Ahom Mughal Conflict 451v31

Ahom–Mughal conflicts Ahom–Mughal conflicts refer to the period between the first Mughal attack on the Ahom kingdom in 1615 and the final Battle of Itakhuli in 1682. The intervening period saw the fluctuating fortunes of both powers and the end of the rule of Koch Hajo. It ended with the Ahom influence extended to the Manas river which remained the western boundary of the kingdom till the advent of the British in 1826.

Overview From the beginning the relation between the Ahoms and the Mughals was hostile and that was due to certain factors, such as, Mughal alliance with Koch Bihar, the western enemy of the Ahoms and secondly the growing advance of the Mughals in north-eastern frontier which alarmed them. While the Mughals ed Lakshminarayan, son of Nara Narayan of Koch Behar, the Ahom king Sukhaamphaa (1552-1603) entered into alliance by marrying the daughter of Lakshminarayan’s cousin Raghudeva, the son of Chilarai who became the ruler of the eastern part of the kingdom, Koch Hajo which included the modern districts of Goalpara, Barpeta, Kamrup, Darrang and a part of Sonitpur (up to Bharali). This dynastic alliance between Ahom and Koch was renewed afterwards by the next Ahom king Susenghphaa (Pratap Singha, 1603-1641) who married a daughter of Raja Parikshit. It is true that with a view to satisfy the territorial ambitions of his own nephew, Nar Narayan allowed partition of his kingdom. But unfortunately, in spite of being pacified, Raghudeva and his successors remained all along hostile towards the Koch royal house and this rivalry and antagonism between these two frontier states invited intervention and aggression of their two mighty neighbourhood powers: the Mughals on the west and Ahoms on the east.

Conflict inception From the time the Mughals appeared in the north-eastern frontier, a state of indirect rivalry and hostility began between the Mughals and the Ahoms. After the final defeat of Parikshit (1613) the first organised Mughal attack upon Assam was made with a view to conquer that kingdom. It was the outcome of the aggressive imperialism of the Mughals. "A desire for political supremacy and territorial expansion appears to have been the guiding motives of the Mughals." Boundary disputes and the trade rivalries appear to have complicated the situation and political issues precipitated the conflict. After the extinction of the Kamrup

monarchy, the Mughals came to regard the territory east of Barnadi up to Singiri as part of the conquered region and hence asserted their political right over it. Ahoms strongly resented this claim. "Moreover the rich natural resources of the Assam valley and the prosperous kingdom of Kamrup in lower Brahmaputra valley, abounding in elephants and aromatic plants excited the cupidity of the Mughals and they were determined to force open the door of Assam." The first organised open encounter with the Ahom kingdom was the well-deserved punishment meted out by the Ahom government to an unauthorised trader from Mughal India named Ratan Singh. His illicit trade was detected, his goods were confiscated and he was expelled from Assam. The Mughals got the necessary pretext for war and an imperial army was at once detached in 1615 under the command of Abu Bakr and Raja Satrajit of Bhusna. The imperial army advanced towards Barnagar, the old capital of Kamrup and next moved to Hajo and numerous outposts were raised in the surrounding region. In November 1615, Abu Bakr suddenly fell upon Kajali, the Ahom frontier post on the southwest. After a short skirmish, the Ahoms were defeated and leaving their war boats and the fort, they fled. Flushed with easy success the Mughals indulged in a series of aggressive measures against the Ahoms. The Ahom king then fortified the fort of Samdhara with a view to check the advance of the Mughals. Meanwhile the Mughals had reached the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Bharali facing Samdhara. After a month of inaction the Mughals achieved a great triumph. They transported their horses across the Bharali and made a violent assault on the Ahom stockade on the left bank.The Ahoms thus suffered another discomfiture. The Ahom king sent a strong detachment to the Ahom commanders at Samdhara and exhorted them to fall on the enemy and fight to finish. The Ahoms gained an initial success and reoccupied the stockade at the mouth of Bharali. The imperialists were taken by complete surprise and suffered heavy casualties. Thus in spite of the initial success, the maiden attempt of the Mughals upon Assam ended in a disastrous failure. They suffered a colossal loss in men and money besides military prestige.

Conflict development After the first disastrous failure in Assam, the Mughals henceforth continued to follow a defensive and conciliatory policy in regards to the Assam state. Because of their heavy engagement in Kamrup, the Mughals henceforward were very cautious not to offend their mighty neighbour. But the Ahoms being encouraged at their recent brilliant success continued to pursue a hostile policy against the Mughals and proceeded to take advantage of the prevailing political confusion in Kamrup. The Assam disaster encouraged seditions and rebellions in Mughal

occupied Kamrup. The Ahoms encouraged the Kamrup rebels and thereby caused hardship to the Mughals. There was hardly any open and direct conflict between the two powers as such. In the year 1618 the Ahom king Pratap Singha installed Balinarayan, the brother of Parikshit as King of Darrang and continued to help him for some time to reoccupy Kamrup. But in spite of Ahom king’s material assistance, Balinarayan ultimately failed reconquer Kamrup. The Ahoms interfered in Kamrup for the third time on behalf of the hill chiefs of Dhanikal in 1619. The hill chiefs being sick of Mughal subjection made a bold attempt to seize the hill fort of Ranihat and they sought the help of the Ahom king. The Ahom responded to the appeal and sent a large detachment to their assistance. After a hard fighting the Mughals courted defeat and were compelled to evacuate Ranihat hotly pursued by the Ahoms. But the Mughals soon gathered strength and recovered Dhanikal in spite of the stiff resistance of the Ahoms. Thus three attempts of the Ahoms at supplanting Mughal authority in Kamrup proved abortive. The Ahom king gradually withdrew from the arena of Kamrup policies leaving Balinarayan to his fate. During Shah Jahan's reign The reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1655) marks a new epoch in Ahom-Mughal relations. After a decade of informal hostility, circumstances paved the way for the renewal of open conflict between the two powers. Twofold factors, both political, appear to have been responsible for the conflict. The first was the asylum given by the Ahom king to the hill-chiefs of Dhanikal who had sought his protection against the ill treatment of the Bengal Subahdar Qasim Khan Chishti. The second factor, which precipitated the crisis, was the wickedness and treachery of Satrajit, the Thanadar of Pandu who made a common cause with Balinarayan and instigated him to take advantage of the change of governor in Bengal in order to attack Kamrup. The invasion of Kamrup by Balinarayan compelled the Mughals to resort to arms. The Ahoms gained initial success. A fierce encounter took place, which ultimately ended with the total discomfiture of the imperialists. Thereupon, the Mughal fell back to their frontier post of Hajo. The Ahoms laid seize to Hajo and fighting continued for some time. At last both sides having been thoroughly worn out, the fighting was stopped for some time. The Ahom-Mughal conflict started afresh towards the end of December 1636. The Mughals entered Kamrup proper. The decisive defeat inflicted by the imperialists on Balinarayan and the Ahoms in November 1637 turned the tide of fortune in favour of imperialists. The whole of Kamrup was cleared and re-annexed to the Pan-Mughalia. The third round of conflict began soon. The imperialists advanced

up the Brahmaputra and halted opposite to Samdhara in October 1638; severe fighting ensued. Although the faint-hearted Ahom iral retired from battle field, the garrison in the fort of Samdhara offered such a gallant defence that the Mughals had to give up the contest with great loss of men and materials. Both sides became eager for peace. Hence a treaty of peace was signed in February 1639. According to the Treaty of Asurar Ali between the Ahom general Momai Tamuli Borbarua, and the Mughal commander Allah Yar Khan, western Assam commencing from Gauhati ed into the hands of Mughals. The Ahom king, for the first time, acknowledged formally the Mughal overlordship in Kamrup, the Mughals acknowledged the independence of the Ahom king and gave up all pretensions to the territories east of Barnadi on the north and Kalang on the south and the Ahom king agreed not to interfere in Kamrup. Besides trade and commercial intercourses were resumed. The Ahom-Mughal relation following the peace of 1639 was far from satisfactory. However, it would be wrong to assume that both sides strictly honoured the peace treaty of 1639. The keynote of the political history of this period is the endless criminations and recriminations of the Mughals and the Assamese on various rounds, such as, 'Kheda' operations, trade and commercial intercourse, boundary disputes, extradition of political offenders, and violation of personal liberty and privileges of the subject people. On these issues frictions continued mounting without, of course, any open armed-clash. It was really a period of armed peace between the Mughals and the Ahoms. In the year 1648, the Mughal Faujdar of Gauhati sent a message of congratulations to the Ahom king Jayadhwaj (Suramphaa) on his succession. But, Jayadhwaj Singha (1648-1663), taking advantage of the emperor Shah Jahan’s illness and the war of succession, expelled the Mughals from Gauhati, and chased them down beyond the river Manaha (Manas). He also devastated the territory near Dacca and carried off to Assam a large number of Mughal subjects as captives. During Aurangzeb's reign Aurangzeb after ascending on the throne of Delhi ordered Mir Jumla to invade Cooch Behar and Assam and re-establish Mughal prestige in eastern India. After having occupied Koch Behar had also declared its independence. Mir Jumla entered Assam in the beginning of 1662. He easily repulsed the feeble resistance offered by the Assamese at the garrisons between Manaha and Guwahati. He

occupied one garrison after another, and Pandu, Guwahati, and Kajali fell into the hands of the Mughals practically unopposed. The easy success of Mir Jumla was due to dissatisfaction in the Assam camp. The leading commanders and the officers were the exclusive monopolies of the TaiAhom. But. King Jayadhwaj Singha had appointed a Kayastha as viceroy of Western Assam and commander-in-chief of the Ahom army despatch against Mir Jumla leading to resentment among the ranks. This officer was Manthir Bharali Barua of Bejdoloi family. He was also appointed Parbatia Phukan. This appointment caused bitter resentment among the hereditary Ahom nobles and commanders and the resistance which they offered to the invaders was neither worthy of the efficient military organisation of the Ahoms nor of the reputation which they acquired by repeated success in their enterprises against foreigners, and Mir Jumla’s march into Assam was an uninterrupted series of triumph and victories though the real secret of his success, namely, defection in Ahom camp, which has not been touched upon by any historian of the expedition. The Ahoms, however, recovered their senses when the hostile force reached the neighbourhood of Kaliabor. They concentrated their defence at Simalugarh and Samdhara. In February 1662, Mir Jumla laid siege to Simalugarh and after severe hand-to-hand fight, the Ahoms abandoned the fort and took to flight. The Ahom forces at Samdhara on the opposite bank, being unnerved by the fall of Simalugarh, left their charge without any opposition worth the name. After this brilliant success, Mir Jumla entered the Ahom capital Garhgaon on 17 March 1662. The Ahom king Jayadhwaj took shelter in the eastern hills abandoning his capital and all his treasures. Immense spoils fell into the hands of the Mughal Empire – 82 elephants, about 3 lakhs of coins in gold and silver, 675 big guns, about 4750 maunds of gunpowder in boxes, 7828 shields, 1000 odd ships, and 173 stores of rice. But, Mir Jumla conquered only the soil of Ahom capital and neither the king nor the country. The rainy season was fast approaching and so Mir Jumla halted there and made necessary arrangements for holding the conquered land. Communications with the imperial fleet at Lakhau as well as with Dacca were arranged. But the torrential rain and violence of the rivers caused immense hardship to the Mughals and the communication with the Mughal fleet and Lakhau and with Dacca became completely disrupted. The Ahoms took the fullest advantage of the unspeakable hardship of the Mughals. With the progress of monsoon, the Ahoms easily recovered all the country east of

Lakhau. Only Garhgaon and Mathurapur remained in the possession of Mughals. The Ahoms were not slow to take advantages of the miserable plight of the Mughals. The Ahom king came out of his refuge and ordered his commanders to expel the invaders from his kingdom. A serious epidemic broke out in the Mughal camp at Mathurapur, which took away the lives of hundreds of Mughal soldiers. There was no suitable diet or comfort in the Mughal camp. At last life became unbearable at Mathurapur and hence the Mughals abandoned it. By the end of September the worst was over. The rains decreased, and flood went down, roads reappeared and communications became easier. The with the Mughal fleet at Lakhau was restored which cheered the long suffering Mughal garrison. The Mughal army under Mir Jumla ed the fleet at Devalgaon. The Ahom king Jayadhwaj Singha took refuge in hill again. But in December, Mir Jumla fell seriously ill and the soldiers refused to advance any further. Meanwhile the Ahom king became extremely anxious for peace. At last a treaty was concluded at Ghilajharighat in January 1663, according to which the Ahoms ceded western Assam to the Mughals, promised a war indemnity of three lakhs of rupees and ninety elephants. Besides, the king had to deliver his only child and daughter Ramani Gabharu, as well as his niece, the daughter of the Tipam Raja to the harem of the Mughal emperor. Thus, according to the treaty Jayadhwaj Singha transferred Kamrup to the possession of the Mughals and promised to pay a heavy war indemnity. The question of prompt payment of war indemnity of elephants and cash became a source of friction between the Ahoms and the Mughals. The first instalment was paid by Jayadhwaj promptly. But as soon as Mir Jumla withdrew from Assam the Ahoms began to default. Jayadhwaj Singha’s successor Chakradhwaj Singha (Supangmung, 1663-1670) was against any payment at all on principle. He shouted out from his throne: - "Death is preferable to a life of subordination to foreigners". In 1665 the king summoned an assembly of his ministers and nobles and ordered them to adopt measures for expelling the Mughals from western Assam, adding— "My ancestors were never subordinate to any other people; and I for myself cannot remain under the vassalage of any foreign power. I am a descendant of the Heavenly king and how can I pay tribute to the wretched foreigners." A large portion of the war indemnity still remained undelivered for which the Ahom king had to receive threatening letters from Syed Firoz Khan, the new Fauzadar at Guwahati. On receiving Firoz Khan’s letter the Ahom king made up his mind to fight. On Thursday, Bhadra 3, 1589 saka near aboutAugust 20, 1667 the Ahom army started from the capital and sailed down the Brahmaputra in two

divisions. They encamped at Kaliabor, the Vice Regal headquarters, from where they conducted their war operations against the Mughals. Syed Firoz Khan, the imperial governor of Guwahati and his army were not prepared for such an eventuality, with the result that the Ahoms gained a series of victories over the enemy. The Ahom army on the south bank was successful in their fighting. Their chief objective was the capture of Itakhuli which is a small hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra at Guwahati. In 2 November 1667, Itakhuli and the contiguous garrison of Guwahati fell into the hands of the Ahoms. Enemy was chased down to the mouth of the Manaha river, the old boundary between Assam and Mughal India. The Ahom also succeeded in bringing back the Assamese subjects who had previously been taken as captives by the Mughals during the expedition of Mir Jumla. Thus within the short span of two months the Ahoms succeeded their lost possession and along with it their lost prestige and glory, this was due to the determination and courage of Ahom king Chakradhwaj Singha. On receiving the news of victory the king cried out-"It is now that I can eat my morsel of food with ease and pleasure". The success of the Ahoms in recovering possession of Guwahati and western Assam forms a momentous chapter in the history of their conflicts with the Mughals. Ram Singh's campaign Battle of Saraighat In December 1667, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb received intelligence of the capture of Guwahati by the Ahoms, and he at once resolved to dispatch a strong army to reestablish Mughal prestige in North-East frontier. He commissioned Raja Ramsingh I of Amber, son of the distinguished general Mirza-Raja Jai Singh I, to lead an invasion of Assam. He was accompanied by Rashid Khan, the ex-Fauzadar of Guwahati. Ram Singha reached the frontier garrison of Rangamati in February 1669. On Ram Singha’s arrival at Rangamati, the Ahom commanders stationed at Manaha attempted to oppose the advance of the enemy. There were few skirmishes, but the Assamese could not attain any success. The Assamese were not prepared for such an eventuality and they left their frontier garrisons and sailed down to Guwahati. Also, the Ahoms had not quite completed their preparations for resisting Ramsingh I’s advance. Lachit Borphukan, the commander-in-chief of the Ahom camp had realized fully that postponement of the open encounter would enable him to bring his preparations to perfection in the light of the enemy’s superior strength. Lachit Borphukan sent the following message to Ram Singh "Tell Raja Ram Singh that

we want to know why he has come to our country." Firoz Khan, ex-Fauzadar of Guwahatii, now a prisoner of the Ahoms, was released and Lachit Barphukan sent him to Raja Ram Singh with the above message. Ram Singh demanded through Firoz Khan the restoration of the limit fixed in 1639 between Allah Yar Khan and Momai Tamuli Borbarua. By the time he received this reply Barphukan would rather fight than yield an inch of the territory which providence had given to his master. The result was that in the first two battles of the campaign were fought near Tezpur in the beginning of April 1669. The Ahoms were worsted on both occasions, but they gained a naval battle, and soon afterwards repulsed the Muhammadans and Ram Singha was compelled to retire to Hajo where he quarreled with Rashid Khan. Eventually Ram Singha cut his tent ropes and ordered him out of the camp. Soon afterwards the Muhammadans were again defeated near Sualkuchi, both on land and water. At this juncture, Ramsingh I challenged Chakradhwaj Singha to single combat, and undertook, if he were defeated, to return with the army to Bengal. The Ahom king declined the invitation, and ordered his generals to renew their attack. They did so, and won another double engagement near Sessa. They followed up this success by taking the fort at Agiathuti, but soon afterwards Ram Singha attacked the Ahom army and routed it, inflicting heavy loss. The Barphukan hurried up with reinforcements, but his flank was tired and he was obliged to retreat with loss of his ships. Raja Ram Singha now opened negotiations for peace. The Ahoms were also tired of the war, and hostilities were suspended for a time. Sporadic engagement accompanied by proposals of peace continued during 1669 and 1670. From October 1669 to March 1670, Ram Singha withdrew himself from the fight. In the meantime Ramsingh I sent a letter to the Barphukan inviting the king of Assam to fight a duel in the presence of the two hostile armies. But the Ahom king dismissed the insolent challenge by simply saying—"Ram Singha is a mere servant and he has no umbrella over his head. So I do not like to fight a duel with such a man." Chakradhvaj Singha could not hold his patience any longer. In the meantime the Mughal had then concentrated their army near Alaboi Hill in the vicinity of Dalibari. A terrible contest ensued on the plains to the south of the Alaboi Hill. The Ahoms were badly defeated in that battle. The massacre at Alaboi had terribly upset Lachit Barphukan. Though the Alaboi massacre meant a serious loss to the Ahoms but it did not confer upon the enemy any decisive advantage.

But Ram Singha repeated his demands for the evacuation of Guwahati and reversion to the status quo ante of the year 1639. The Barphukan remained firm in the position he had previously maintained. So war was inevitable between the two parties. But when the war was taking a more critical turn, Chakradhwaj Singha, the king of Assam died in April 1670. He was succeeded by his brother Udayaditya Singha (Sunyatphaa, 1670-1672) Although the negotiations with the Mughals continued, but Ram Singha suspecting the sincerity of the Barphukan returned to attack. Udayaditya renewed the war and ordered the Barphukan to march with 20,000 men from Samdhara to Saraighat. The Ahoms were successful on land but their navy was forced to retreat. Barphukan arrived with more ships and Mughal army was beaten and the Ahoms also gained a second land victory. The Mughals could not stand the dash and fury of the Assamese onset. The Assamese were fighting for their life and liberty, and the Mughals for the mere luxury of triumph and territorial expansion. The Barphukan intended to chase them further still, but he was dissuaded by Achyutanda Doloi. The combat came to an end, and it was a decisive victory for the Assamese. This battle is known in history as the Battle of Saraighat. Ram Singha weakened by the repeated losses retreated to Rangamati in March 1671. Hadira opposite to Goalpara became the Ahom frontier out post. Thus Mughals were evicted from Kamrup, strong fortifications were constructed at Guwahati. Thus Ahoms remained in undisturbed possession of their territories till 1679 A.D.

Post-conflict In 1679, during the reign of Sudoiphaa or Parvatiya Raja, Laluk Barphukan, the Ahom viceroy of Gauhati, and his brother entered into a conspiracy and invited the Nawab of Bengal to take possession of the fort at Saraighat. Accordingly in March Laluk Sola made over Gauhati to the Mughals in return for a promised reward of four lakhs of rupees and an assurance to Laluk’s candidature for the throne of Assam. In 1681, Gadapani was formally installed as sovereign of Assam under the name Gadadhar Singha (Supaatphaa, 1681-1696). His first act after taking reign was the dispatch of an army against Mansur Khan, which succeeded in recovering Gauhati in August 1682 after a decisive encounter at Itakhuli. The Ahoms expelled Mansur Khan from Gauhati and re-established their possession over the territories extending up to the river Manaha (Manas). Thus, Manaha (river Manas) became once more the western boundary of Assam and it remained as such till the occupation of the western Assam by the British in the year 1824.

List of Conflicts Sl. Mughal War- Ahom WarNo Year Leader Leader . 1

2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9

Abu Bakr & 1615 Raja Satrajit of Bhusna

Main Fronts

Out-post Barnagar, Hajo, Commander Kajali, Samdhora s fort

Consequence Mughal wins but unable to consolidate hold. Ahom regains lost posts.

Reinforceme Ahom wins but unable Out-post nt Dhanikal & Ranihat 1619 to consolidate . Commanders Commander forts Mughal regains posts. s Cease-fire at Hajo, Out-post Guwahati, Kamrup Balinarayan Mughals removed Commanders frontiers, Hajo from Kamrup proper Out-post Reinforcemen Kamrup frontiers, 1636 Commander Mughal wins posts. t Commanders Guwahati s Reinforcemen Mughal wins whole of 1637 Balinarayan Kamrup proper t Commanders Kamrup proper Ahom retains fort, Out-post Mughal retreats, Reinforcemen 1638 Commander Samdhora fort Treaty of Asurar Ali t Commanders s signed, Ahom loses Kamrup Ahoms routs Mughal Jayadhwaj Out-post Kamrup proper, posts and forces them 1648 Singha, Commanders Dacca to retreat to near Ahom King Assam-Bengal Border Mir Jumla Guwahati,Kajali,Si Jaydhwaj Singha, Out-post under direct malugarh, Ahom king 1662 Commander order from Samdhora, Ahom retreats,abandons s Aurangzeb capital Gargaon capital Ahom regains capital, Jayadhwaj Capital Gargaon, Mughals, routed off 1662 Mir Jumla Singha, Mathurapur their Ahom King possessions,retreats to

10 1663 Mir Jumla

11 1667

12 1667

13 1669

14 1669

15 1670

Jayadhwaj Singha, Capital Gargaon Ahom King

Commander s under direct order Guwahati, Kamrup Out-post from frontiers, Itakhuli, Commanders Chakradhwa Hajo j Singha, Ahom King Raja Ram Singh of Amber and Out-post Rashid Khan Commander Rangamati under direct s order from Aurangzeb Raja Ram Singh of Amber and Out-post Rashid Khan Commander Tezpur under direct s order from Aurangzeb Raja Ram Singh of Reinforceme Amber and nt Rashid Khan Sualkuchi Commander under direct s order from Aurangzeb Raja Ram Out-post Alaboi Hill near

Kamrup proper Jaydhwaj Singha, Ahom king retreats, abandons capital but signs Treaty of Ghilajharighat to regain capital with heavy war-indemnity payment Ahom routs Mughal posts and forces Mughals to retreat to near Assam-Bengal Border

Ahom loses out-posts; makes strategic retreat to Guwahati

Initially Mughal gains posts but soon defeated by the naval fleets of Ahom, retreats to Hajo, Ahom wins out-posts

Ahom wins out-posts

Mughal wins posts

Singh of Amber Raja Ram 16 1671 Singh of Amber Nawab of Bengal under suzerainty of 17 1679 Mughal & Laluk Sola (Ahom conspirator)

Commander Dalibari s Lachit Borphukan

None

Dihingia 18 1682 Mansur Khan Alun Barbarua

Decisive win by Battle of Saraighat Ahom, Ram Singh retreats to Rangamati

No War

Laluksola Borphukan, conspires with Mughals and abandons Guwahati

Battle of Itakhuli

Ahom regains Kamrup up to Manas river and establishes firm reign over the area till advent of British in 1826

Battle of Saraighat Final Battle of Saraighat Part of the Ahom-Mughal conflicts Date Location Result

Middle of March, 1671 Guwahati Decisive Ahom Victory Belligerents

Ahom kingdom

Mughal Empire Commanders and leaders

Lachit Borphukan

Ramsingh I, Munnawar Khan & Shaista Khan

Casualties and losses 4000 men, 3 amirs The Battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 between the Mughal empire (led by the Kachwaha king, Raja Ramsingh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by Lachit Borphukan) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati. Although much weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by brilliant uses of the terrain, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces—its navy. The Battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the Battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule. The Battle of Saraighat was fought in 1671 between the Mughal empire (led by the Kachwaha king, Raja Ramsingh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by Lachit Borphukan) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati. Although much weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by brilliant uses of the terrain, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces—its navy. The Battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the Battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule.

Background Mughal interest in the Brahmaputra valley began in 1602 when the Nawab of Dhaka attacked Parikshit Narayan of Koch Hajo at Dhubri, the western most corner of Assam. The first Mughal-Ahom conflict took place in 1615 when the Mughals attacked the Ahoms, then under Pratap Singha, for protecting Bali Narayan, the brother of Parikshit. This resulted in a period of Mughal-Ahom war with fluctuating fortunes that ended with the Treaty of Asurar Ali in 1639. The Treaty fixed Barnadi river in the north bank and Asurar Ali in the south bank of the

Brahmaputra as the boundary between the Ahoms and the Mughals. This, and the defeat of the Koch king at Pandu in 1641, resulted in a period of Mughal istration in Kamrup (Guwahati and Hajo.) Taking advantage of the Mughal succession wars after the fall of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1658, Pran Narayan of Koch Bihar tried to occupy Koch Hajo, but the Ahoms under Jayadhwaj Singha took Guwahati and pushed him back beyond Dhubri. That the Ahoms reached Dhubri by defeating the Koch king and not the Mughals would form a central tenet in later Ahom diplomacy. Soon after, Aurangzeb occupied the Delhi throne. Mir Jumla II, pursuing Shah Shuja in Bengal, was appointed the Subahdar of Bengal in 1660 and asked to retake Assam. Mir Jumla marched in 1661 and defeated the Ahoms at successive encounters to finally take the Ahom capital Garhgaon. But the daga juddha (guerrilla warfare) of Atan Burhagohain and the rains succeeded in cutting off Mughal communication lines making it impossible for Mir Jumla to consolidate Mughal rule. Unaware of Mir Jumlas difficulties and unnerved by Baduli Phukan's defection, Jayadhwaj Singha sued for peace, an opportunity Mir Jumla seized on. The Treaty of Ghilajharighat (1663) brought an end to Mughal occupation of Garhgaon, but the conditions of this treaty were so severe that the Ahoms were soon resolved to reverse them.

Ahom preparations for war After the humiliating defeat inflicted by Mir Jumla the Ahom king Jayadhwaj Singha died in despair. On his deathbed, he exhorted his cousin and successor Chakradhwaj Singha to "remove the spear of humiliation from the bosom of the nation." There followed a complete overhaul of the Ahom kingdom. People who had dispersed due to Mir Jumla's invasion were rehabilitated in the appropriate khels, food and military productions were increased, new forts were constructed and garrisoned and an experditionary army was organized under a new commander—Lachit Borphukan. Alliances were renewed with the Jaintia and the Kachari kingdoms. During this period Mughal imperial demands were tactfully and diplomatically rebuffed, but when the new faujdar of Guwahati, Firuz Khan, forced the matter in March 1667, the Ahoms were compelled to move. In August 1667 the Ahom army, under Lachit Borphukan and accompanied by Atan Burhagohain, sailed downstream to retake Guwahati.

Ahoms retake Guwahati

Lachit made Kaliabor, the old seat of the Borphukan, his base camp and advanced toward Guwahati along both banks of the Brahmaputra. On the north bank the Deka Phukan retook Bahbari in early September 1667. On the south bank, the Nausalia Phukan and others, moving on land and water, captured Kajali, Sonapur, Panikhaiti, and Titamara forts between the Kapili river and Guwahati. The Ahoms then reached Guwahati which was defended by five choukies on each bank of the Brahmaputra (north—Kanai-borosi-bowa, Hillar, Hindurighopa, Patduar and Korai; south—Latasil, Joiduar, Dharamduar, Duarguria and Pandu). With some loss, the Ahoms captured Shah Buruz and Rangamahal forts, a little north of the city. An extended battle was fought for the Itakhuli fort (at the site of the current Deputy Commissioner's bungalow). The Ahoms besieged Joiduar, occupied Pandu, and in spite of a Mughal reinforcement, approached Itakhuli. The grand attack was launched on the night of 4 November 1667, when the Ahoms scaled the walls by ladders and after two months of siege, Itakhuli fell in mid-November 1667. Most of the defenders were massacred, many surrendered but a few managed to escape. War provisions, treasures and war material fell into Ahom hands. The Mughals received some reinforcement at this point and retaliated against the Ahoms. The Ahoms fought back with their naval forces and removed them from their bases in Umananda and Barhat. The Mughals, pursued by the Ahoms, managed to fortify the Manahmukh (the confluence of Manas river) and fend off the attackers for some time but Firuz Khan finally surrendered and was taken prisoner. This brought an end to the recapture of Guwahati and the Ahoms were able to control their old Manas border once again. But this did not last long and they had to beat a strategic retreat due to the advancing Mughal army of Raja Ram Singh.

Mughal imperial invasion Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was informed of the losses on 19 December 1667 and he commissioned Raja Ram Singh of Amber, son of the famous Mirza Raja Jai Singh, to take back Guwahati. Ram Singh left Delhi on 27 December 1667 and finally reached Rangamati in February in 1669. He was accompanied, as was the Mughal custom of sending two generals, by Rashid Khan, ex-faujdar of Guwahati, and from Patna by the Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur. The Ahoms, anticipating a Mughal strike, are said to have followed his movements from Delhi itself. Along the way Aurangzeb augmented Ram Singh's forces of 4,000 troopers (from his char-hazaari mansab), 1,500 ahadis and 500 barqandezes by an additional 30,000 infantrymen, 21 Rajput chiefs (Thakurs) with their contingents, 18,000 cavalry, 2,000 archers and shieldmen and 40 ships. When Lachit surveyed the massive

Mughal force later, he was moved to tears and he uttered: "It is a tragedy that my country is facing this dire catastrophe during my Phukanship. How will my king be saved? How will my people be saved? And how will my posterity be saved?" Armies from Koch Bihar ed the Mughal forces since they were vassals.

Ahom strategic planning and Mughal attacks Aware of Mughal military might and the weakness of the Ahom soldiers, especially against cavalry and mounted forces in open fields, Lachit Borphukan and others decided to choose the terrain of the battlefield with care. The choice fell on Guwahati, which was hilly, on the way to the heart of the Ahom kingdom and without open fields where the Mughal forces would not have sufficient mobility. The only way east was via the Brahmaputra river ing through it. The Brahmaputra at Saraighat, at its narrowest 1 km width, was ideal for a naval defense. To check Mughal advance, Lachit prepared a complex system of mud embankments in Guwahati When the Mughals found Guwahati impregnable by land, they would be forced to use their navy, which was their weakest asset. Lachit set up his headquarters at Andharubali, the sandbanks between the Kamakhya and Sukreshwar hills. The deliberations of the war council were recorded and made into a manual. When the Mughal march reached the Manas river in March–April 1669 and defeated some Ahom forces, Lachit decided on a strategic retreat to Guwahati. Three Rajkhowas were asked to meet the Mughal forces and retreat to Guwahati, keeping the Mughal forces in sight but beyond the reach of their weapons. When the Mughals reached closer, he started a sham negotiation with Ram Singh, who had set up camp at Agiathuti, calling him a "Bhai Raja" (brother prince). And when he was ready for the Mughal attacks, he sent words to Ram Singh via Firuz Khan that "Guwahati and Kamrup do not belong to the Mughals" since they were taken from the Koch and that the Assamese were prepared to fight to the last. A period of battles between the Ahom and Mughal forces in the region of Guwahati followed, with varied results with forts changing hands many times. In these battles, the Mughal forces were arraigned in four divisions: 1. The north bank, commanded by Ram Singh himself. 2. The south bank, under Ali Akbar Khan, Mir Sayyid Khan, Raja Indramani, Raja Jaynarayan and Marul Khan

3. The Sindurighopa entrance, under Jahir Beg, Kayam Khan, Ghanashyam Bakshi, and three Baruah's from Koch Bihar—Kavisekhar, Sarveshwar and Manmatha. 4. The river, guarded by the naval commanders Mansur Khan, Latif Khan, Iswarpati, firinghees (Europeans) and one Kapidan Raja. In these attacks the Ahom allies—the Garos, the Jaintia, the Nagas, the Rani of Darrang, the Raja of Rani, and even the monsoons of 1669—ed battle. The Ahom defense was arraigned as: 1. The north bank, under the command of Atan Burhagohain. 2. The south bank, under the command of Lachit Borphukan. Both commanders had a number of pali commanders each defending a specific strategic area, with each pali reorganized in response to the challenge posed by Ram Singh's forces. Aurangzeb received information of the lack of progress in August 1669 and made arrangements with the Subahdar of Bengal, Shaistha Khan, to provide reinforcements to Ram Singh. This period is also known for Atan Burhagohain's dagga judha (guerilla warfare). Ram Singh protested that these harassing campaigns lowered the "dignity of warfare", and withdrew from fighting (October 1669 – March 1970), to no particular military advantage.

Major Ahom reversal at Alaboi One of these battles stood out for a major Ahom reversal. Exasperated with the delaying tactics of the Borphukan, Ram Singh asked for a duel with the Ahom king. He promised to withdraw from Assam with his army if he was defeated. Lachit updated Chakradhwaj Singha about this proposal, who rejected the offer on the ground that it was beneath his dignity to duel a mere servant "who has no umbrella over his head" (who is not a "Chhatrapati"). Annoyed with Ram Singh's proposal he ordered Lachit to confront the Mughals militarily. In a battle that was set up as a challenge, a force of 10,000 Mughals under Mir Nawab was to confront a force of 20,000 Ahom cavalry. Ram Singh's "approach was psychological, marked by pride, chivalry and revenge". The Ahom approach, to cover their basic weaknesses, was based on "diplomacy, deception and mispresentation". So instead of 20,000, they sent in 40,000 and using an anti-koch tactic that had worked against Chilarai, they dressed their vanguard archers and musketeers as Brahmans to make the Rajput warriors desist from killing them. Ram Singh, on the other

hand, set a woman, Madanavati, dressed as a man, to command the vanguard to deny the Ahoms any glory in case of a victory. The battle took place in the fields ading the Alaboi hills about 5 August 1669. In the first phase, Madanavati dispersed the first four lines of the Ahom vanguard with ease, but the Borphukan had trenches dug to conceal his other lines. In the second phase, a diversion to cross the Brahmaputra was thwarted, and Madanavati was shot. The battle turned and in the third phase, Mir Nawab's forces were routed. Enraged at the deception, Ram Singh let loose his veteran horsemen and in the carnage that followed, 10,000 Ahom soldiers were massacred. Aurangzeb was pleased with these Mughal successes and increased Ram Singh's mansab from 4000 to 5000. Ram Singh was also instructed to invest Guwahati soon, and if it was not possible, to devastate the land and plunder the people.

Final diplomatic maneuvers After the Mughal advances in late 1669, Ram Singh began diplomatic efforts. The proposal was for the Assamese to evacuate Guwahati and a return to the 1639 status quo (Treaty of Asurar Ali) in return for a Mughal payment of 300,000 rupees. The Ahoms did not respond favorably. Ram Singh next attempted to bribe and create divisions among the Ahom field commanders (Phukans). In the meantime, the Ahom king Chakradhwaj Singha died and was succeeded by his brother Udayaditya Singha. The long war had resulted in popular discontent in the Ahom kingdom. Ram Singh again put forward his proposal on the 1639 status quo settlement and this time the Ahoms appeared receptive. The Ahom king, though displeased, left the decision to his commanders in Guwahati. In the meeting which included Lachit Borphukan, the only dissenter to the proposal was Atan Burhagohain, who displayed his statesmanship. Atan Burhagohain argued that there was no guarantee that the Emperor at Delhi will abide by Ram Singh's assurance. Also, a settlement then would mean that the drain on the country's resources would have been in vain. Further, what was the guarantee that once the Mughals take Guwahati, they would not reach for Garhgaon or even Namrup. Atan Burhagohain was able to persuade the other commanders and the Ahoms rejected this proposal. The diplomatic efforts of Ram Singh failed once again.

Final battle at Saraighat

The Battle of Saraighat, March 1671 Meanwhile, Mughal reinforcements in the shape of war-vessels and imperial officers (Omraos) reached Ram Singh, along with the Mughal iral, Munnawar Khan and the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan, sent the message that Ram Singh was sent to fight the Assamese, not make friends with them. Ram Singh now made preparations for his final and direct assault on Guwahati and began moving along the northbank. Near Sualkuchi he was ed by ships with artillery and archers under five sardars. The Mughals had large boats, some carrying as many as sixteen cannons. The Mughal ambassador, Paditrai, had reported a breach in the embankment at Andharubali a few days earlier, and Ram Singh wanted to exploit this opening. The Ahom soldiers were demoralised after their losses at Allaboi. Their commander-in-chief, Lachit Borphukan and their iral were both seriously ill, and the Nara Raja, the son of the Miri Sandikoi, was in command. An encounter both on land and water ensued near Ashwakranta. The Ahom land forces, under Laluk Borgohain Phukan, worsted the Mughals, but the Mughal boats compelled the Ahom boats to retreat to Barhila, north of Saraighat. The land forces, fearing an encirclement, too retreated. The battle reached a crucial phase, when the Mughals were beginning to get close to Andharubali. The Borphukan, as well as the Nara Raja sent messages to inspire the soldiers. It looked as if there was a break in command and some boats began falling back to Kajali and Samdhara. Lachit

Barphukan was observing this from his sickbed in the gatehouse of the Itakhuli fort.

Lachit Barphukan's Statue at Jorhat At this crucial moment in the battle, when the Mughals were about to land at Andharubali, the Borphukan sent orders via katakis to all the land and naval forces to attack. He also ordered seven war-boats for himself and had Nadai of Kharangi carry him to a boat. He shouted "The King has put all the people in my hands to fight the Bongal. Shall I go back to my wife and children?" and pushed a few men

into the water. With the other six war-boats the Borphukan headed toward the naval battle. The entry of the Borphukan transformed the Ahom soldiers. His small flotilla soon swelled with Ahom warships from all sides that smashed into the Mughal warships at Amrajuli on the north bank, opposite Kamakhya hills. The triangle in the river, between Itakhuli, Kamakhya and Aswakranta was filled with men and boat. The Ahoms spanned the river over an improviso bridge of boats and resorted to a combined front and rear attack. The Mughal iral Munnawar Khan, smoking a hookah was killed by a gunshot from the back, throwing the Mughals out of gear. They suffered the loss of three top-ranking amirs, and another 4000 dead. The day of this decisive battle is not known for certain, only that it happened in the middle of March 1671.

Epilogue The Mughals were pursued to the Manas river, the Ahom kingdom's western boundary. The Borphukan instructed his men not to attack the retreating army, reminding them of Alaboi. Anticipating a counterattack, he set messengers at regular intervals, while Atan Burhagohain and other commanders stood ready for one. The Mughals in Darrang were also worsted, and Ram Singh left Kamrup on 7 April 1671 for Rangamati. Ram Singh waited in vain for another opportunity and finally had an audience with Aurangzeb on 25 June 1676. Lachit Borphukan died at Kaliabor about a year later in April 1672, but not from the illness at Saraighat. And this was not the final battle between the Ahoms and the Mughals, nor did Guwahati remain with the Ahoms. Lachit Borphukan's own brother and successor Borphukan, Laluk Sola, deserted Guwahati for the Mughals in 1679. It remained with the Mughals until 1682, when the Ahoms under Gadadhar Singha recovered it and ended Mughal control in Kamrup for ever, though the Mughal istration of 80 years cast a long shadow.