Applied Translation Studies 4y5x3z

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Applied Translation studies Written By

Mr. Khizar Hayat (MA English, Lecturer at GDC Gulabad)

Submitted and composed by: Shahid Said (Hilal) (Student of BS English at GDC Gulabad)

Preface The topic Applied translation studies (written by Mr. Khizar Hayat) related to Applied linguistics. The main aim or purpose of this submission is for the incoming students of BS English as well for MA English linguistics students, to provide help in their studies. The topic is in easy diction, for initial students. This is a broad topic and difficult to access of such material in internet, and we haven’t seen any good book for such topic. My aim is to make it easier to help the students from tiresome searching of mentioned topic. (Shahid Hilal) [email protected]

Contents: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Definition History of translation Principles of translation Theories of translation Methods of translation Tran. Methods, procedure and strategies Translation of metaphor What is the comparison between Urdu and English speech act? Difference b/w semantic and communicative translation

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Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Applied Translation Studies Translation The process of translating words from one language to another language. The act or process of translating something into a different language. The act/process of changing into a different language from one form to another.

History of Translation 

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When tell about it, we should talk about theories of figures emerged in its different periods. In fact each era is characterized by specific changes in translation theory. That changes different from one place to another in development of translation in western world is not the same as an Arab world. Translation in the western world

For centuries people believed in the relation of between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the book of Genesis. 

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According to Bible, the descendants of Noah decided (after great flood), their settle down in the plain in the land of Shinar. Their they committed a great sin, instead of setting society there that fits God well, decided to challenge and build a tower to reach Heaven. The plan not completed, as God knew their wish regained controlled over them through a linguistic stratagem. As a result different languages so as to not understand each other then, he scattered them into the earth. After that indent the number of languages increased. The people started to look for ways to communicate. Birth of translation studies, and increase of research in the field, people started to look away from this story of Babel and looked for specific deals figures related to the history of translation. According to researchers, writing in translation so bade to Romans.

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Eric Jacobson says that “translation is a Roman invention”.

He says that Cicero and Horace (1st century BC) first theorist who distinguished between word for word translation and sense for sense translation. Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Another period turning point related in translation development related to ST Jerome (14th century). Later on, translation up bible much debate among western theorist for more than thousand years, and the conflict was intensified in the reformation in (16th century) when translation use as a weapon both in dogmatic and political conflict.

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Invention of the printing press in 15th century played in important role in the development of translation.

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17th century brought many influential like Sir John Denham (1615-59), Abraham Cowley, (1618-67), John Dryden (1631-1700), who was famous for three types of translation, metaphase, periphrases, and imitation, and also Alexander Pope (1688-1744).

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18th century, the translator was compared to an artist. More ever with new theories and volumes in translation process, the study of translation started to be more systemic.

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Alexander Fryer Tayler’s volume of principles of translation (1791), most influential studies published at that time.

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19th century two conflicting tendencies as a Category of thoughts and saw the translation as a creative genius who enrich the literature language in to which he is translating.

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While the second considered them as a mechanical function making a text.

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Romanticism led to the birth of many theories and translation in domain of literature particularly poetry. Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1863), translated Rubayat of Umer-Al-Khayyam (1858).

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Second half of 20th century, study of translating important course in language teaching and learning at school. Different varieties/methods of translation developed is GTM. Studies the grammatical rule and structures of foreign languages enteral models, not only required, only word for word substitution in translation, but also cultural understanding of the people (how they live, talk etc.).

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Another model appeared in the period is was text-based translation methods, where focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation. Is period is characterized by pragmatic and systematic approach to the study of translation. Most important figures are Jeam-Paul Vmay, Darbelnet (1958). Alfred Malblanc (1963), George Mounin (1963), John Catford (1965), Eugene Nida (1964).

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Nowadays, translation researchers started to take another path which is more automatic invention of internet development is communication digital material has increased cultural exchange between in the nations. As a result translation techniques which translated more a waste less.

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Cinematographic translation, audiovisual translation (screen translation) concerned with all kinds of TV program (films, dramas, documentaries) this field is based on computer and translation software programs. In fact audiovisuals translation marked a turning point is the field of translation.

To sum up, translation very rich history west since it’s both, translation was the subject of much controversy among theorist. Each approach it from his own ideology and full of study.

Principles of Translation These are following in numbers: 1. Meaning: the translation should reflect the accurately the meaning of the original text. 2. Form: the ordering of the words and ideas should make the original as closely as possible. This is particularly important in in translating legal documents, guarantee, contract etc. however difference in the language structure often require change in the form and order of the word. 3. : in linguistics mean the variety of language typically use in a specific type of communicative sitting: an informal , the of scientific discourse. 4. Source language influence: one of the frequent criticism of translation is that it does not sound ‘natural’. This is because the translator’s thoughts and choice of words two strongly molded by the original text.

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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5. Style and clarity: it will be better if the translator does not change the style of the original. But if it is needed, for example because the text is full of repetitions or mistakes in writing, the translator may change it.

Theories of translation 1. From the beginning of 20th century, onward GTM (Grammar translating method) was used to learn a foreign languages whose origin can be found in the way Latin and Greek used to be approached. 2. This method was later applied to modern languages which concentrated on learning the grammatical rules of TL (Target language) and the carried out a literal translation. 3. Translation exercises more considered to be a way to be learning of FL (Foreign language) or reading a FL (Foreign language) text. 4. Later on 1960 century and 1970 century, GTM (Grammar translating method) lost is popularity with the appearance of the communicative approach. 5. The method CA focused on natural ability of the student to learn an FL (Foreign language) and attempted to represent the daily routine in classroom focusing in spoken language instead of using sentences that more out of context. As a result this method abandoned the translation method in its classical form. 6. The second half of 20th century a new generation of scholars worked on the same approach to establish a more systematic analyses of translation and so all of them focused on a closer linguistic approach. 7. With the emergence of the new theory, a new discipline arose, the theory of translation or translation studies. 8. During the 1980 century, Newmark lugli liglied the fact that there was not much written about this theory of translation, and some new contribution were necessary.  British scholars said that Nida was the first linguist to be considered about translation.  Newmark man contribution to the discipline distinction he establish between the concept of communicative and semantic translation. 9. As a result due to the scope of the discipline, 5 approaches developed about the theory of translation in 1960, they are: I. The North American translation workshop II. The Mot-a-Mot theory (George Mounim) III. The Science of translation IV. Early translation studies V. The poly system, and deconstruction

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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1. The North American translation workshop: The translation workshop concept was a common practice in the universities of USA during 1960 century. The concept was mainly exercised Lowa and Princeton was based on the ideas of LA Richard whose approach reaching workshops and practical criticism, began in 1920 century. Mechanical rather than creative, it did not have much interest for the general public. Both theory and practice were segregated and emphasized that translation process can be done through comparative literature. The Belgium Scholars Theo Herman’s said that translation is the process of studying and comparing literature in a translational and transcultural way which paned the ways for cultural studies.

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George Mounim Mot-a-Mot theory a. Along with other theories of translation which emerge during 1950c and 1960c, Mounim theory also emerged which examined linguistic uses of translation. b. He said that in the 1960c in Europe there was no other study on this subject based practice. c. Universities such as Paris, Genève, Naples etc. had then own course on translation, and they inserted in the practice of the language through translation without dealing with the theory itself. d. According to Mounim, all arguments against translation are simplified in just one: it is not the original and it is impossible to achieve the perfect product and we might conclude that the so called a translation is not possible. e. Further he said performed a vital role in human culture and interactions, and open up multiple works of literature to which access would otherwise be denied. f. He give us a few insights into how he considered a text should be translated, one of these ideas is Mot-a-Mot (word for word) inherited from 46BC. The metaphases is the most faithful translation to the original. It respect the text and it consist in translating words on by one.

3. The Science of Translation. (The concept of Equivalence) Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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a) The main representative of this theory are, Noam Chomsky, Eugene Nida, Jeen Paul, and Erik Jacobson. Etc. who use the word equivalence, for the first time, but the concept of equivalence emerge many controversies among theorist. b) According to Jacobson, there are three categories in the concept of translation:

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Intra-lingual (re-writing): an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. Inter-lingual (proper): most traditional way of translating, and interpretation of linguistic signs by means of some other language, this method is considered to be the genome one. Inter-semiotic (transmutation): an interpretation of verbal signs by means of non-verbal sign system (when a text is translated into a non-verbal text, such as music film, are painting). However Jacobson insisted that the perfect equivalence between words and languages does not exist, but Newmark thinks on the worthy and says, that all translations on the based on the theory of language, and does not entirely agree with Jacobson in this respect.

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4. Early translation studies (James Holmes) a. As a discipline around 60 years ago, James Holmes and Andrea Lefevere were considered as precursors. b. The main target of translation change from being a language learning to a field of Academic investigation. c. Holmes called it a Science and gave it the name of translation studies (TS), in this article the name and nature of translation studies. d. Then divided translation studies (TS) in three sub Categories:   

I. II.

Descriptive Theoretical Applied

DTS ( Early translation studies): focusing on the study of existing products (textual study) = (the phenomenon of translation). (TTH )(Translation theory): (aims to translation, the general parameters and models that can help, explain and predicts the general principle to product and explain such facts in an abstract manner).

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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III.

AT (applied translation): focuses on learning, critical and historical goals.

Translation methods 1. According to Larson, translation method is divided in two categories: I. Literal translation II. Idiomatic translation 2. Literal translation mean, that translation faithfully followed the forms of SL (Source language) 3. Idiomatic translation means that try to conveys, the meaning intended by the source language with in a natural form of receptor (Target language). Further Larson explained that in applying the literal translation, there is rarely a true translation, the method spread for the translation were from very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, idiomatic, and unduly free the continuum is drown is follow. Between lines, alternate lines of different languages TL (Target language). i. ii.

iii. iv. v.

vi.

Very literal: is an interline translation. Literal translation: as a translation which at sounds lives non sense and his little communicative value. It may be useful for the purpose related to the study of the source language, they are of little help in to speakers of the target language, who are interested in the meaning of the source language text. Modified: literal method are a way to modify order and grammar of the source language and acceptable sentence in the target language. Inconsistent mixture: mixes literal and idiomatic translation in the final draft of translation. Near idiomatic: translation reproduced the meaning of the source language in receptor TL (target language), language without losing the natural form of the idiomatic translation reproduce the meaning of the target language in the natural form of the receptor language. The unduly free translation adds extraneous information which is not stated in the source text. It change the meaning of the source language, it distorts the fact of the historical and cultural sitting of the source text.

Similarly Newmark uses eight methods in his classification about translation, they are: i. ii.

Word for word (Mot-a-Mot), literal,

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

faithful, semantic, communicative, idiomatic, Free Adaptation

That divided in to two scopes: The method closest to the source language, and the method closest to the target language. He put them in the form of a flattened diagram as follows: 1. The method closest to source language a) Word for word translation: the source language is translated word by word. b) Literal translation: the source language grammatical form are converted to their nearest target language equivalent. c) Faithfull translation: the method tries to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraint of the target language grammatical structures. d) Semantic translation: this method concerned with aesthetic value that is the beautiful and natural sound of source language text. Further the methods is based on an appropriate meaning, so that no assonance ( the reputation of similar/identical vowel sound (with differ consonants) or reputation in this translation) 2. The method closest to the target language: a) Free translation: the translation which is not bonded structure and manner. b) Adaptation: the method is the freest form of translation. It is frequently used for plays, comedies, and poetry. c) Idiomatic: reproduce the message of the source text but tend to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. d) Communicative: this method attempts the reader the exact contextual meaning of the original and such a way that both context and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

According to Robert Halmes, there are four method of translation: 1. First method returned the form of the original 2. The second attempt to discern the function of the text in the receiving culture and seeks parallel function within the target language.

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3. The third is context derivatives, taking the original meaning of the primary text, and allowing it to develop it to its own unique shape in the target language. 4. The fourth deliberately retains maximal similarity for other purposes.

Andrea Lefevere, further enrich Halmes description. According to him, there are seven methodologies of translation. Especially in the translation in the translation of poetry they are: 1. Phonemic translation: which attempt to reproduce the source language Presley in target language. 2. Literal translation: which distort the sense and syntax of the source language. 3. Rhymed translation: where the translation enters into a double bondage of meter and rhyme. 4. Poetry into prose: which change both of sense and syntax of the source language (how words are unbound to form phrases sentence). 5. Blank verse: the restoration or again imposed on the translation, but the greater accuracy and higher degree of literalness obtained or noted. 6. Interpretation: is the theme and rewrite it to make the text easier for reception. To sum up Newmark adds that there are two best methods of translation. A. Communicative translation: in which they attempts to produce the same effect of the target readers. B. Semantic translation: in which the translator attempt within the syntactic and semantic constrains of the target language, to reproduce the process contextual meaning of the author.

From these methods above both Newmark and Larson explain, that the selection of the appropriate translation methods plays an important role in making a good translation. It means that the target language reader read the translation text with confidence, that the text they read second like the original text. Several Indonesian experts of translation such as Machala (2000-50) and Widyamartina notices that Newmark methods of translation are the clearest and it can be observed in a translation text. The use of translation methods depend on the translator needs whatever method he/she uses, the main point in translation is to carry message in source language in to target language well.

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Translation procedure, strategies and method Translation typically use to transfer written or spoken source language text to equivalent written or spoken target language text. The purpose of translation to reproduce various kinds of texts including religious, literary, scientific and philosophical text. In another language and this making than available to order reader. In this regard Culler (q1976) believes that languages are not nomenclature and the concept of one language may differ from that of another. The since each language organizes the world differently and each language has their own rules and regulations. As a result, the problem of translation due to disparity among language. The bigger the gap between the source language and the target language, the ore difficult the transfer of message from the former to the later will be the difference between source language and target language and the variations in their culture make the process of translating and real challenge. The translating procedure, as defected by Nida (1964) are as follow: 1. Technical procedure: a. Analysis of the source and target language. b. A through study of the source language text before making attempt to translate it. c. Making judgment of the semantic and syntactic approximation. 2. Organization procedure: constant reevaluation of the attempt made contrasting it with the existing available. Translation of the same text done by another translator, and checking the text communicative effectiveness and studying their reactions. Seguinot (1989) believes that there are at least three global strategies employed by the translator: a. Translating without interrupt on translator. b. Correcting surface errors immediately. c. Leaving the monitoring for qualitative errors in the text to the revision state. Furthermore, Bell (1998), differentiates between global and local strategies and uniforms that this distinction result from various kinds of translation problems. Jasas Kelainen (2005), divided strategies into two main categories: a. Some strategies relate to what happened to text, while b. Other strategy relate to, what happen in the process. In order to classify the distinction between procedure and strategy, we should focus: a. Procedure of translating on culture specific concept (CSCs), and b. Strategies of translating allusions (STAs).

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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1. Procedure of translating culture specific concept (CSCs): Graedler (2000), puts forth same procedures of translating: a. b. c. d.

Making up a new word Explaining the meaning of source language instead of translating it. Preserving the source language term intact. Opting for a word in target language, which sees similar to, or has the same “relevance” as the source language .

According to Newmark (1988) following are different procedures of translation: a. Transference: it is the process of transferring source language in to a target language. b. Naturalization: it adapts the source language words first to the normal pronunciation, them to the normal morphology of the target language. c. Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the source language with a target language one. d. Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a cultural-neutral word. e. Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the culture-bound- (CBTs) in explained. f. Componential analysis: it means “comparing source language word with a target language word which has a similar meaning. g. Synonymy: it is a “new TL equivalent”. h. Modulation: it occur when the translator reproduce the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL. i. Recognized translation: it access when the translator normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional . j. Compensation: it occur when loss of meaning in one part of sentence is compensated in another part. k. Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. l. Couplets: it occur when the translator combine two different procedure. m. Notes: notes are additional information in a translation. It can appear in the form of footnotes.

2. Strategies of translating illusions: Proper names, which are defined by Richards (1985) as “names of a particular person, place or thing” and are “spelled with a capital letter” play on an essential role in a literary

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works. For example let us consider personal PNs they may refer to the sitting social status and neutrality of character, and really demand attention rendered into a foreign language,. There are some models for rendering PNs in translation. One of these model is presented by Harvey and Higgins (1986), who believe that there exist two strategies for translating PNs. They point out, “either the name can be taken over unchanged from the source language to TL, or it can be adapted to confirm to the phonic conventions of the TL”. Regarding the translation of PNs Newmark (1988) asserts “that normally people first and sure name, the names are transferred, this preserving nationality assuming that their names have no connotations in the text”. The procedure of transference cannot be asserted to be affective where connotative and implied meanings are significant included there are some namely, the Persian poet Sa’di’s work Gulestan, which hear connotations and require a specific strategy for being translated. Newmark (1988), situation of the mentioned problem is as follow. “First translated the word that underline the SL proper name into the TL and then naturalized the translated word back into a new SL proper name”. “However there is shortcoming in the strategy in question”. It seems it is useful for personal nine strategies for the translation of key phrase allusions are proposed by Lappihaline (1997, as follows

1. Use a standard translation 2. Extra allusive guidance added in the text 3. Minimum change, that is, a literal translation without regard to connotative or textual meaning. 4. The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator notes, and other explicit explanations not supplied in the text but explicitly given as additional information. 5. Internal marking that is addition of intra-allusive allusion. 6. Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing. 7. Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques, creative construction of a age which hints at the connotative of the allusions. 8. Replacement by the TL items. 9. Omissions of the allusions.

Various strategies opted for by translators and rendering allusions seems to play a crwwal role in recognition of connotative carried by them. If a novice translator renders a literary text, without paying attention to the allusions, the connotative likely not to be transferred, as a result of the translators failure to acknowledge them. They will be entirely lost to the majority of the TL readers and the translations will be ineffective. Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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It can be claimed that the best translation method seem to be the one which allow translator to utilize ‘notes’. Farther more: employing ‘notes’ in the translation both as a translation strategy and a translation procedure seems to be indispensable so that the foreign language readership could benefit from the text as the ST readers do.

Translation of Metaphor 1. Metaphor can be defined as a “direct comparison between two are more apparently unrelated things or subjects. The point of similarity maybe physical, but often it in chosen for its connotations”. (Newmark) 2. Newmark (1988) discuses a number of function of metaphor to show resemblances, to create emotion effects, as an object of interest for media and lastly later becomes dead or literal language. 3. According to him, translation theory is mainly concerned with the serious purpose of metaphor, which is, describe on entity, events or quality complex way than is possible by using literal language. 4. There are five using for metaphor, which define its various related concepts. Firstly, “object” is the item describe by metaphor. Secondly, image is the item, or of which the object is described. Thirdly “sense” is the point of ‘similarity’, between object and image. Fourthly “metaphor” is the actual word taken up. Lastly, the “metonym” is a one word image which used in place of the whole and has a potential to become “dead metaphor” (literal language).

Types of metaphor According to Newmark there are six kinds/types of metaphor: 1. Dead metaphor: that metaphor “which related to universal of time and space, general ecological features and main human activities.” Dead metaphor have become literal language because s don’t recognize them as metaphor, so their images are lost. Idioms, metonyms and words accepted as technical also become dead metaphor. They add to the number of words in a language “foot of a hill”. 2. Cliché: they lie between stock metaphors. There metaphor are as use as a substitute for clear thought, often emotionally but, but without corresponding to the facts of the matter. They usually consist of two types of collocation figurative adjective and literal noun e.g. filthy lucre, or figurative verb and figurative noun e.g. ‘explore all avenues. 3. Stock metaphor: according to Newmark stock metaphor are as “an established ,metaphor which is an informal context as an efficient and concise method of covering a physical and are mental situation referentially and pragmatically, they may have cultural

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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distance, maybe used universally or at least in a wide spread sense, and may have subjective aspects. 4. Adapted metaphors: they are actually stock metaphor before adapted by the writer and speaker into a new context. 5. Recent metaphor: these metaphor as “a metaphorical neologism, often anonymously, wined, which has spread rapidly in the SL” they are often categorized as a slang. 6. Original metaphor: these metaphor are created or quoted by the SL writer. They contain the core of an important writer’s message, his personality, and his comment on life. These metaphor are not only complex but have double meaning. They might also contain “personal or dialectal irrational element particular to the imagination”.

Procedure of metaphor translation

According to Newmark, there are seven procedure of metaphor translation: 1. The same image is reproduce in TL. One word metaphor are commonly translated by this method, while translation of complex metaphor or idioms depends on cultural overlap. 2. SL image can be replaced with a standard TL provided that it is actually compatible in target language, and presumably coined by one diffused through popular speech. Stereotyped metaphor should be converted to sense, whether they exist in TL or not. 3. The metaphor can be translated as a simile while retaining the image. This modifies the shock of metaphor, particularly of TL text is not emotive in character. This procedure can be used for any type of word, and original metaphor. 4. The metaphor can be translated as simile along with its sense (or metaphor plus sense). This is a compromise procedure and combines communicative and semantic translation together which address both layman and reader. 5. The metaphor can be converted into sense this procedure can be applied in any type of text. To perform this procedure, the sense of metaphor should be analyzed be image is pludst-dimensional. 6. SL text should not be authoritative or expression of writer’s personality, the translator should make decision after imaging what is more important and less important in the text. 7. Sometimes translator wants to make sure that image will be understood properly so he adds a glass as well. This he transfers some metaphor along with it sense it “the tongue is a fire” can be translated as a “fire rains things, what we say also rain things”. This may suggest lack of confidence in metaphor, power and clarity, but it can be useful if metaphor is repeated. Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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What is the comparison between Urdu and English speech act? Language Nowadays, in common sense the language is just used for interaction or communication between two or more than two persons. The language is a worldwide speaking tool that has mostly used in many occasions, cultural dependent ceremonies, and in many others…

What is a speech act? Modern linguistics has been referred to as the study of language as a system of human Communication. A main observation is that language can be used not only to describe the reality, but also to change the existing reality. In simple words it can be asserted ‘To speak is to act’. Linguistic acts that intend to influence the reality are commonly called speech acts. Speech acts play an important role in effective communication; these acts are functional units in communication.

The philologists classified the speech act in two classes: one is direct and other one is indirect. The direct speech always depends on the structure of sentence. For example if we say “stop making noise” so this mean in Urdu “Shor machana bas karo ya band karo”, the Noise used for “Shor” stop used “bas karo ya band karo” and making used for “banana ya banaw”. After these the listeners or hearer understand that what the teacher or narrator want to say…. Another one is indirect way, in this case the hearer mostly confused. For example, if you sit in the computer library and your colleague asked from you “are you teaching at nine?” You answered in short “NO” so he/she became confused and thought or saying in mind or lightly “maybe he’s busy with computer or his mind is not ready to prepare a class”. So in this case mostly misunderstanding occur.

A contrastive study of speech acts in Urdu and English Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Acknowledging that, numerous second language acquisition (SLA) studies have also focused on the acquisition of speech acts, pragmatic awareness and pragmatic judgment. These studies have covered various speech acts such as invitations, requests, greetings, refusals, apologies and compliments. The present study highlights the significant contrasts in the speech acts in the Urdu (an Indo-Aryan language spoken world widely due to South Asian Diaspora) and English (Indo-European language) with regard to sex, level of formality, structure and frequency etc. The study focuses on the intentions of the speakers and their utterances (illocutionary, lectionary and per lectionary aspects of Speech Acts). Speech acts do not occur in vacuum from other speech acts. For example, several speech acts can occur consecutively forming what is known as a Speech Event. A speech event is an important unit of analysis because it provides a context in which to examine the actual “relationship between the speaker and the utterance, on the particular occasion of use” (Brown and Yule, 1983). The following are the results that have been discussed with special reference to Urdu English speech acts. Greeting: Greeting is a universal speech event found in all the cultures of the world. It is used by a very large number of people on the basis of daily interaction. Speech acts in English speech acts in Urdu 1- Good Morning 1- Assalam-o-Alaikum 2- Morning 2- Subh-o-bakher 3- Good Afternoon 3- Adaab 4- Good Evening 4- Khush Amdeed 5- Salam Alaikum/Sama Laikum 6- Salam The range of speech acts in Urdu is more extensive than English. There are four expressions in English whereas in Urdu there are six expressions. All English expressions are used quite frequently. But in Urdu speech acts No. 1 and 5 are used quite often. The remaining four speech acts are used rarely. These are not commonly used in daily interaction. The Urdu speech act no. 3 is associated with typical Urdu speaking people. This expression is also used in writing. Structurally, there is only one expression in English that is in the form of a simple word and this is also informal in approach. In Urdu, there are two expressions (3, 6) that are in

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discrete words. Three English speech acts are phrases and four Urdu speech acts are phrases. All English speech acts are standardized and polite. All English speech acts are formal except the second one, which is informal. In contrast, the first five expressions in Urdu are standardized and the last one is the non-standard expression. Except the last two speech acts which are informal and abrupt all the first four expressions are quite formal and polite as well.

Greeting on special occasions: There are special occasions in all the cultures of the world. English and Urdu culture enjoy their different occasions of greater importance. Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- Happy Christmas 1-Aap ko/tumhein nya saal mubarak ho 2- Happy Easter 2- Eid Mubarak 3- Happy New Year 3- Shaadi Mubarak 4- Have a good weekend 4- Saalgirah Mubarak5- Happy Birthday 5- Chaand Raat Mubarak 6- Mah-e-Rtamzan Mubarak 7- Eid-e-Milaad-u-Nabi Mubarak The range of special events in Urdu culture is wider than in English culture. There are different religious customs in both of the language cultures. Birthday and marriage greetings are common in both cultures. The English speech acts are common in the conversation of native speakers. But all Urdu speech acts are not common. The last three expressions in Urdu are slightly more common with women. The remaining expressions are common in Urdu conversations. Structurally, all English expressions can be used as phrases and sentences. The same is the case with Urdu speech acts. Almost all English speech acts can be used formally as well as informally. Similarly the Urdu expressions are also used formally as well as informally. But the speech act related to the event of Chand Raat is informal. This speech act is generally common among young girls and women. Men use this expression but rarely. Similarly, the speech act of Eid-e-Mild-un-Nabi is formal in approach. All expressions can be used directly or indirectly. Politeness is present there in both language expressions.

Drawing attention: Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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It is an interesting speech event. Sometimes it creates very interesting and amusing situations, which are not only funny but also, require mannerism. Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- Excuse me 1- Suniey 2- Excuse me please 2- Baat Sunein 3- Hello 3- Muaaf Kijyie ga 4- Attention please 4- Suniey ga 5- May I have your attention please 5- Suno/Baat Suno/Arey sun’na 6- Aik minnet baat sun’na 7- Zara sun’na 8-Mohtarma/Bibi/Behn-ji/Amma’nji/ Khala ji/Khatoon 9-Mohtaram/Janab/Bazurgwar/Babaji/Chacha ji/Bhai sahib/Aji hazrat/Qibla/Beta/Abba ji/Molvi sahib/Sufi ji The range of Urdu speech acts is wider than English. It is so because a distinction is made while talking to male and female and young and old. The English language does not make this difference while interacting with men and women, and with young and old. The last two expressions in Urdu clearly show this difference. There is only one expression (3) in English that is available in the form of a word. In Urdu language there are three expressions (1, 8, and 9) that are in the form of words. The remaining four expressions in English are in sentences. In Urdu, there is only one expression (6) that is a sentence. Urdu has five expressions (2, 3, 4, 5, and 7) in phrases, while English has no phrase. All English speech acts are used quite often in daily conversation. The Urdu speech acts are also commonly used in communication. Urdu has many expressions, which are less standardized while almost all English expressions are standardized. There are two formal expressions (2, 5) in the English. The Urdu language has four formal expressions (3, 4, 8, and 9). English has two informal expressions (1, 4) while Urdu has five informal expressions (1, 2, 5, 6, 7). In Urdu there is no specific word for drawing attention on telephone in Urdu so the English word ‘hello’ is frequently used in Urdu also.

Gratitude: English Speech Acts Urdu Speech Acts 1- thanks/Many thanks 1- Shukriya

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2- Thanks a lot/very much 2- Boht both Shukriya janab 3- Thank you very much/so much 3- Aap ki both meharbani/inayat hay 4- I don’t know how to thank you 4- Boht nawazish 5- You have been most kind/helpful 5- Aap ki zara nawazi hay varna banda kis qabil hay 6- I am really/most/very grateful to you 6- Mein aap ka/ki bey had mamnoon /mashkoor hoon 7- How can I thank you? 7- Aap nay to humein bey daam khareed liya 8- You have been so kind 8- Mein aap ka ye ehsaan zindagi bhar nahi bhula sakta/sakti 9- Aap ki meharbanion kay jawab meinkehnay kay liye merey alfaaz nahi 10- Aap ka karam hay Allah aap ko is ka ajer day The range of Urdu is rather extensive as compared to the English language. In Urdu there are some expressions that are more common in writing rather than in speaking. Speech acts (5, 7, and 9) are very formal expressions. These expressions are not only common in communication but also in writing, especially the letter writing. All the speech acts in both languages can be used formally as well as informally. The first three English speech acts are used quite often in communication. In Urdu there are seven expressions that are used frequently and the remaining four expressions are rare. In English there is only one expression in the form of word ‘thanks’. Similarly Urdu has only one expression in the form of word ‘Shukriya’ both languages have only one phrase which is ‘many thanks’ in English and ‘bohat Shukriya’ in Urdu. The seven expressions of English are in the form of sentences and Urdu has eight speech acts in the form of sentences. All expressions in English as well in Urdu are standardized and very common in use. Grammatically, the expressions of both the languages are polite and direct.

Pleasure: Pleasure is a feeling that contributes a lot in one’s life. Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu It is lovely/beautiful 1- Zabardast 2- Very nice/wonderful/marvelous 2- Wah/Aha! Kitna khoobsurat hay 3- great/excellent 3- Wah bhai Wah 4- I have very much enjoyed 4- Kia baat hay! 5- I liked…….a lot 5- Boht khoob/kia khoob hay Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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6- We were so pleased/happy 6- Kitna pyara hay 7- It was such an interesting/pleasant 7- Maza aa gia bhai 8- It was so enjoyable 8- Subhan-Allah! 9- What an interesting! 10- How lovely/nice 11- That was lovely/great The range of speech acts in English is wider than those of Urdu. There are eleven expressions in English and just eight expressions in Urdu. In English all the speech acts are used frequently in communication. Except the last expression in Urdu, which has been taken from Arabic origin, the other expressions are also frequently used in conversation. Both languages have just one expression that is in the form of a word (1 in Urdu and 3 in English). There are no expressions in English that are in phrases while in Urdu there are three expressions (3, 5, and 8) in phrases. There are four expressions in Urdu, which are in the form of sentences while in English there are ten expressions, which are in the form of sentences. The expressions are generally in the form of adjectives and interjections in both languages. All expressions in both Urdu and English are standardized and people use these expressions commonly in their daily conversations. All English speech acts can be used formally as well as informally. In Urdu there is clear distinction between formal and informal expressions. There is only one speech act (8) in Urdu that is formal in approach. The other remaining speech acts are informal. Both language expressions are mostly polite.

Surprise: Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- Oh! Oh no! 1- Wakaei 2- Really! 2- Mujhey yaqin nahi aa raha 3- What! (All question words) 3- Na mumkin 4- Impossible! 4- Ye nahi ho sakta 5- Incredible 5- Mein nahi manta/maanti 6- I can’t believe it 6- Ye kesay ho sakta hay/mumkin hay

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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7- You must be joking 7- Nahi/nahi bhai/nahi yar 8- Good God/Heavens! 8- Achha! 9- Well, this is a surprise! 9- Heirat hay/ajeeb baat hay 10- Did you really! 10- Such/suchy 11- Have they really! 11- Qasam khao 12- Surely not! 12- Kahin aap/tum mazaq to nahi ker rahey 13- Honestly! 13- Kia ker rahey hein aap 14-Oh Khudaya/Uff Khudaya/Uff Allah/ Haey Allah ye sab kesay huaThere are thirteen speech acts in English whereas Urdu has fourteen speech acts. The expressions in Urdu seem to be the literal translation of English expressions. Almost all English speech acts are used formally as well as informally. However, much depends upon the circumstances in which people are communicating with each other. In Urdu speech acts no. 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12 are formal as well as informal. Some expressions (4, 5, 7, 10, 11, and 14) are completely informal. Women typically use the last expression in Urdu speech acts. There is use of words, phrases and sentences in both languages. English has five expressions (2, 3, 4, 5, and 13), which are in the form of words. Three expressions (1, 8, and 12) are in phrasal forms. The remaining expressions are small sentences. In Urdu five expressions (1, 3, 7, 8, and 10) are in the form of words. Some expressions (9, 11) are phrases. The rest of the seven expressions are sentences. English speech acts are quite common in use. But in Urdu there are some speech acts (9, 11 and 13) which are somewhat rare in common conversation. The rest of the expressions are frequently used in communication. All English expressions are standardized and polite. In Urdu there are four expressions which are non-standardized, the remaining expressions are standardized. All expressions in Urdu are polite except one expression (11), which is rarely used.

Apologizing: Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- I am very/terribly/awfully sorry 1- Mein muaffy chahta hoon/chahti hoon

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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2- I’d like to apologize for…… 2- Mein apnay kiey per sharminda /pasheiman hoon 3- Please forgive me/excuse me for….. 3- Muaaf ker do na bhai Ghalti ho gai 4- I really must apologize for….. 4- Mein apni kotahi per maazrat khwa hoon 5- Sorry about/for that 5- Mujhey both afsos/nidamat/ranj hay 6- Brah-e-meharbani meri khata ko darguzar ker dein 7- Mein api herkat per muafi ka/ki talabgar /khawastgar hoon 8- Janab ghalti ho gai muaaf ker dein9- Bhai gustakhi muaaf ayenda aesa nahi ho ga 10- Khuda kay wastay mujhey bakhsh dein 11- Khata muaaf/meri tauba The range of Urdu expressions is much wider than those of English expressions. English has only five expressions but in Urdu there are eleven expressions. All speech acts in English are commonly used in communication. In Urdu some expressions (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8) are very common and the rest of five expressions are rare in Urdu. Speech act no. 4, 6 and 7 are more common in writing than in speaking. Almost all English expressions are formal which can be used informally as well. But all Urdu expressions are not formal. Three expressions (3, 9 and 11) are informal. Just one expression (5) can be used formally as well as informally. All the remaining expressions are formal. Structurally all English expressions are sentences. In Urdu the last expression is a phrase but all of the remaining expressions are sentences. All English expressions are standardized and polite. But in Urdu eight expressions are standardized and three non-standardized. Speech acts 4, 6 and 7 in Urdu are more polite than the other expressions.

Forgiving: Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- OK 1- Achha bhai ab chhoro usay bhool jao 2- All right 2- Nahi nahi aesi koi baat nahi 3- Don’t worry 3- Nahi koi baat nahi sab theek hay 4- Never mind 4- Dafa karo matti dalo jo hona tha ho gia

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5- Forget it 5- Chalein jane dein ab 6- It wasn’t your fault 6- Chalein muaaf kiya, kia yaad karein gay kis sakhi say pala para hay 7- It was no body’s fault 7- Chhorein sahib garhey murday okhaarnay ka kia fayda 8- Chalein chhorein laikin aeynda ehtyat kijeiy ga 9- Arey ab rehnay bhi dein,samjhein raat gai baat gai The range of speech acts in Urdu is wider than in English. There are only seven expressions in English but in Urdu there are nine expressions. All speech acts in English are used quite often. ‘OK’, ‘Alright’, ‘Never mind’ are very commonly used expressions among the native speakers of English. In Urdu the expressions (4, 7 and 9) are not very common and rare in use. All the remaining expressions are commonly used. Structurally there seems to be a great contrast in both languages. ‘O.K.’ is the only expression in English which is in the form of abbreviation. Speech acts no. 2, 4 and 5 are phrases. The rest of the expressions are sentences. But in Urdu all of the expressions are in sentences. All expressions in English are standardized. Urdu has also standardized form but expression no. 6 is an idiomatic sentence very common in interaction of Urdu speaking people. Almost all expressions in English are formal and these can be used informally also. In Urdu, expressions (2 & 3) can be used formally as well as informally. Just three expressions (7, 8 and 9) are formal and all the other expressions in Urdu are informal. English speech acts are polite but this tendency in Urdu is lesser one than that of English.

Disappointment: Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- Oh hell/damn 1- Meri to samajh mein nahi aa raha kay ab kia ho ga 2- Oh dear/no! 2- Meri to aqal jawab day gai hay, maloom nhai ye muamla kesay hal ho ga 3- How disappointing! 3- Afsos kia socha tha or kia ho gia 4- I had so hoped…. 4- Ab to kuch nhai ho sakta Allah he hafiz hay 5- It doesn’t matter I suppose 5- Kia faiyda hua itni mehnat kernay ka 6- It can’t be helped 6- Oh yeh kia ho gia 7- What a pity/shame/nuiance 7- Laa’nat hay is kaam per bhai Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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8- Not again! 8- Chhoro koi faiyda nahi sochnay ka 9- Dafa karo jo hona hay wo to ho ga kia, hum ker bhi kia saktay heinThe range of speech acts in Urdu is wider than in English. There are eight expressions in English and nine expressions in Urdu. All the expressions both in English and Urdu are commonly used in conversations. Structurally, Urdu speech acts are complete sentences whereas in English expressions (1, 2, 3 and 8) are phrases and the remaining expressions are sentences. Almost all the expressions in English are standardized whereas in Urdu expressions (6 & 9) are less standardized and the remaining expressions are standardized. All English expressions are formal in use. The first three speech acts in Urdu can be used formally as well as informally and the remaining six are informal. All English speech acts are direct expressions. Urdu speech acts are also direct in nature.

Fear or worry: Speech Acts in English Speech Acts in Urdu 1- I am afraid/scared/frightened/worried 1- Mujhey to us waqt ka soch ker he dar lag raha hay 2- It worries/scares/frightens me 2- Agar ye masla hal na hua to kia ho ga 3- I don’t like this at all 3- Allah kher karey pata nahi kia ho ga 4- It makes me feel uneasy 4- Agar aisa na hua to Qayamat barpa ho jaey gi 5- I am not at all happy about….. 6- There is something not quite right about….. 7- I have got a nasty/strange/uneasy feeling that…. The range of English expressions is comparatively more extensive than that of Urdu. Urdu speech acts can be increased according to the requirements. All the expressions of both languages are frequently used in common conversations. Structurally, all the expressions in English and Urdu are in sentences. All English and Urdu expressions can be used formally as well informally. All English and Urdu expressions are in standardized forms in this typical speech event. The element of politeness is greater in English than in Urdu. The expression no. 4 in

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Urdu is rather a warning and very less polite in nature. All English expressions can be used in direct narration. All Urdu speech acts are used directly as well as indirectly in communication.

Difference between Semantic and Communicative Translation. SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATIONAs we know "the central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely" (Newmark 1988:45). But the question of translation also involves the nature of the readership and the type of text. Considering these two aspects, Newmark (1981, 1988) suggests two methods of translation: The semantic and the communicative. Semantic translation differs from the faithful, word to word or literal translations for it takes into the aesthetic value of the SL text. It won't claim 100% fidelity to the SL text. It is a kind of faithful translation with certain freedom where a translator can use his intuitive empathy with the original. Communicative translation attempts to reproduce the exact contextual meaning of the SL text. But both content and language should be acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. Therefore, semantic translation emphasizes on the TL text and culture. It is a usual practice in translation to render expressive texts very freely and informative texts very literal. But if we consider the above functions we find the expressive texts more author-centered, informative texts more content-centered and vocative texts more reader-centered. Moreover, the unit of translation in expressive texts is always smaller compared to other text-types. The finest nuances of meaning are contained in words rather than sentences. As translators, we should note this and attempt to retain the beauty of the original. Newmark suggests that certain items such as stock and dead metaphors, technical , slang, colloquialism, phaticism, standard notices, etc. are treated similarly both in semantic and communicative methods. Semantic translation is suitable for expressive texts. Care should be given to transfer the cultural components of an expression text intact. In case of informative texts they may be transferred and explained, whereas replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts. The informative and the vocative texts are more suitable for a communicative translation. 411.8.4: VARIETIES OF GENERAL Meanings question of meaning, its nature and problems etc., are always one of the central concerns of translation theory. The literature available on this subject in the fields of philosophy, linguistics and translation shows diverse approaches, conceptions and theories of meaning. Introduction to the nature of meaning and to its problems is out of our purview. You may get a brief introduction to the theories of meaning in the following units of this course. Since our concern in this unit is to classify meaning from a practicing translator's point of view, we follow once again Peter Newmark's classification as exemplified in his 1981,1988 works. Let us consider a set of sentences or a text, and see

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how we can consider the varieties of a general meaning. Ex: 'Frustrated scientist jumps to death'. a) Linguistic Meaning: It is possible to state the linguistic meaning of the above sentence in another language by way of direct translation. If we have to reward it or state the same in the same language then we have to have explained each word of original sentence using some other words in the same language. For example, we would then say: 'A person who is an expert in science ended his life by jumping from the 5th floor of a building for he was very depressed….' b) Referential: Referential meaning is similar to that of dictionary meaning. This meaning derives from the expression's relationship to reality or to the referent. According to referential theory, a sentence or a word has a meaning for it refers to something other than itself. Ex: a 45-year old Scientist Mr. X jumped from the fifth floor of the building at 3 p.m. on 5th January 1994. c) Intention: We understand that the person who jumped to death was frustrated either by the academic situation in the country or by his personal failures either in life or in academics. This may be considered as the intentional meaning of the above sentence. d) Performative: Perhaps Mr. X was making a statement about our society and social conditions in the above-cited example. The particular act of Mr. X has an ability to make certain effect on the society. This meaning may be called performative meaning. e) Inferential: This is related to various inferences one can draw from the text. Ex: it is a 'scientist', and not a 'linguist' who jumped off 'in frustration', or he did not jump 'with joy’, et. f) Cultural: Any text is produced and made meaningful only in a cultural context in the above text extract 'jump' acquires a special meaning in the context of English. Construction like the one we are dealing with may not be possible in certain other language/ cultures. For example, kannada doesn't allow such constructions. In this All texts may be regarded by the translator as an amalgam of standardized and non-standardized language", says Newmark (1981:16).Technical , vocabularies of various types, scientific literature, academic papers and books, commonly used metaphors, proverbs, public notices, medical reports, legal documents, etc. use standardized, non-regional, non-class language. While translating such texts a translator must use the equivalent standardized language of TL culture. There should be only one equivalent for the words used in the SL text, provided one exists in TL and is used in the same situations. In the absence of correct equivalents, a translator has to create one by extension of meaning of nearest equivalent by creating one or by borrowing one. But this should suit to parameters of the standard language in TL culture. It is also imperative to use the same word and its various forms in similar contexts. Creative literature is the best example for the use of non-standardized language. Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad

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Here a translator has comparatively more freedom and has scope for his creative energy and imagination. But 'here too, the scientific method operates' cautions Peter Newmark, for the sense of the translation, stretch of language, naturalness of the translation acceptability etc. must be tested either against the original or TL culture and tradition. Secondly, the translator must have a keen sense and knowledge of both Source language / Culture and Target Language / Culture which helps him to determine with an "intuition backed by empirical knowledge" to design his translation in a particular manner choosing an appropriate method.411.8.6: SUMMARY In this unit we have discussed how the notion of the 'text' and meaning are constantly referred to in translation theory. A student of translation has to have a conception of the notion of 'text' in order to analyze and categorize translatable texts into different text-types. Peter Newmark does this job by considering the functions of language, following Karl Bhühler and Jackobson model of communication, according to which the main language functions are 'expressive', 'informative' and 'vocative'. Creative literature, authoritative statements, autobiographies, personal correspondence, etc. are expressive text-types. In informative texts, 'truth' precedes the style. Informative texts are intended to keep the reader well-informed. They make use of standard, non-class, non-regional language. Vocative texts are reader-centered and are intended to provoke the readership to think, feel and act in a way intended by the text. If semantic translation with certain latitude is suitable for expressive texts, the informative and vocative texts are suitable for communicative translation method. All the texts are an amalgam of standard and non-standard language and a translator must be sensitive to this fact. Meaning plays an important role in translation. According to Newmark, varieties of general meaning are: the linguistic, the referential, the subjective, the intentional, the performative, the inferential, the cultural, the code, the connotative and the semiotic meanings. This classification is done from a practicing translator's point of view. It is important to note for us that the text-categories, text-types and varieties of meanings proposed by Newmark are only helpful tools for a translator rather than being translational rules. Every translator has to make his/her own decision on the basis of his/her text/SL and TL conditions. The notion of text and meaning are problematized in literary theory, philosophy, and anthropology, etc. As translators and translation theorists, we must be aware of this fact. However, for a practicing translator Peter Newmark's categories would help to a contain extent. Points to QUESTIONSA .Answer the following questions: 1. What are the three main functions of language - Explain. 2. Describe how to distinguish text-language and text-types on the basis of language functions?

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3. Discuss text-categories, text-types and the methods of translation suitable for each type. 4. Explain with example the varieties of general meaning. B. Write short notes on (I)Jacobson’s distinction of minor functions of language. (ii)Expressive function. (iii)Language functions. (iv) Standardized and non-standardized texts . 411.8.7: REFERENCES Newmark, Peter. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamum Press. _____. 1988. A Text-Book of Translation. New York: PrenticeHall. Nida, E.A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Alston, William, P.1988. Philosophy of Language. New Delhi: Prentice- Hall of India. Fowler, Roger. 1977. Linguistics and the Novel. London: Methuen. Annand, Mulk Raj. 1981. Untouchable. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann. Ramanujan, A.K. (Ed. And Trans.) 1973. Speak

Written by Lecturer Khizar Hayat English deportment Govt. Degree college Gulabad Composed by Shahid Hilal BS English 7th semester GDC Gulabad