2, 475 tCXt Varicty 173, 238 Thc。 critus36,67

lnas,D 372

standard dialcct19, 350,484,485,4941

T11。

497,499 stanislaⅤ sky,K 248

Th。 mso111J

srdr吖drs456 Steiner, G 6, 7, 8, 150, 193-6, 282,

312-14

163

山flars94^7, 101-4, 105, 106-7,286;scc d厶 o△ rdb1口 n

rhc Tla。 uscInd ond r,ne、

\Ⅰ

fl’

ε s

t11ink-aloud Protocols213, 328

stcn1n1cr,(J 292

Toda N 453-4

stcndha195

T(ist。 y,L

stcreotypc329,404,450

Tottel,R 16

s℃ rnbcrg,JⅤ

r。 ccD457,458,460 °n:″ 。

stcrnc, L 279 steⅤ c11son,R

L 121

storr, F 159 stⅡ

ndberg,A329,358,360;″ iss Jtlhc

360—

161-2, 187, 338,471;

n studies 182-4

184-5,223,224,225,226,278-80,

355^6

sPcnccr,⒈ 1 496

sPiⅤ

of translati。

1,362

279

Tourncur,C 106 Toury,G 7,149, 150,205-18,297,330, 483-4 「rddurrore, rrcld丿 F@r召 142 translatability8,76,83,84, 111-14, 139,

262,297,3s6,424-30

stylc in translati°

n56, 159~60,483,486,

488-91;Jcc c厶 c camP,htelη ry Pr° sc,

translatcsc372, 378 translation:abusi、

c448-9,463-7;as

aRcdik。 f lclreign text76-7,443,487;

poct1cs

subtithng332,447-67

annotated96, 100, 106, 117, 127, 1s4,

298,331,399、 427,429,

sullivan,A 407

156, 162、

surrcy,carl of16, 116

466;as aPPr° Priation334,427,462,

s、

veJish language 157

s、

inbun1c,A 88,98, 1O6

swiR,J∶ Gu/乃 Γ σ、Tr口 vc厶 170

synonomy 139,221 syntax sec gran△

mar

463;cannil)ahstic312;and canon f°

rInation94,244,252, 319, 341, 359,

430,440,441,483,490,491,492, 494;vs commcntary260,261,273-5; and comlnissio11234-8;as convcrsion

540

INDEX

431,435,443;c° vcrt 148;cultural

transposition 132, 133, 136, 143

381, 383;deforn1ing tcndencics。 f

Trcmblay,M. 356-8;and translation

278-88;expurgatcd96,97,99, 105;

357-62

gendcrcd rresentations()f306-19; hyPertextua1278;indircct or

Triolet,E 358-9, 361-2, 368 TurP,G 354-5, 359, 361

intern`cdiatc359;in institutions332,

T、 vi language 331, 389, 393, 394

333-4,470-81;intedingua1139;as i11terPrctation19,93,139,222,224,

Tynal1,K 244 T〉・ tlcr,A,F ll4;￡

232-4,259-60,261, 312,326;

Trransf。 riDn18-19

ss9'。 n山 eP,氵 nciP丿 e’ o/

interscn1iotIc139;intrahngua1 139;

invisiblc163,334,461,465,472;and hnguistic dircrcnce2591 293,295,

unconscious in translation225,278,283, 352

Undcrhill,R M 159 urÈsco473,479;C° uricr473,474,475,

304-5;as litcrary genrc or111ode74、 76,79;and thc lnarketl冫

lacc319,328,

498;natura156,60, 156) 163-6;and oCdiPal trianglc311-12, 318;oⅤ ert

477,478,479 Ungaretti,G 491-5,499

148;Pietistic311ˉ ˉ12;Prcfaces to338, 363,420;radica1111;as1ˉ ecoding139; rclc、

unit° f translation132, 161, 171,428,

452 uni、 ersals:(,fc。 gnition326-7;oflanguagc

ant9,426,440,443;as

rePresentation260— 1,471;the selcdi° n 60,147,150,313,333;of sul,lcctiⅤ ity n151,208,222, °ff【 )reign texts for199~200,209,319, 415-16;of translati°

482;thick399;as third codc222;

288,294,426

unnaturalncss in53;scc dlso closc, dcconstructlⅤ

untranslatability3s, 140, 143, 193, 224,

c,dircCt,domestlcating,

264, 331, 382,424-30,432,440,441,

drama,cdln° centric,cxoticizing,hhn, 445,462,465,465,466 f° reigni” ng,⒒ cc,gloss,intcrhnea1・ , uPdikc,J∶ RtZl・卜ir R口 n301 1ite1ˉ

al,litcrary,machiI1c,modernizlng,

naturahzing,obhquc,paraPhrastic,

Urquhart,T 106 utoPianism498ˉ

Poetry,scicnti丘 c,scholarly,sensc-R)rscnsc, teChnical, 、 v° rd-for-、广 0rd

-9;in acadcn1ic disciPhnes

n71,498-500,502;in

180;in translati。

translation studics 181, 319

translation criticis∏ 1 190, 278

tlanslauon su atc妒 es。 r met11。 ds5,8,

Vaillant,A 142

13 20, 35-6,49~50,72-3, 114, 128-37,221,225,237,327,330,331,

Valory,P 114 Vallc Inclan,R∶

333, 334,470,474,478

Tirdnc,Bt,nJerds287

Xrenuti,L 334-5,464,472,482-s02

translation studies:as an academic

Vermeer,HJ 7,8,223,227-38

disciPhne1^4, 150, 181-4, 221,223, vcrnacular15, 114,285-7,339, 340, 342, 325-6,448,452,470;dcscriPtive 150, 343, 351, 357, 3s8, 360, 376 184-5, 334,47s;cxPcrIIllCnta14, 148, Vian,B 359,360~ˉ 1

328;and litcrary theory239;Pure Vidal,G 412; rl,c ci吵 150, 18仁 91;see t。厶°en1Pirical rcscarch, 412-15,417 185、

rescarch lncthodo1°

gy

Vidor,K:

translation theory4-6, 13,71,72, 111, 147, 148, 149, 185-9, 226, 309, 325;

fcmil)ist318-19

ri总、 nct,R

`dnd r乃 c

「Jle ChdmP459^61

464

Vietnamese languagc 371

Vinay,J-P,and J Darbel11et8,128-37,

translator training 1,4, 11+, 149, 189,

225, 226

211,223,325,326

Virgi117, 36,38,40, 114;△ ′ 、 itcz,A 359 transParency in translati° n5,427,433, 442,462;as illusion17, 151,329,334, Vivckananda373-4 497;as rcnectl。 n of thc lrD1c恕

81

Pifftir

n tcxt60,

c刀

voss,J H 19,20,63,65,197

Vosslcr、 K 73,151

eid277

lNDEX 541 vulgarisn1 165,409

Wittig,M 372

Vulgate15~16

vvord-R,r~、广 0rd translation5, 13, 15, 16,

18,23,24,28,36,38-9, 130, 148, 厂、、 ai、vai langua8c 165 、、

428 、 V° rdsxs0rth,、 V

àlkcr, A 372

Wallcr,E 38 、 Vard,ˇ I 488-91

74

Wyatt,sir T 16 Wvchf6tc Bible 15-16

、 Veil,G

102,105 、Vcinbcrg,H 455-7

Xcnophon23

Wcinmann,H 347 Yan Fu496

Ⅴcst,C 、

B 153 White,E 408,415-17 Wh。 rf,B L 140

※

YarmolinskI,A I22

Yodogawa N 460

`cland^C M 65、、 Ⅴ ilamcnvitz-N/Ioellendo11r,u WiⅡ e,O:rFlc宀 “u~σ Willc仗 ,J243

Young,E∶ NV乃 r

66

Doll口

Ⅴ。n73 n Gr⒐ 102

Zohn,H 83-5

、Villiams,T 357

Z° la,E

、Vilson,E

Zulu la11guagc157

489-90 Wllss,、 V 150, 183

Tl,o1u乃 Fs17

Young,R : Tt,non]o7丿叼 Connccrj°

279

Zulli languagc 164-5

n465-6

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