Language Standardization 721f54

Addis Ababa University

Language Standardization A summary By Elizabeth D., Chimdi W. and Beniyam J.

2009

Submitted to

Zelealem Leyew(PhD)

Summary on Language Standardization

By

Elizabeth Demissie Beniyam Jembere Chimdi Wakuma

To

Zelealem Leyew (PhD)

Addis Ababa University Institute of Language Studies

Department of African Languages and Applied Linguistics Language Planning and Standardization Course (ALAL 601)

Addis Ababa December, 2009

Contents

1. What is Language Standardization?

2. Approaches to Language Standardization 2.1. Discriminatory Approach 2.2. ‘Pan dialectal’ Approach 3. The Aims of Language Standardization 4. Strategies in Standardizing a Language 4.1. Orthography 4.2. Lexical enrichment 5. Phases of Language Standardization 5.1. Determination 5.2. Codification 5.3. Elaboration 5.4. Implementation 5.5. Cultivation 5.6. Harmonization 6. Stages in Standardizing unwritten Language 7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection 8. Who can standardize a language?

Bibliography

1. What is Language Standardization?

The definition of language standardization according to Kamwangamalu (2001:194) based on Crystal (1985), is stated as “standardization is a natural development of a standard language in a speech community or an attempt by a community to impose one dialect as standard.” He explains the activity of standardization as direct and deliberate intervention by society to create a standard language in a situation where non standard varieties are used, by referring Hudson (1980). Similarly, Ekkehard Wolff (2000:332) said Language standardization is a means in ‘language development,’ selection and promotion of variants with in a language. It is one of the major concerns of language planning, especially in Africa. It usually involves development of language related activities like grammars, spelling books, and dictionaries, and literature. It is also changing some spoken form of a particular language to be written down in an official manner with the intention of making this particular variety the preferred variety. When one deals with language standardization, as Wolff (ibid) elaborates, it targeted to turning linguistic varieties into standard languages in two senses. First in a sense of approved and accepted norm above all vernacular, colloquial and dialectal varieties for general and normative usage in certain domains such as literature, science, education, the media, the churches and all public sectors. In the second sense, it is a regular and codified normative system of reference ed by a standard orthography, standard reference grammars and standard dictionaries. Fully fledged standard language will enjoy recognition as such by the whole speech community (for instance, as a prestigious high variety in a diglossia situation), and reflect linguistic (Possibly national or even ethnic) identity, and moreover gain or develop a rich writing tradition and be potentially equipped to encode all necessary modernization in its lexicon. It is used effectively as high variety, predominantly for written communication in matters of official

concerns on regional, national or international level (Wolff 2000: 340, Kamwangamalu 2001:43). Generally speaking, in such senses discussed previously, only a small number of African’s languages and even the worlds’ languages acquired the title of being standard. However, many scholars agreed that standardization is a necessary and vital process in any language. 2. Approaches to Language Standardization There are two common approaches to standardize a language. Based on the explanation of Mismang (2001:166), the approaches are the following. 2.1

Discriminatory approach selects one or two prestige dialects and elevates it/them to standard language level. In this approach, the dialect(s) which have not been elevated are then excluded from the standard and relegated to an inferior position. This discriminatory form of standardization seems to be popular because it is believed that it leads to more uniformity.

2.2

‘Pandialectal’

approach

standardizes

by

adopting

a

dialect

democracy approach in which all dialects may be elevated to the standard level, which Wolff (2000:333) refers to it as ‘pandialectal’. In this way various dialects are unified, their variants refined and neutralized until they merge into common standard language. This approach is very akin to harmonization (Mismang, 2001:166)). 3. The Aims of Language Standardization The aims of standardizing a language are manifold and some of them are discussed as follows thinking that they are frequently pointed out, Oyetade (2001:20).

 To contribute in the development of a nation

The role of language in development of a nation cannot be over-stressed. As wider and more satisfactory conception of national development advocate development should be seen as total human development. The perspective emphasizes a full realization of human potential and a maximum utilization of the nation‘s resources for the benefit of all to take development as development. Thus, language as resource will be standardized to be utilized properly. Oyetade (ibid) makes it clear that every developmental discourse has taken note of language’s pragmatic and expressive values. Based on its pragmatic value, language is the vehicle for the transmission of scientific and technical education. And it is also the vehicle and manifestation of culture (i.e. the expressive value).  To facilitate communication Standardization is believed to increase the communication valency of a language for literacy by simplifying the communication process. When there exists

an

enormous

and

magnificent

difference

between

dialects,

communication will be blocked. Certain standard rules must be followed so that people can communicate effectively with one another, Kamawangamalu (2001:194).  To be used as a model When a language is standardized, it allows the language to be used as a model for everyone in the community.  To Enhance unification As a result of standardizing a language, the community will be entitled to have and use a common, mutually comprehensible language which is believed to unify the speakers.  To Simplify teaching The other aim of standardizing a language is to make the language easier to teach in schools. In the linguistic community whereby the majorities happen to

use a different dialect or language, it would be illogical to maintain local dialects as a medium of instruction when it comes to a higher education.  To serve a political purpose Some political reasons like claiming autonomy from domestic or foreign rule can be the aim for standardizing a language. Such aims, which are listed above, are viewed positively. Nevertheless language standardization has its own negative consequences for its creation of a sense of superiority in speakers of one language and a feeling of inferiority on the others. Choosing one vernacular as a norm means favoring those who speak that variety and diminishing all the other varieties and possible competing norms, and those who use those varieties. 4. Strategies in Standardizing a Language Language modernization or standardization is viewed as a complex and multidimensional attempt whose sole aim is the empowerment of any language for literacy and numeracy of all purposes in formal and informal education. To achieve this aim properly the work of standardization will be done based on two strategies. According to Emenanjo (2001:48) these guidelines are: 4.1.

Orthography- in this area the selection of accurate and consistent script will be carried out. As strategy it endorses doing the following activities.  Choice of directions of writing

 choices in the design of a script  choice in the expansion of script between new letters, diacritics and new values  choice in a writing code between ideograms, syllabary and

alphabet

 The choice in the type of spelling between phonemic, morpho-

phonemic and paraphonemic systems etc 4.2.

Lexical enrichment- with regard to lexical enrichment the following activities are going to be done.  Borrowing

words from other languages for scientific and

technological concepts  Intra dialectal borrowings  New coinages  Adaption  Elevation of slang and colloquialism

 Specialization of dialect words Furthermore it would be important to keep in mind that successful language standardization is achieved when first the particular solution suggested for the problem is checked so as to know if it brings a fair chance of success and second when there is a situation of allowing several alternative solutions so as to see their merits and demerits and by imperceptible steps push one ahead of the others. 5. Phases of Language Standardization According to Wolff (2000:333) language standardization involves the following phases: 5.1.

Determination

In of status planning, determination refers to language policy and involves choice of which of the countries languages should be selected to perform

particular

function

in

regional,

national

and

international

communication. But in of language standardization, it is the norm which is chosen to serve as the standard frame of reference for any chosen language.

Determination of language and norm may become a question of power which will favor those who already use the chosen variety and disfavor those who don’t. Selecting one particular lect to become a standard form of a given language means that speakers of other varieties feel that their speech forms are now being discriminated. In order to avoid social and political unrest based on determination of a standard, an idealized norm can be created, that is ‘pandialectal’ variant which is ‘nobody’s dialect’. Otherwise, when choosing a dialect, various criteria could be used and must be considered against each other because existing language variants will differ in the extent to which they confirm the criteria. 5.2.

Codification

The work of codification includes graphicisation, which is the creation or unification of a standard orthography. Based on some general principles and the needs of any given language, the existing writing systems such as the Roman, Greece, Arabic or Ethiopic set of characters can be adapted to be used. Generally, graphicisation its an orthographic system that has to perform political,

socio-cultural,

psychological

and

pedagogical

functions.

The

adequacy of a given orthography system developed to serve this purpose can be evaluated by the following criteria, as outlined by Jack Berry (in Ouane, 1991):  maximum motivation of the learners  maximum representation of the spoken language

 maximum facility for learning  maximum transfer and 

maximum reproduction.

5.3.

Elaboration

Wolff (ibid) explains that, in elaboration, lexical innovation is a constant and unplanned spontaneous and ad hoc process in any language. That is, as communication needs change and expands speakers develop strategies for creating or borrowing new which their language did not have until then. Such like ‘elaboration’, ‘modernization’ and language development are used to indicate planned lexical innovation which imply, in a very derogatory sense, that the languages are somewhat ‘un modern’, ‘primitive’, ’un developed’. Elaboration, therefore, is a constant need for enrichment of vocabulary by creating and expanding the appropriate terminology for commercial, professional and scientific domains as knowledge and technology progress. It is part of corpus planning and is usually the task of language academies. 5.4. Implementation Once the standard is established, usually with the cooperation of linguists, educators, leaders of speech community, putting decision into practice is left for the policy makers. This is most effectively realized through feeding the new standard norm into the educational system. A good example of highly effective implementation was the introduction of Somali language as official language of the country with new standard orthography in 1973. The implementation scheme consisted of various simultaneous and follow-up activities. As wolff (ibid) explains by referring the experience of Somalia, the activities that can be done include announcing and propagating the decision by the mass media, engaging large scale literacy campaign, information pamphlets distribution and the like. 5.5. Cultivation

After initial implementation of standardizing, a language needs continuous from language promotion agencies. The advisory bodies are expected to:  create guidelines as to matters of style and acceptable variants mainly

in literary production  ensure that printed materials conform to the standard norms  ensure

that

lexical

innovation

is

continuously

subjected

to

standardization in order to avoid uncontrolled competition of with similar yet different meanings Radio programs, newspaper columns and award-winning competition in oral as well as written skill in the standard variety will play an important role in creating positive attitudes. In language standardization, the most successful instance of language cultivation is that of Afrikaans. It rose from an ‘underdeveloped’

and

marginalized

Creole

which

had

been

heavily

discriminated by colonial legacy’s language speakers. 5.6. Harmonization It is a challenging phase because of some sociolinguistic factors. Conflict of interest is the main factor. As Wolff (ibid) discusses people who don’t belong to the standard variety speech community tend to hesitate to accept the standard. In harmonization; national harmonization of orthographies, international harmonization and language harmonization are included. National harmonization of orthographies aims at using similar graphic symbols in multilingual country for its various languages to facilitate reading and writing. International harmonization is concerned with cross boarder languages unification, where speakers of the same language are divided by national boarder.

Language harmonization is usually used synonymously with unification to refer construction of a common language for a dialect-group by employing forms that are common to all variants in the group as much as possible. And when this is not possible usage as common form to the predominant majority or in previously attained literary forms. Generally, the aim of harmonization is to produce one common language. Therefore in the process variant forms between dialects are neutralized or harmonized in the common language. It is done on orthography, the languages themselves and also to develop common technical terminology. 6. Stages in Standardizing unwritten Language According to Haugen (1966) (in Oyetade 2001) there are four stages that are followed to standardize yet unwritten languages. These stages have similarity with the general standardization process, but still with slight difference. •

Selection of the norm At this stage the main work is dialectal choice. The criteria of selection can be one of such factors as: historical, resolution of some bodies of experts, by legislation, demographic and others.

•

Codification of the norm After the selection of a dialect, what follows is codification of the norm and its core work is harmonization. What’s more, the proposal for orthography development is done at this stage.

•

Elaboration of function This is a stage at which the selected dialect (norm) and the codified form are used at different domains like education, media, literature and other domains.

•

Acceptability When the orthographic reform is welcomed by the people, it means that this stage is reached. Bamgbose (1985) (in ibid) suggests that it is better to have few changes as much as possible in order to maximize the acceptability of the reform. Otherwise, if the change made is big, there might not be acceptability by the language s.

7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection To decide on one dialect as standard over other variants there are criteria used widely. Wolff (2000:335) acknowledges that these criteria are usually sociolinguistic

and

sometimes

pure

linguistic.

The

social,

cultural,

psychological and political factors which are related to language and used as criteria are the following: 1. Numerical muscles in of number of mother tongue speakers and

the degree of de facto use in vehicular function by none mother tongue speakers 2. Degree of standardization and quantity of post literary materials already

available 3.

Historical and cultural prestige among a non native speakers and linguistic ‘purity’ of the chosen variant in the eyes of mother tongue speakers

4. Historical, cultural and religious prestige of the mother tongue speakers

themselves 5. Political and economic dominance of its mother tongue or non mother

tongue speakers 6. Mutual intelligibility of dialects of a language or language clusters

(Nyombe, 2001:134)

7. Scholars like Nyombe (2001:134) include acceptability of the dialect

by the s, as more important criteria.

8. Who can standardize a language? In the process of standardization may involve many people depending on the situation.

As

we

understand

from

different

countries

experience

standardization, the following are active participants in the whole process.  Governmental and nongovernmental organizations  Language engineers (linguists)  Politicians  Religious institutions  Media and the media people  Educators  Universities  Rulers  Individuals (like writers, literary persons…)  Speakers of the language

of

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Distinction

And

Extinction:

The

Harmonization

And

Standardization Of African Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press. (pp.187-201) Oyetad S. O. (2001). Issues In The Harmonization And Standardization Of Yoruba In Nigeria And The Republic Of Benin: Implication For Education And Development. In Prah K.K. (ed.). Between Distinction And Extinction: The Harmonization And Standardization Of African Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press.(pp. 17-41) Msimang T. (2001). The Nature And History Of Harmonization Of South African Languages. In Prah K.K. (ed.) Between Distinction And Extinction: The Harmonization And Standardization Of African Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press. (pp. 165- 172) Nyomba B.G. (2001). Harmonizing, Standardizing And Classifying Nilotic Languages For Education. In Prah K.K. (ed.) Between Distinction And

Extinction: The Harmonization And Standardization Of African Languages. South Africa; Witwatersrand University Press.(pp. 125142) Rabim, C. (1971). A tentative Classification of Language-planning Aims: In Rubin, J. and Jernudd, H. Can Language Be Planned? University Press of Hawaii. Rubin J. and Jernudd B. (1971). Can Language Be Planned? Sociolingustic theory and Practice for developing Nation. USA, The University Press of Hawaii. Webb,v. and Kembo-Sure E. (2000). African voices, an introduction to language and linguistics of Africa. Oxford University Press. Wolff E. (2000). Language and Society: In Nurse, D. and Bernd H. African Languages, An Introduction. Cambridge university press. Deumert Ana (2004) Language Standardization and Language Change:the Dynamics of Cape Dutch. Nertherlands; John Benjamins publishers.