Maturalni Rad 11439

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SREDNJA ŠKOLA “USKOPLJE” GORNJI VAKUF – USKOPLJE

MATURALNI RAD TEMA: London PREDMET: Engleski jezik

MENTOR _____________________ Dragana Galić UČENIK ____________________ Valentina Visković

GORNJI VAKUF-USKOPLJE, TRAVANJ 2013. GODINE

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................1 1. HISTORY.....................................................................................................................................2 1.1. PREHISTORY AND ANTIQUITY.......................................................................................2 1.2. MEDIEVAL LONDON.........................................................................................................2 1.3. EARLY MODERN................................................................................................................3 1.4. LATE MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY........................................................................3 2. GEOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................................4 2.1. SCOPE...................................................................................................................................4 2.2. TOPOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................4 2.3. CLIMATE..............................................................................................................................4 2.4. DISTRICTS...........................................................................................................................5 2.5. THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION........................................................................5 3. DEMOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................6 3.1. IDENTITY............................................................................................................................6 3.2. ETHNIC GRUPS...................................................................................................................6 3.3. RELIGION............................................................................................................................7 4. GOVERNMENT..........................................................................................................................8 4.1. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT..............................................................................................8 4.2. LOCAL GOVERNMENT.....................................................................................................8 5. EDUCATION...............................................................................................................................9 5.1. SCHOOLS.............................................................................................................................9 5.2. UNIVERSITIES....................................................................................................................9 5.3. ARTS EDUCATION.............................................................................................................9 6. ECONOMY................................................................................................................................10 5.1. TOURISM...........................................................................................................................11 6. TRANSPORT.............................................................................................................................13 6.1. RAILWAY...........................................................................................................................13 6.2. BUSES.................................................................................................................................13 6.3. TAXI....................................................................................................................................14 6.4. ROADS................................................................................................................................14 6.5. AIR......................................................................................................................................14 6.6. BOAT...................................................................................................................................15 6.7. CYCLE................................................................................................................................15 7. CULTURE..................................................................................................................................16 7.1. THEATRE...........................................................................................................................16 7.2. LITERATURE.....................................................................................................................17 7.3. MEDIA (film, cinema, television, newspapers/magazines)................................................17 7.4. OPERA/CLASSICAL MUSIC............................................................................................18 7.5. POPULAR MUSIC.............................................................................................................19 7.6. FESTIVALS........................................................................................................................19 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................20

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INTRODUCTION London, the capital of Great Britain, is also one of the world's capitals of finance, fashion, arts and entertainment. The city has a recorded history dating back to Roman times and encoming the lives of such illustrious political figures as William the Conqueror, Thomas Becket, and Queen Elizabeth I, as well as those of William Shakespeare, John Milton, and the other authors who created one of the world's great bodies of literature. It is constantly evolving and growing, yet throughout its complex past and shifting present, the humor, unique character, and bulldog spirit of the people have stayed constant. London’s remarkable history, architecture, landmarks, streets and unique style constantly amaze and attract millions of people all around the world and I am one of them. Recently I have read quote of famous English writer Samuel Johnson who once said that: “When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford.” This sentence intrigued and motivated me to explore deeper London’s history, culture, economy etc. and learn more about it. This paper is divided into eight chapters describing London’s history (1 st chapter), after which follow geographical characteristics (2nd chapter). Third chapter gives an overview of demographic trends, while structures of government and education policies are explained in 4th and 5th chapter. Chapter 6 explores London’s economy with emphasis on tourism. Information on all forms of public transport in London is given in 7th chapter .Last but not least, 8th chapter offers an insight into the culture and diversity.

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1. HISTORY 1.1. PREHISTORY AND ANTIQUITY Though there were prehistoric settlements throughout the vast area that we now call London, no evidence has yet been found for any such community at the northern end of London Bridge where the present city grew up. The origins of London lie in Roman times. London was founded and established two millennia ago (43 AD) by Romans who named it Londinium. The name "Londinium" is also thought to be pre-Roman (and possibly pre-Celtic) in origin. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area. The 19th-century antiquarian Roach Smith estimated its length from the Tower of London west to Ludgate at about one mile; and from London Wall in the north to the Thames bank around half a mile. In AD 60, London was burnt to the ground by the forces of Queen Boudicca of the Iceni tribe (from modern Norfolk), when she led a major revolt against Roman rule. The population of Roman London rose to perhaps 45,000, which seems small to us but in that time, it was the largest town in Britain. Roman London also had amphitheatre, forum, temples, bathhouses… By the 7th century, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement called Lundenwic over a mile (2 km) upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden. New city was attacked by Vikings, but King Alfred the Great defeated the Danes in 878 and they split the country between them. Despite the peace, treaty Alfred's men took London in 886. The Danes returned in 994 but this time the Londoners fought them off. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) built a wooden palace at Westminster. Later Parliament met here. Because of this Westminster became the seat of government not the city of London itself. Edward also built Westminster Abbey, which was consecrated a few weeks before his death. 1.2. MEDIEVAL LONDON Medieval history of London can be said to have begun on Christmas Day, 1066, when William the Conqueror was crowned king of England in a ceremony at the newly finished Westminster Abbey, just three months after his victory at the Battle of Hastings. The first steps towards London’s urbanization were taken during this period. This phase was significant for the overall growth and development of the city. New and important constructions like the Tower of London and the London Bridge were undertaken and there was substantial increase in trade and commerce during this period. This in turn gave a boost to the fortunes of London and it took its first steps to becoming one of the most important cities in the world. During the First Barons' War London was occupied by Prince Louis of , who had been called in by the baronial rebels against King John However, but after John's death in 1217 Louis's ers reverted to their Plantagenet allegiance, rallying round John's son Henry III, and Louis was forced to withdraw from England. Wat Tyler led Peasants’ Revolt of 1381. Rebels who looted the city, killed some of the very important persons and set fire to numerous buildings invaded London, but their leader was stabbed to death in a confrontation at Smithfield and the revolt collapsed.

4 Medieval London life witnessed two of the most ruthless disasters in the history of London. Black Death, one of the deadliest pandemics in human history wiped out almost half of London’s population in the mid-14th century and Great Plague, which wiped out nearly 20% of London’s population.

1.3. EARLY MODERN During the Tudor period, the Reformation produced gradual change to Protestantism, with much of London ing from church to private ownership. Mercantilism grew and monopoly trading companies such East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port with migrants arriving from England and abroad. In 16th century, W. Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at the time of hostility to the development of the theatre. In 17th century, the citizens of London experienced two great adversities that took numerous lives and reduced population. The first was Great Plague who killed fifth of population and the second was the Great fire of London, which destroyed most of the city’s old buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and during the Georgian era, new districts were formed as well as new bridges over the Thames, which encouraged development in South London. 1.4. LATE MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY London was the world’s largest city from about 1831 to 1925.Overcrowded conditions led to cholera pandemics claiming 14,000 lives in 1848 and 6,000 in 1886. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world’s first local urban rail network. Throughout World War II, 30,000 Londoners were killed and the German Lufwaffe destroyed large tracts of housing and other buildings due to the Blitz and other bombing. Immediately after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium even tough the city had barely recovered. From the 1940s onward, London became home to large number of immigrants, largely from Commonwealth countries (Jamaica, India...) making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe. From the beginning of "The Troubles" in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s until the mid-1990s, London was subjected to repeated terrorist attacks by the Provisional IRA.

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2. GEOGRAPHY The geography of London gives an insight into major geographical entities of the city. Also, includes information about the area of the city and its principle topographical features. 2.1. SCOPE London is defined in a number ways for different purposes: and situation was once open to legal debate. Greater London is the top-level istrative subdivision covering London. It is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. River Thames into North and South splits the city, with an informal central London area in its interior. Status London’s status as the capital of England and later UK has never been granted or confirmed officially-by statue or in written form. Its position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK’s unwritten constitution. 2.2. TOPOGRAPHY Greater London covers an area of 1,583 square kilometers with a population of 7,172 036 and a population density of 4,542 inhabitants per square kilometer. However, larger area, London Metropolitan Region covers 8.382 square kilometers and has population of 12,653,500 and population density of 1,510 inhabitants per square kilometer. Modern London stands on Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river that crosses the city from South-West to East. The river has influenced London for many centuries. Rising tides have flooded the city more than once. Because of that in the 70’s and 80’s a large barrier was built in the eastern part of the city to stop incoming water from flooding the nation’s capital .Other rivers that flow through the region includes the Cray River and Brent river. There are also, couple of canals, one of them are Grand Union Canal and the Regent’s Canal. 2.3. CLIMATE London has a temperate oceanic climate, similar to much of southern Britain. Despite its reputation as being “rainy city”, London receives less precipitation in a year than Rome or Bordeaux. Snow occurs about four or five times a year mostly from December to February with winter temperatures, that seldom fall bellow -4 or rise above 14 degrees. The lowest temperature was in Norfolk 1962 −14.2 °C. Summers are warm, sometimes hot. Average temperature is 24 degrees. Rain generally occurs on around two out of ten summer days. During the 2003 European heat wave, there were 14 consecutive days above 30 degrees and 2 consecutive days where temperature soared up to 38 degrees, leading to hundreds of heat related deaths. Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant.

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2.4. DISTRICTS Since1965. Great London has been divided into 32 boroughs in addition to ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub, in the Docklands to the east. The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London .The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development. 2.5. THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION It was in Britain that the world ‘smog’ was first used (to describe a mixture of smoke and fog).As the one of the world’s industrialized city, it was first to suffer this atmospheric condition. In 19 th century London’s ‘pea-suopers’ (thick smogs) became famous through descriptions of them in the works of C. Dickens and in Sherlock Holmes stories. The situation in London reached its worst point in 1952. At the end of that year particularly bad smog, which lasted for several days, was estimated to have caused between 4,000 and 8,000 deaths.1 Water pollution was also a problem. In the 19th century, it was once suggested that the Houses of Parliament should be wrapped in enormous wet sheets to protect those inside from awful smell of the River Thames. In addition, in the middle years of this century, the first thing that happened to people who fell into the Thames was that they were rushed to hospital to have their stomachs pumped out.

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O’Driscoll James, “Britain” , OUP, p.35

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3. DEMOGRAPHY With increasing industrialization, London’s population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and it was for some time the most populous city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. The biggest number of people (8,615,245) London had right before the outbreak of the Second World War during which the population declined to 7,192,091.However,the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of EU and third most populous in Europe (if Istanbul is included). It is also ranked 4 th in the world in number of billionaires residing in the city and ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow. 3.1. IDENTITY When talking about identity of Londoners, it is very important to say something about Cockney (to be true Londoner). The term Cockney has geographical, cultural and linguistic associations. Traditionally, true cockney is anybody born within the sound of Bow bells (the bells of the church of St. Mary-le-Bow in the East End of London). In fact, the term is commonly used to denote people who come from wider area of the innermost eastern suburbs of London and an ading area south of Thames too2. The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in The vision of William concerning Piers Plowman by William Langland and it is used to mean a small, misshapen egg, from Middle English coken (of cocks) and ey (egg) so literally "a cock's egg”. Term was applied contemptuously by rural people to native Londoners who lived rather by their wits than their muscle. In time, the term became synonymous with working class Londoners and it lost its once denigrating qualities. To most outsiders a Cockney is anyone from London itself. ‘Cockney’ is also used to describe a strong London accent and, like any such local accent is associated with working-class origins. A feature of Cockney speech is rhyming slang. Some rhyming slang has ed into general informal British usage. For example, ‘use your loaf’ which means think and ‘have a butchers’ which means have a look. Famous writers who wrote about or used term cockney are Geoffrey Chaucer ("The Reeve's Tale"), Samuel Rowlands, Francis Grose, John Minsheu… Famous cockneys are Charlie Chaplin, Michael Caine, Harry Redknapp, David Bowie, Gary Oldman, and Phil Collins…

3.2. ETHNIC GRUPS The metropolis is a melting pot, a metropolitan multitude of comers and goers. According to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census, inhabitants are: -59.8% White -20.9% Asian and mixed-Asian descent -6.6% Indians -12.6% Black -5.0% mixed race 2

O'Driscoll James, Britain, OUP, p.47.

8 A survey of London’s ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken and more than 50 non-indigenous communities, which have population of more than 10,000 in London. The 2011 census showed that 36.7 % of Greater London’s population were born outside the UK. Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign-born groups living in London were those born in India, Poland, Republic of Ireland, Bangladesh and Nigeria. There are also many immigrants from Balkan countries such as Romania and Bulgaria and Serbia, in the past, after Yugoslavia's liberation in the World War II., when Monarchist refugees (Chetniks) left Yugoslavia because of Josip Broz Tito's revolution. There is a sizable Serb community in Shepherd's Bush (Hammersmith and Fulham) and Notting Hill (Kensington and Chelsea) in West London, where Serbian grocery stores, cafes, and a Serbian church are present. Most Londoners take immigration in their stride, as a fact of city life. English voices on the Circle line seem a rarity. A trip up Hackney’s Kingsland Road, Newham’s Green Street or Whitechapel is to another world. Newham’s population is, for example, just 17 per cent white British. Most immigrant groups are net donors to the welfare state. They work hard, pay taxes and draw little in return. Their children mostly do well in school. The Indians, Chinese, Vietnamese and other high-achieving groups are a chief reason for London’s fast-improving schools performance. No student of London’s history can doubt the benefits that have come from centuries of inward migration, from Huguenots to Victorian refugees from East Europe’s pogroms to the “Windrush generation” and the East African Indians of the Sixties and Seventies.

3.3. RELIGION The largest religious groupings are Christians (48.4 %) followed by those of no religion (20.7 %), Muslims (12.4 %), no response (9.5 %), Hindus (5.0%), Jews (1.8 %), Sikhs (1.5 %) … London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St.Paul’s Cathedral in the City and Southwark south of the river are Anglican istrative centers. Westminster Cathedral is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. The most important Muslim edifice is London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent’s Park. In addition, London is home to the largest mosque in Western Europe, the Baitul Futuh Mosque, of the Ahmadiyya Muslim community. London’s large Hindu community is found in the northwestern boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which is home to one of Europe’s largest Hindu temples, Neasden Temple. When considering Jews, Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest hip of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe.

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4. GOVERNMENT 4.1. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The British government runs UK. The leader of government is the Prime Minister. The Great Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional Monarch as Head of State. The principle behind British democracy is that people elect of Parliament to the House of Commons in London at a general election, held no more than five years apart. Most of MPs belong to a political party, and the party with the largest number of MPs in the House of Commons forms the government. Parliament is made up of three parts: The Queen, The House of Lords and House of Commons. Parliament represents the people and the main functions are: to laws, to debate the major issues of the day ,to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government and lot more… London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom, which is located around the Palace of Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister’s residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is often referred to as the “Mother of Parliaments because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems. 4.2. LOCAL GOVERNMENT Local government in London takes place in two tiers: strategic tier and a local tier. The Greater London Authority (GLA) coordinates city-wide istration, while 33 smaller authorities carry out local istration. a.) UPPER TIER The Greater London Authority consists of two elected parts. They are the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. The GLA is responsible for strategic planning, policing, the fire service, most aspects of transport and economic development. The GLA is a democratically elected strategic authority, comprising two distinct parts: the Mayor and Assembly. The Mayor is elected directly by Londoners, while the Assembly consists of 25 elected . The headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall There is a clear separation of powers between the Mayor and Assembly .The Mayor has an executive role, setting an overall vision for London and defining clear strategies on a range of issues (including air quality, culture and tourism …), while Assembly act as scrutineers with the power to veto the Mayor’s budget plans (but only with two-thirds majority) . b.) LOWER TIER The 33 local authorities are the 32 London borough councils and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for local services such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. They also provide the majority of day-to-day services for their local residents, including education, housing, social services, environmental services, local planning and many arts and leisure lessons. The City of London does not have a conventional local authority, but is governed by the historic City of London Corporation, which is elected by both residents and business. The head of the

10 Corporation is the Lord Mayor of the City of London, which is a different position from that of Mayor of London.

5. EDUCATION 5.1. SCHOOLS The 33 boroughs of Greater London are responsible for operating their own school systems, which are attended by nine out of ten children in London. The rest are enrolled in private schools. Among the most prestigious (with dates of founding) are St. Paul's School (1509), Harrow School (1572), Dulwich College (1618), and the City of London School (1834). 5.2. UNIVERSITIES London is a major centre of higher education teaching and research and its 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe. In 2008/09 it had a higher education student population of around 412,000 (approximately 17 per cent of the UK total).In 2008/09 there were around 97,150 international students in London, approximately 25 per cent of all international students in the UK. The University of London consists of some three dozen separate institutions located throughout the metropolitan area, including Goldsmiths' College, King's College, and the famous London School of Economics. Imperial College was also a part of the University of London until 2007, but is now a separate institution. Among London's other universities are City University, Guildhall University, South Bank University, University of East London, and University of Westminster. Imperial College London, King's College London, LSE and UCL are leading centers of research and stand alongside MIT, Berkeley, Princeton, Yale and other US universities in of international reputation. 5.3. ARTS EDUCATION London is one of the most important places for arts education in Britain. London's famous music conservatories are the Royal College of Music, the Royal Academy of Music, and Trinity College of Music… Art & Design schools are part of the University of the Arts London and Goldsmiths College, University of London and the Royal College of Art. The University of East London has an Institute for Performing Arts Development as well.

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6. ECONOMY London has always been a commercial city and today enjoys the status of having one of the largest city economies in the world. The city prospers in trade and commerce and has a GDP of over £565 billion, which is about 17 percent of the UK's total GDP. The size of its economy is larger than that of several European nations. The size of its economy is larger than that of several European nations. London is a major financial centre for international business and commerce and is one of three "command centers" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo). During the nineteenth century and the early parts of the twentieth century, manufacturing industries held the dominant position but now service industries, especially financial and business services are the dominant sector. Of the total £37 billion annual export of goods and services, financial and business services for about £15.5 billion. The service sector employs 3.2 million people in London, which is about 85 percent of all jobs available in London's service industries. Out of this, the financial sector alone employs about 1.25 million people, or about one in every three jobs available. The manufacturing and construction industry, in contrast, employ half a million residents of Greater London, which is about 11 percent of the employable population of Greater London. London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. Various City institutions were founded in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as Britain’s prosperity and overseas trade grew, such as the insurance firm Lloyd’s (1680s), the London Stock Exchange (1773) and the Bank of England (1694). Many major financial institutions have their headquarters in London, with branches throughout Britain. London is the home to many other banks and financial institutions and has the maximum number of foreign banks in any city. The city is also a major centre for forex trade. The square mile of the City of London, with its banks, insurance houses, legal firms and financial dealers’ offices, has always been a centre of British and world finance. Its resources have financed royal wars, military and colonial exploration, trading companies. Today it provides financial, and investment services for commercial interests in Britain and overseas. Several well-known businesses such as HSBC, Barclays Bank, Virgin, BBC and many others have their control center at London. For example, The London Stock Exchange is the largest in the world, and s for about 32 percent of all global transactions. London remains one of the world's greatest ports. Once the largest port in the world, the Port of London is today the second largest in the United Kingdom handling 48 million tones of cargo each year exporting manufactured goods and imports petroleum, tea, wool, raw sugar, timber, butter, metals, and meat. London is also a vibrant centre for arts and fashion, film, media, design, law and computing industries. E-commerce and related industries ranks amongst the fastest growing sectors in the city's economy. Tourism is another important sector with high growth potential.

12 Future plan for London’s economy identifies growth sectors such as e-commerce, tourism and environmental industries and lays down sustainable and inclusive plans for the overall development of the economy. 5.1. TOURISM Tourism is one of London's prime industries, and London is, by a considerable margin, the most visited city in the world. London attracts over 14 million international visitors per year and 27 million overnight-stay visitors every year. People living in other parts of the United Kingdom mostly make these overnight visits. People travel from every corner of the globe to ire London's many impressive monuments and explore the richly vibrant culture of the city. The fascinating history, the natural wonders as well as the man made marvels of London attract tourists. Tourism offers a wide variety of options related to sightseeing and accommodation. With millions of people visiting London from across the world, the city has a booming tourism industry. Tourism helps underpin the quality of life in London. Income from visitors to vital the survival of many attractions and helps to maintain London’s heritage. London’s buildings are eye-catching milestones in the city’s unique and compelling biography. London is home to numerous museums, galleries, libraries, historic sites, landmarks, churches and other cultural institutions. Most-visited attractions in London are: British Museum is one of the oldest and finest museums. It was established in 1749 based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. Museum is an exhaustive and exhilarating stampede through world cultures, with galleries devoted to Egypt, Western Asia, Greece, the Orient, Africa, Italy, and the Etruscans, the Romans, prehistoric and Roman Britain and medieval antiquities. It has on average five million visitors per year. Tate Modern is the world’s most popular gallery with 4.7 million visitors per year. Tate holds the national collection of British art from 1500 to the present day and international modern and contemporary art. National Gallery is an art museum on Trafalgar Square in London. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. Natural History Museum is one of London’s most-loved museums. This colossal landmark building is infused with the irrepressible Victorian spirit of collecting, cataloguing and interpreting the natural world. With its thunderous, animatronic Tyrannosaurus Rex, magical Wildlife Garden, outstanding Darwin Centre and architecture straight from a Gothic fairy tale, the Natural History Museum is quite simply a work of great curatorial imagination. London Eye is a giant observation wheel in the center of London. Since its opening in 2000 the 30 minute “flight” offers visitors great panoramic views over London. Science Museum is major London tourist attraction, attracting over 2.7 million visitors annually. It was founded in 1857 as part of the South Kensington Museum, and gained independence in 1909. Today the Museum is world renowned for its historic collections, awe-inspiring galleries and inspirational exhibitions.

13 Victoria and Albert Museum is one of London's most interesting museums. It has a large collection of over 4 million pieces. Founded in 1852, the museum's diverse exhibits focus mostly on decorative arts and design which makes it the largest decorative arts museum in the world. Madame Tussauds is known as "London's favorite tourist attraction", famous for recreating famous people and celebrities, in wax. The statues at Madame Tussauds Wax Museum have been thrilling visitors since Tussaud opened her first permanent exhibit in 1835. National Maritime Museum is an inspiring flick through the brine-soaked pages of English history, fashioning an absorbing experience from a dramatic and often violent seafaring chronicle Tower of London is the absolute kernel of London, with a history as bleak and bloody, as it is fascinating. The Tower is in fact a castle, and has served over the years as a palace, observatory, storehouse and mint. However, it is, most famous for its grizzly past as a prison and site of execution3. Despite ever-growing ticket prices and the hordes of tourists, this is one of those rare pleasures: somewhere worth the hype.

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Lonely planet, London, Lpp., p.368-369.

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6. TRANSPORT London's transport forms the hub of the road, rail and air networks in the United Kingdom. It has its own dense and extensive internal private and public transport networks, as well as providing a focal point for the national road and railway networks. London's internal transport system is one of the Mayor of London's four policy areas, istered by its executive agency Transport for London which controls the majority of public transport in the area, including the Underground, London Buses, Tramlink, the Docklands Light Railway, and London Overground rail services within Greater London. The national Department for Transport (DfT) franchises other rail services to train operating companies. TfL also controls most of major roads in the area, but not minor roads. The British are enthusiastic about mobility. They regard the opportunity to travel far and frequently as a right. Some commuters spend up to two or three hours each day getting to work in London and back home to their suburban or country homes in the evening, but most people do not spend quite so long each day traveling. Nearly three-quarters of households in Britain have regular use of a car and about a quarter have more than one car. 6.1. RAILWAY The famous London Underground, known as ‘the tube’ is feeling the effects of its age (it was first opened in 1863). It is now one of the dirtiest and least efficient of all such systems in European cities. However, it is still heavily used because it provides excellent connections with the main line train stations and with the suburbs surrounding the city. The arrangement of the country’s transport network illustrates the dominance of London. London is at the centre of the network with a “web” of roads and railways coming from it. Britain’s roadnumbering system is based on the direction out of London that roads take. It is notable that almost everybody in the country knows the names of the main London railway stations. The names of the London stations are Charing Cross, Euston, King’s Cross, Liverpool Street, Paddington, St.Pancras, Victoria and Waterloo. The London Underground (‘the tube’), Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and Overground network are overall the quickest and easiest way of getting around the city, if not the cheapest. 6.2. BUSES Britain is one of the few countries in Europe where double-decker buses are common sight. London has more than 3,000 double-decker buses in operation. In their original form, they were ‘hop-on, hop-off’ buses. There were no doors, just an opening at the back to outside. There was conductor who walked around collecting fares while the bus was moving. However, most buses these days, including double-deckers, have separate doors for getting on and off and no conductor (fares are paid to the driver). Nevertheless, today’s modern double-deckers offer just as good a

15 view of the city as the old ones. Just beware that the going can be slow, thanks to traffic jams and dozens of commuters getting on and off at every stop.4 6.3. TAXI The London black cab is as much a feature of the cityscape as the red double-decker bus. Licensed black-cab drivers have ‘The Knowledge’, acquired after rigorous training and a series of exams5. They are supposed to know every central London street and the 100 most visited spots of the moment, including sights, clubs and restaurants. The owner-drivers of London taxies (known as cabbies), are friendly Cockneys who never stop talking. These traditional taxis cannot be hired by phone. However, many taxi companies get most of their business over the phone. Their taxis are known as ‘mini cabs’. They tend to have reputation for unreliability as well as for charging unsuspecting tourists outrageous prices. Taxis and minicabs are expensive and most British people rarely use them. 6.4. ROADS Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. If you decide to drive in London, make sure you are fully aware of the rules of the road. Most importantly, in the UK people drive on the left. In addition, it's a good idea to avoid driving in Central London particularly at peak times. As a visitor, it’s unlikely you will need to drive in London. Many politicians have done everything in their power to encourage Londoners to get out of their car and into public transport and the same disincentives should keep you firmly off the road: extortionate parking charges, congestion charge, traffic jams, high price of petrol, fiendishly efficient traffic wardens and wheel clampers etc. London was the world’s first major city to introduce a congestion charge to reduce the flow of traffic into its centre. When mentioning London’s roads it very important to say something about M25-longest ringroad motorway in the world with 195.5 km (121.5 mi).In history exemplifies the transport crisis in Britain. When the first section was opened in 1963, it was seen as the answer to area’s traffic problems. But by the early 1990s the congestion on it was so bad that traffic jams had become an everyday occurrence6. A rock song of the time called it ‘the road to hell. In an effort to relieve the congestion, the government announced plans to widen some parts of it to fourteen lanes-and thus to import from America what would be Europe’s first ‘super highways’. 6.5. AIR Most engers arrive in London by air. The city has five airports: Heathrow, which is the largest, to the west; Gatwick to the south; Stansted to the northeast; Luton to the northwest; and London City in the Docklands. Heathrow is the world’s busiest international airport and now has five terminals. Every year, more than 30 million engers use its terminals. Main problem considering Heathrow is the noise (which British people tend to regard as an invasion of their 4

O'Driscoll James, Britain, OUP, p.164 0'Driscoll James,Britain, OUP,p.164,165. 6 O'Driscoll James, Britain, OUP,p.164 5

16 privacy).Local farmers and the hundreds of thousands of people who live under Heathrow’s flight path are objecting to the idea.

6.6. BOAT In previous centuries large rivers such as the Thames were busy thoroughfares, and the profession of ‘ waterman’ , the river equivalent of the London cabbie , was well-known. In this century transport by land has almost completely taken over. A few barges still go up and down the Thames through London, but are used mostly by tourists. The story of goods transport by water is the same. 6.7. CYCLE Thousands of Londoners cycle to work every day, and it is generally a good way to get around the city, although traffic can be intimidating for less confident riders. The city has tried hard to improve the cycling infrastructure however, and it is gradually getting better. Recent highlights include the opening of new ‘cycle superhighways’ for commuters in 2010 and 2011.

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7. CULTURE The word culture has two meanings. It can be used in its anthropological sense to mean “way of life”, but many people also use it as a synonym for “the arts”. The arts is ‘umbrella’ term for literature, music, painting, sculpture, crafts, theatre, opera, ballet, film etc. It usually implies seriousness, so that particular examples of these activities, which are regarded as ‘light’, may be referred to simply as ‘entertainment’ instead7. Art, or fine arts, is often used to refer to those arts, which use space, but not time, for their appreciation (such as painting or sculpture).This, for example, is what is covered by the subject ‘art’ in schools. London is widely believed to be the culture capital of the world, although this title is disputed with a number of other cities internationally. London’s cultural life is the richest and most varied in the English-speaking world. London dominates the UK visual arts sector, which s for 30% of the global art market. 7.1. THEATRE British theatre can be lively and innovative and has a deserved international reputation. There are 300 commercial or professional theatres, in addition to a large number of amateur dramatic clubs, fringe and pub theatres throughout the country. London has more theatrical history than almost anywhere else in the world, and it’s still being made nightly on the stages of the West End, the South Bank and the vast London fringe. London’s theatre has the longest history and is the most diverse in the world, from Shakespeare’s classics performed in the traditional manner, to innovative productions that involve Harlem transvestites and gangstas. London and its suburbs have about a hundred theatres, but the dominant influence is the London ‘West End’. In fact, theatre in London is taken so seriously that many deem performing in the West End to be the only way to earn respect among their peers. Even Hollywood stars are abandoning their pampered lives for a season treading the boards in London. The majority of the West End theatres are commercial, in that they are organized for profit and receive no public funds. They provide a range of light entertainment offerings from musicals to plays and comedies. However, some of the other London theatres are subsidized from grants supplied by the Arts Council, such as the National Theatre, the Royal Shakespeare Company (as well as at Stratford-upon-Avon) and the English Stage Company 8. These cater for a variety of plays from the classics to modern drama. From the first performance of Shakespeare at The Globe in 1599 there are now at least 200 shows to choose from every day across West End including current hits Matilda and War Horse. Most theatres in London and elsewhere have had difficult times in recent years in attracting audiences and in remaining solvent, although the West End theatres brought £1 billion into the British economy in 2000.They have had to cope with increased competition from alternative and new entertainment activities. No visit to the city is complete without taking in a show, and just a walk through ‘theatreland’ in the West End any evening of the week is an electrifying experience as thousands of people make their way to one of the many venerable dramatic institutions. 7 8

O’Driscoll James ,“Britain“, OUP, p.201. Oakland John „British civilization“, Routledge, p.272.

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7.2. LITERATURE Over six centuries, London has been endlessly captured in prose; a history of London writing has become a history of the city itself. The capital has been the inspiration for the masterful imaginations of Shakespeare, Defoe, Dickens, Thackeray, Wells, Orwell, Conrad, Eliot, Greene and Woolf, to name but a few. Ever changing, yet somehow eerily consistent, London has left its mark on some of the most influential writing in the English language. The first literary reference to the city comes in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, written between 1387 and 1400, where the pilgrims gather for their trip to Canterbury at the Tabard Inn in Southwark. William Shakespeare spent most of his life as an actor and playwright in London around the turn of the 17th century, when book publishing was beginning to take off here. Although London was his home for most of his life, Shakespeare was an ardent fantasist and set nearly all his plays in foreign or make-believe lands. Daniel Defoe was perhaps the first true London writer, both living in and writing about the city during the early 18th century. Defoe’s Journal of the Plague Year is his most interesting of London life, documenting the horrors of the Great Plague in London during the summer and autumn of 1665. Charles Dickens was the definitive London author. He wrote novels that painted a foggy and grim picture of the city, which has had a major influence on how it was perceived by the people of the early Victorian period. Also, writer closely associated with the city is the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness of the Great Fire. Ben Jonson's ‘The Alchemist’, one of his most distinguished plays, is set in London. Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography. London is home to most of the UK’s major publishers and its best bookshops, London remains a vibrant place for writers and readers alike. Also, London has more than 800 bookshops and over 380 public libraries including British Library which holds the Magna Carta. 7.3. MEDIA (film, cinema, television, newspapers/magazines) As a centre of popular entertainment, the British capital has played an important role in the development of the film industry. The major film studios, Elstree, Shepperton, Pinewood and Leavesden, specialise in post-production and special effects and are among the best film studios in Europe. Not to mention the fact that London is the setting of many international films, which have contributed significantly to the image and reputation that London, boasts world-wide. The London Film Festival presents the most interesting pictures from around the world and takes place each October. London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Peter Pan (1953), The Ladykillers (1955), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), Secrets & Lies (1996), Notting Hill (1999), Match Point (2005), V For Vendetta (2005) and Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street (2008). financial backing9. In 1960 there were over 3,000 cinemas in Britain. However, many have now either gone out of business, or changed to other activities such as dancing and bingo. But new screens have been built since 1996 and today there are 2,954 cinema screens situated either in single buildings or in multiplexes with five or more screens. Over a fifth of all the UK’s cinema 9

Oakland John, “British civilization”, Routledge, p.274.

19 screens are based in London. There are more cinema screens in the capital (796) than in any other part of the country. The history of the cinema in Britain has shown a big decline since its early days as a very popular form of mass entertainment and from 1946 when annual visits reached 1.6 billion. The domestic film industry had virtually ceased to exist, because of lack of investment and government help, although British films with British actors continued to be made abroad and in Britain with foreign London is the home of TV; it was born and bred here, with John Logie Baird first demonstrating it in Soho to a select group of scientists in 1926, and then to the public a few years later. Perhaps more significantly, the world’s first public broadcaster, the BBC, began here, too, and has originated some of the world’s most recognised TV formats and personalities. A huge amount of global TV content originates in Britain, from the Teletubbies to Planet Earth and Who Wants to be a Millionaire. There are five free-to-air national TV stations: BBC1, BBC2, ITV1, and Channel 4 and 5. A complete history of English TV is obviously not possible, but but anyone familiar with the subject will be aware of an enormously long roll call of classic series. From comedies such as Fawlty Towers and Rising Damp and cop shows such as The Sweeney and The Professionals to cult series such as The Prisoner, The Avengers and Minder; from 1970s comedies (The Good Life) to heritage offerings in the 1980s (Brideshead Revisited); from thrillers (Edge of Darkness) to dramas (The Singing Detective)– the list could go on endlessly. However, undoubtedly the two most famous TV serials associated with London itself are the long-running soap opera EastEnders and the police drama The Bil. In recent years Britain, like elsewhere, has been in the grip of reality-TV fever (Big Brother, Britain’s got talent) London is in the eye of the British media, an industry comprising some of the best and worst of the world’s TV, radio and print media10. Rupert Murdoch is the most influential man in British media and his News Corp owns the Sun, the News of the World, the Times and the Sunday Times. The main London newspaper is the centre-right Evening Standard, a tabloid that comes out in early and late editions throughout the day. Free newspapers, distributed at tube stations and on the streets wherever commuters can be stopped and a paper shoved in their face are London Lite and Metro (both owned by the Daily Mail ). There are two broad categories of newspapers, most commonly distinguished as broadsheets (or ‘qualities’) and tabloids. The right-wing Daily Telegraph is sometimes considered old-fogeyish, but nonetheless the writing and world coverage are very good. The Times is traditionally the newspaper of record; it’s particularly good for sports. On the left side of the political spectrum, the Guardian features lively writing and an extremely progressive agenda, is very strong in its coverage of the arts and has some excellent supplements. Another good read is the left-field Independent, which rejoices in highlighting stories or issues that other papers have ignored. When talking about magazines, there is an astonishing range of them published and consumed here, from celebrity gossip to political heavyweights. London loves celebrities (especially when they are overweight, underweight or out of control) and Heat, Closer and Grazia are the most popular purveyors of the genre. Marie Claire, Elle and Vogue are regarded as the thinking woman’s glossies. The smarter men’s magazines include GQ and Esquire, while less edifying reads are the so-called ‘lads mags’are. FHM,Loaded, Maxim, Nuts and Zoo 10

Maters Tom,“London e book edition“, Lpp,p. 153-154.

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7.4. OPERA/CLASSICAL MUSIC London is a major classical-music capital, with four world-class symphony orchestras, two opera companies, various smaller ensembles, brilliant venues, reasonable prices and high standards of performance. Opera in Britain occupies a similar position to that of the theatres and is divided into subsidized, commercial and amateur companies. 11 Classical music can be heard in the two major opera houses in London: the Royal Opera House and the Coliseum Theatre. irers of high art will also appreciate the splendid performances of the English National Ballet and the Royal Ballet, both performing in the beautiful interiors of the Royal Albert Theatre, the Royal Opera House and Sadler’s Wells Theatre. Britain has many high-quality orchestras, although most of them are based in London, such as the London Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic and the BBC Symphony Orchestra. 7.5. POPULAR MUSIC London is home to the major global music corporation EMI, countless bands, industry professionals and musicians, and is one of the major popular music capitals of the world. For those seeking musical entertainment there is a great variety of venues that organise rock and pop concerts, including large arenas such as Wembley Arena and Earls Court, as well as smaller and more intimate clubs such as Hammersmith Apollo and Brixton Academy London is famous for its rock scene, and was the starting point of some of the greatest 60s and 70s band such as Iron Maiden, The Clash, Led Zeppelin, The Sex Pistols, The Who, Pink Floyd, Queen and very popular 90s bands like Blur, Coldplay, Radiohead, and Oasis that are still very popular to this day. London also has a thriving urban scene, mainly throughout the 21st century. Soul singers like Adele, Amy Winehouse, Joss Stone and Lemar have found themselves chart, and international success. For example in the last 5 years, London based artists Adele, Coldplay and Amy Winehouse (RIP) have been the world's best-selling recording artists and have amassed £1.9bn last year in worldwide sales, up from £1.83bn in 2010 London is the home of one of the biggest underground scenes in the world. Genres include UK garage, Drum and bass, Dubstep, 2step and most notably, grime.

7.6. FESTIVALS The city of London hosts a number of fairs, festivals and carnivals throughout the year. One of the most famous is the Notting Hill Carnival, which is the second largest Afro-Caribbean carnival in the world. It takes place over the weekend on a bank holiday in August and attracts nearly one million people each time. Its major events include a competition between the steel drum bands and a three-mile street parade with live music and dancing. Other colourful parades are held on St Patrick’s Day and St George’s Day.

11

Oakland John „British civilization“, Routledge, p.273

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CONCLUSION London is a modern metropolis with deep roots in the past and a city that eagerly embraces all the earth’s diversity. The aim of my paper was to describe London and its life. In a way, I made a portrait of a city. However, even though I tried very hard, it was impossible to sum up and explain all significant facts in just one paper. London is diverse, the range of peoples, cultures and religions is very wide, and it is spoken, that one needs a year to become aware of local attitudes and people. I ire Londoners who despite all adversities throughout history maintained their resolute and undismayed spirit. For me, work on this was marvelous journey thorough London’s exciting past and complex present. Writing was good balance of fun and education, but my research will not stop there, because I am determined to visit London at the earliest opportunity to experience everything in person. In addition, I have realized that everyone who travels to London is in advance reassured that he or she would have a “great time” there.

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LITERATURE Oakland John, “British civilization-an introduction”, Routledge, London, 2002. O’Driscoll James, “Britain-The Country and Its People”, Oxford University Press, New York, 2003. Ackroyd Peter, “London: The Biography”, Anchor, New York, 2003. Lonely Planet (Fallon Steve, Masters Tom, Maric Vesna), “London e book edition”, Lonely planet publications, London, 2010 Lonely planet (Harper Damian, Fallon Steve, Maric Vesna), “London (8th edition)”, Lonely planet publications, London, 2011. Fullman Joe and Donald Strachan, “Frommer’s London 2012”, Frommer, 2011. Benedictus Leo, “Every race, colour, nation and religion on earth”, The Guardian, London, 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jan/21/britishidentity.race Jenkins Simon, “Despite the strain, London thrives on its immigrant mix”, London evening standard, London, 2013. http://www.standard.co.uk/comment/comment/simon-jenkins-despitethe-strain-london-thrives-on-its-immigrant-mix-8521084.html Web pages: http://www.uncsbrp.org/economicdevelopment.htm http://britannia.com/history/londonhistory/