World War 2: The Whirlwind Of The Ages 221g4e

World War 2

The Whirlwind of the Ages

History Nerds

Published by History Nerds, 2020.

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Table of Contents

Title Page

Also By History Nerds

Introduction: Learn More About the Second World War

A World Tumultuous: Background and Causes of the Second World War

The Spanish Civil War and the Rise of Fascism

The War Begins: The Invasion of Poland, 1939

The Fight for the North: German Invasion of Denmark and Norway

The Blitzkrieg War: Hitler’s Invasion of

North Africa and the Mediterranean––––––––

The Race Against Winter: Operation Barbarossa and the German Invasion Of the Soviet Union

The War in the Pacific

Midway

Guadalcanal

Iwo Jima

Okinawa

The Great Eastern Blunder: Operation Zitadelle and the Axis Stall

Storming Fortress Europa: The Allied Invasion of Italy

The Ferocious Steel: Armored Warfare in the Second World War and Its Development

The Beginning of the End: Invasion of Western Europe

A Bridge Too Far: Operation Market Garden

The Last Desperate Fight: Battle of the Bulge

Into the Lair of the Wolf: Crossing the Rhine

The Looming End: Battle of Berlin

In the Wake of War: The Aftermath

A War on an Unparalleled Scale: The Casualties

Conclusion

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Introduction: Learn More About the Second World War

IT IS A SAD FACT – one that we struggle to make peace with - that the 20th century was marked by ravaging and lasting global conflict. In a world of shifting socio-economical positions which was still recovering from the devastating effects of the Great War, things were far from ideal. Even before the scars healed, Europe descended into a new and far more vicious disaster: The Second World War. As we attempt to tackle this global conflict, more than 70 years after its end, we need to realize that it is still a stinging wound for many around the world. A wound that simply will not heal, and whose ache spread its root deep. The effects of the Second World War were many and significant, and have in numerous ways shaped the lives we lead today. It is because of this that we must take a neutral, critical stance as we go into detail about this dark page from the history of the world. A bystander’s view, one in which there are no political and religious affiliations, only a thorough understanding of the pain, suffering, and the universal mindlessness of a global war. In the following book, we will cover the essential moments of World War 2 – those defining events of modern history, whose magnitude dictated the fate of the entire globe. So it was, that merely two decades after the end of the Great War, whose scale and devastation were never before seen in the world, Europe was once again on the brink of conflict. The state in which our continent was left after the Armistice of 1918 was still rife with unsolved issues and unanswered questions, and saw the world’s major powers once again competing for wealth and influence. With new political movements, with old wounds still gaping wide open, and with the thirst for power still unceasing, war was an ever-looming threat. It was the slow building rhythm of intrigue and politics, which rose steadily through the 1930’s and grew into a deafening crescendo of war. World War 2 began on September 1st, 1939, and from its very first fiery shots, it dictated the tempo of this new and modernized form of warfare. It was a war unlike any other. It was the modern war. It superseded the Great War of the early years of the 20th century, and overshadowed its scale and complexity. Taking the revolutionary new technologies developed in that “war to end all wars”, the second global war morphed them into something entirely different. Something devastating, and something infernal. Devastation reigned unchecked, death

triumphant – every step of the way. This is the sad story that still echoes in the minds and hearts of many. The sad story that blemished Europa and culled so many of its sons and daughters. This is the story of the Second World War.

A World Tumultuous: Background and Causes of the Second World War

THE FIRST WORLD WAR wreaked havoc on the then-traditional Europe and its struggling nations. It was an enormous shift from one era into another, and sadly a very violent one at that. Only just experiencing the rise of the industry and all the new technologies that it brought, the world could not keep pace with the great yawning gap between the old and the new. Military tactics were outdated, and warfare updated – the friction between the two had a devastating effect on the common soldier. And in the wake of the Great War, Europe emerged thoroughly changed. Gone were the venerable Empires of old: and gone for good. New nations were formed on their ruins, and an entirely new economic, social, and political picture was formed. For these new changes to consolidate themselves and gain coherence, time was needed above all. But Europe had no time to spare. When the Great War ended in 1918, the armistice achieved was a severe punishment for the vanquished and its allies. Extremely limiting in every regard, it kept in check – in every aspect. Their military industry was nearly erased, with only minimal abilities and manpower allowed. As a nation, its fighting power was reduced to nothing. Needless to say, the economic toil on – and most other nations of Europe as well – was catastrophic. Its resources exhausted to fuel the furnaces of war, the path that lay ahead was marked with crisis and poverty. And on the ashes of the German Empire arose a new nation, the Weimar Republic. Great discontent arose in this nation in the post-war years, as it struggled with paying reparations to the victors of the great war. Nationalism was still on the rise across Europe, as it was before the Great War. One would think that a conflict so devastating as was the First World War would bring sense into the folk of Europe, and would quell their fiery patriotic ions. But alas – it served only to deepen the pre-existing hatreds that neighbors harbored, and made the new generations well aware of the pains of their fathers – the due was not yet paid. To make matters worse, the entire world was facing an entirely new crisis. As if waking from an ugly and difficult dream, the world sought to heal its wounds by debauchery and extravagance. The roaring twenties were marked by new and exciting trends in fashion and culture, by economic growth and artistic boom. Perhaps seeking to forget the blood, the mud, and the unforgettable pain and death of the Great War, the Western society plunged itself headfirst into a blinding whirlwind of indulgence and hedonism, as if seeking to numb its

senses. Known as the Jazz Age, it blossomed in the United States, from where the trends soon spread throughout Europe and the world. But those mesmerized by the blinding lights of the night life and the dazzling orchestras would soon get a new wake up call. For whenever you attempt to soar high, you abruptly fall back to the ground when the dopamine wears off. The major stock market crash in America, the so-called Wall Street Crash of 1929, ushered the West into a widespread economic crisis, and promptly wiped away the smiles that the Roaring Twenties cemented on the faces of so many. The 1930’s were coming, and were entirely different. Usually agreed to have started in 1929 and lasted until the late 1930’s, the Great Depression was the decade so completely opposite to the one that preceded it. Spreading from the United States to every other corner of the globe, this severe economic depression brought the world to a standstill. A rapid and intense decline in the global economy such as this one was never before seen in the world. The worldwide GDP (Gross Domestic Product) fell about 15% and more, and international trade fell about 50%. Unemployment soared around the globe, and in many European countries was as high as 33%. In , the situation was growing dire with each year. The economic hardships and the depression placed a high strain on both the society and the government, and the nation was torn between the left and right political spheres. But even as early as 1919, ’s right was beginning its slow rise to power, headed by a new figure in its politics – Adolf Hitler. His determined rise began when he ed the political party known as the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP (German Worker’s Party). In the very next year, 1920, that name was changed into Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeitpartei, NSDAP (National Socialist German Worker’s Party). It was the right half of the fragmented picture of – a totalitarian, hard right movement, opposed to Marxism and greatly bruised by the injustices of the armistice after the Great War. Hitler quickly rose to prominence, gaining followers with his zealous, fiery speeches, and ideas that attracted the common hard working and impoverished German citizen. In 1923, Adolf Hitler orchestrated the so-called Beer Hall Putsch in Munich, a coup d’etat attempt by the now NSDAP party leader. Between 8th and 9th November 1923, he sought to seize power with around two thousand of his National Socialist followers. At this point, the earliest form of the later Nazi image was formed – the recognizable uniforms, stalhelms, and the red and white swastika armbands. The putsch was a failure, and Hitler was arrested and charged with treason. His subsequent 24-day trial was subject to enormous

media coverage that echoed around the world, and he became the center point of German public. His views and policies which he propagated during his trial gained him many new followers across country, and even outside its borders. Sentenced to five years in prison, he was released after just nine months of his served sentence, after which he continued his rise to power, albeit through legal means, and he became the leading force in German politics. Elsewhere in Europe, totalitarian and far right regimes were also on the rise. In Italy, Benito Mussolini was even ahead of Hitler in his own rise to power. Also displeased by the effects of the Great War, the Italians felt great resentment towards the British and the French, as they failed to keep the promises made. Mussolini came to the head of the Fascist movement, an ideology he helped develop. It was rooted in revolutionary views, and in essence it was an irredentist and revanchist form of nationalism, seeking the restoration and expansion of Italian territories. The Fascists of Italy propagated the idea of the New Rome, a continuation of the Ancient Roman Empire, as well as the expansion and control of the Mediterranean. Rising as a totalitarian doctrine, Fascism opposed all forms of liberalism, naming it the “failure of individualism”. Instead they proposed unity, a sort of a shared mentality which would benefit the Italian people as a whole. In the economic sense though, Fascism sought to promote corporations – a system in which employees are centered around syndicates, and linked with their employers to represent nationalized producers, working alongside the Italian state to an all-beneficial national economic policy. Mussolini seized power in Italy between 1922 and 1925, becoming its youngest prime minister up to that time, and fought to make Italy a world power once again. After establishing his authority in the following years, he began spreading the influence of Italy and creating a premise for war. Meanwhile, the rise of Adolf Hitler seemed unstoppable, and became a big worry for the other major powers of Europe, chiefly those that were the of the Allied Powers in the Great War. In fact, he became so influential in his home nation, that in 1933 Hitler won the election, becoming the Chancellor of . The National Socialists thus became the leading power, and immediately began work on restoring the devastated German economy. Hitler introduced a variety of new policies, many of which placed the renewal of the state into the hands of the citizens. State industries were privatized, imports were tariffed, and national economic self sufficiency introduced. The National Socialists also partnered with all major German industries of the time, which soon after their ascent to power became focused on a complex program of

rearmament. Some of these industries would later play a crucial role in the development of the World War 2: Krupp, Bosch, Daimler-Benz, Henschel, Junkers, Siemens, Volkswagen, Alkett, Hanomag, and many others. Moreover, numerous social policies were introduced, benefiting the middle and lower class, and giving the common citizen a chance to actively engage in the creation of what was propagated as a better future. This was also stimulated by Social Darwinism, widely popularized by the NSDAP. Not long after coming to power, Hitler began a rapid and large scale rearmament of . Their military spending rose to more than 10% of gross national product, which was a huge amount. Clandestine work began on new military technologies, prototype weaponry and mechanization. Closely following the developing in other nations, did not lag behind. The aforementioned companies were busy developing advanced aerial and tank designs, some of which would greatly sur all those available in Europe at the time. In time, Hitler began oft mentioning his plan of an expanded Lebensraum, a new “living space” for the German people, which he deemed was theirs by right, and had to be conquered. Later on, he openly broke the Versailles Treaty – that relic of the Great War – by re-occupying the demilitarized Rhineland zone in March 1936, which was later followed by the Anschluss of Austria, i.e. its annexation. This was Hitler’s first goal of recreating the national borders of in 1914, and a path to the “Greater ”. To all the powers of Europe, Hitler’s action hinted to one thing and one thing only – war. Even in Asia, things were restless and all lines muddled. China became the hotspot of conflicts in this part of the world, where the Great War equally solved nothing. It too was fragmented by two major parties – the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party, and the Chinese Communist Party. Their conflict boiled over into the Chinese Civil War, which lasted intermittently for more than 20 years. And just like in the years past, the Chinese Nationalists saw from , while the Communist party was aided by the Soviet Union. These new alliances painted a clear picture of the actors of the next great conflict. Japan too was roused by the Chinese conflict. Long seeking to dominate Asia, the Japanese Empire was on a steady militaristic rise in the years leading to the Second World War. It too developed a strong military industry, seeking new advancements in technologies of war. After a staged incident, the Japanese

began their invasion of Manchuria – a region in China - in September 1931. After a few months of fighting, the Japanese managed to create a puppet state – Manchukuo. All of these events worked towards setting the stage for something dreadful and far reaching. In the dawn of the Second World War, several crucial events marked Europe’s growing restlessness. Even before Hitler’s annexation of Austria, Italy stirred the waters of peace with their invasion of Ethiopia. Seeking to expand the Italian “empire”, i.e. to expand his territories in Africa, Benito Mussolini manifested his expansionist policies by turning his gaze to Ethiopia. Years before, Mussolini engaged Italy in a drawn out and vicious conflict in Libya, seeking to “pacify” it. The so-called Pacification of Libya was a strenuous war that lasted from 1923 to 1932, led against the indigenous rebels. In the end Italy succeeded and solidified its rule there. But now, in 1935, Ethiopia became the next target. Known as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the conflict lasted until 1937. The Italians began the war through surprise, without previous declaration, in October 1935, launching attacks from their African colony of Eritrea. Although Ethiopia was a nation with a long heritage, it was still largely underdeveloped in every sense, especially military. This meant that the war was mostly marked by repeated defeats of the Ethiopians and Italian supremacy in every aspect. After the end of the war, which resulted in Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the Italian King, Victor Emmanuel III, was proclaimed an emperor, and the occupied provinces of Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somaliland were organized into the newly formed Italian East Africa. In Asia, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria threatened to spill over into something larger, drawing in new opponents. And one such foe was the Soviet Union. From 1932 to 1939, the Japanese and the Soviets descended into a series of sporadic conflicts along their borders, collectively known as the SovietJapanese Border War. In a sense, it was a direct response of the Soviet Union to the Japan’s aggressive expansion policy, as the demarcation line between these two nations became the focus of continued dispute. The conflict slowly grew in magnitude, and was focused on Soviet and Japanese client states – Mongolia and Manchukuo. It culminated in 1939 with the Battle of Khalkin Gol. One of the largest battles in East Asia up to that time, Khalkin Gol was marked by sweeping maneuvers, mass infantry charges, and large tank battles. It was a huge testing ground for the future of armored warfare – both Soviet and Japanese light tanks played a crucial role in the battle and paved the way for new strategies. The battle lasted from May to September 1939, and ended in Soviet victory, largely

due to the superiority in manpower. After the defeat of Japan’s Sixth Army, the two foes signed a ceasefire and the Soviet-Japanese neutrality pact.

The Spanish Civil War and the Rise of Fascism

ANOTHER DECISIVE PRECURSOR to the Second World War was without a doubt the Spanish Civil War. This devastating conflict tore through Spain from 1936 to 1939, and was the critical glimpse into the opposing sides of a future war. It pitted two sides, the Republicans and the Nationalists, each one ed by major European powers. The former were left-leaning loyalists of the liberal Second Spanish Republic and its Popular Front government. They allied themselves with communists and anarchists and gained substantial military from the communist Soviet Union. On the other hand, the Nationalists were led by General Francisco Franco in a revolt to overthrow the Second Spanish Republic . They consisted of monarchists, traditionalists, and so-called Falangists. They were ed by National Socialist , and by Fascist Italy. The Spanish Civil War cannot be characterized in a single aspect – it was a complex conflict that, although centered on Spain and its internal affairs, drew the interference from both Nazi and Soviet Union. Many historians called it thus as a “dress rehearsal for World War II”, since it was the perfect insight into the conflict to which Europe was hurling at a blinding speed. This civil war had many different aspects – it was both a struggle of classes and a war of religions; a great divide between republican democracy and dictatorship; both a revolt and contra-revolt; and ultimately – a war between communism and fascism. The Spanish Civil War began in 1936 after a number of Generals of the Republic’s Armed Forces declared a revolt against the Republic, headed by Generals Emilio Mola and José Sanjurjo y Sacanell. It was a military coup, and the great culmination of the Fascist-Communist tensions that dominated this country. Although lasting only 2 years, it was a devastating clash that pitted several conflicting ideologies and parties. And just like Khalkin Gol in faraway Asia, this Civil War was also a testing ground for all manner of new military technologies. But more importantly, it was a stepping stone for General Francisco Franco, whose Nationalist faction would emerge victorious from this brutal war, and place him on the head of the new Spanish State, in which he would rule as a dictator, until 1975. The crescendo of tensions was reaching a deafening volume in the heart of

Europe. Adolf Hitler’s increasingly bolder moves put everyone at the edge of their seat, as the promise of war loomed overhead. ’s expansionism and irredentism became increasingly more aggressive and unchecked by major Allied powers. Hitler’s 1938 annexation of Austria did not cause as much of a stir as he expected, which only encouraged his ravenous policies for more territory and pan-Germanism. He pressed claims to lands supposedly traditionally German-populated, which wasn’t at all true. Most of the lands he sought were inhabited by Slavic populations for centuries past. One such region was Sudetenland, at the time an area of Czechoslovakia. Hitler began increasingly pressing his claim and inching closer to its occupation. The pressure caused the Allied powers to succumb to Hitler’s claims, and Sudetenland was granted him in 1938 through the so-called Munich Agreement. A new and struggling nation, Czechoslovakia mutely stood as it was torn piece by piece by the powers at work. And even though the agreement demanded that Hitler make no further territorial claims, he soon after forced Czechoslovakia to cede further territories in its east to his ally Hungary, while Poland swept in to claim a region to the north-east. Nonetheless, Hitler wanted more. The Munich Agreement was actually an effective way to prevent him from fully occupying Czechoslovakia, a matter that caused great anger in . Hitler thus continued his aggressive expansion policy, and in 1939 began his largely clandestine naval expansion, through which he planned to overshadow the British naval supremacy – just like in the years before the Great War. Then, turning a blind eye to the agreement he signed, he invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939. In the process he created a puppet pro-German state of Slovak Republic, and proclaimed the region he occupied as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The tempo of expansionism was becoming impossible to keep up with, and Europe was once more rapidly changing its form – and just like a few decades before, it spelled disaster. In the south Mussolini was restless as well. He cast his shadow further outside the borders of Italy, and in April 1939 he invaded the Kingdom of Albania in southern Balkans. Lasting for roughly 5 days, it was a brief and successful military campaign for the Italians, which left both sides with minimal casualties. Albania’s King, Zog I, was forced into exile in Greece, and thus Albania was made part of the rapidly expanding Italian Empire. The underlying causes for this invasion were purely strategic – Italy long held claims to this part of Europe, as the naval position of Albania’s ports would give Italy the perfect control over the entrance to the Adriatic Sea, expanding their influence in the Mediterranean.

And while the United Kingdom and offered a guarantee of to struggling East European nations of Poland, Romania, and Greece, on the other hand Italy and entered a formalized alliance, known as the Pact of Steel. The situation soon escalated when Hitler continued his brazen policies, accusing the British and the Polish of trying to encircle , hinting at their agreement recently confirmed. He promptly renounced the existing GermanPolish Non Aggression Pact, and it was quickly becoming obvious that his next target was Poland. In late August 1939, German troops began amassing at the borders with Poland, as tension rose to an all-time high. Hitler took an opportunity to further carve out the German sphere of influence in Europe, and signed a non aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Signed on August 23rd 1939, it was known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and was in fact a secret protocol that split the Eastern regions of Europe between these two giants. Hitler chose for his sphere of influence the regions he previously targeted for his lebensraum, the “living space”. These were Western Poland and Lithuania. On the other hand, Stalin’s sphere of influence included Eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and the region of Bessarabia. In a way, this pact was a shrewd move by Hitler, and guaranteed that won’t have to suffer a war on two fronts, at least in the initial stages.

The War Begins: The Invasion of Poland, 1939

SEPTEMBER 1st, 1939, was the day when Europe finally succumbed to the war that loomed over her for so long. On the previous night, August 31st, the Germans supposedly staged a border incident which could be used as a pretext of invasion. Known as the Gleiwitz Incident, it involved German SS officers (Schutzstaffel), disguised as Polish nationalists, orchestrating a false flag attack. This was confirmed in a 1945 trial as being true. Nevertheless, it was paired with several similar “incidents”, all of which were used as a solid cause for Hitler to invade Poland. This he did in the morning following the incident, as the German forces swooped into Poland from the North, South, and West. The initial stages of the invasion were marked by a strategic Polish withdrawal, as they abandoned the forward positions in favor of the better defense lines further to the East. However, it was clear from the start that the German forces had significant advantages in numerous aspects. It was not only superior in numbers of men available, but also in numbers of tanks and armored vehicles. They also boasted new and revolutionary strategic doctrines, notably the Blitzkrieg, of which we shall talk more later on. There was also a great emphasis on aerial domination, with a variety of light fighter aircraft and bombers at their disposal. On the other hand, the Polish army fielded approximately one million men less than the Germans. Furthermore, they lagged behind in every aspect when military industry is considered. Tanks, which were to play a crucial role in the war, were available to the Poles, albeit in small numbers and lacking quality. The bulk of these were domestically produced 7TP tanks – derivatives of the British Vickers 6 Tonner – as well as the local TKS tankettes, small and lightly armed two man vehicles. Their air force likewise was outdated and outnumbered. All of this hinted at a great struggle for the Poles, as they struggled to defend themselves. As part of the new German strategy, the attacks were coordinated both on land and in the air. Hellbent on utter destruction, the German giant descended on the struggling Slavic nation of Poland with unprecedented ferocity. Hitler had one goal, and one goal only in the initial invasion – to conquer Poland and to do it as fast as possible. To help achieve this goal, Hitler relied on his foremost tactic of the Second World War – the Blitzkrieg. Designed to inflict a swift and strategic blow on the enemy, it greatly focused on highly mobile mechanized infantry

formations, with from air. Like a spearhead, such an attack was meant to penetrate enemy defense lines, get deep behind them, and then encircle its remainders. For Hitler, this strategy became a possibility due to the German innovations in armored vehicle industry – swift tanks with good mobility and acceptable armor were instrumental in achieving the goals of the Blitzkrieg, and helped him gain those rapid victories early on in the war. When the Germans invaded Poland, they did so with a “two fold approach”. The attack on the ground was led in unison with the vicious attack from the air: the German Luftwaffe attacked a range of military and civilian targets, relying on massive bombardment to cause shock and surprise. The Polish historic city of Wieluń was the first such target in the invasion – it was reduced to rubble very early on, as a testament to the devastating aerial might of the Luftwaffe. Two days after the initial clashes in Poland, and Britain both declared war on . Hitler’s invasion of Poland, however, seemed not to be too much of a challenge for the German forces. With decisive and planned aerial attacks – through which major communications in Poland were disrupted – the German army could fulfill its goal of rapid advance, making major progress in the face of retreating Polish army. Luftwaffe also managed to secure their air superiority as quickly as possible. Thus it was that just 48 hours after the start of the invasion, a majority of Polish military airports were destroyed, and the Polish air force was decimated. Major Polish cities soon began falling to the Germans: Warsaw was initially heavily bombarded and much of it reduced to rubble. It was then besieged around September 13th, only to fall on September 28th. During this time, a decisive battle of the Invasion of Poland was led, known as the Battle of Bzura. Lasting from 9th to the 19th September 1939, it was initially devised as a major Polish counter offensive, but after it failed, the Germans managed to outflank them and win. The victory gave the Germans control over all of Western Poland. It was certainly the bloodiest battle of the invasion, and claimed many casualties on both sides. The Poles fought heroically, but ultimately, they had no chance of withstanding the onslaught of their enemies. Numerous isolated deeds stand out as the defining feats of brave Polish soldiers. The famous Charge at Krojanty is one

such heroic deed, in which the cavalry regiment of 18th Pomeranian Uhlans bravely charged on German positions on September 1st. This they did in hopes of staving off the German advance and allowing the bulk of the forces to retreat. The horsemen managed to achieve this goal, but at a great cost – although rapidly retreating after their attack, the uhlans were cut down en-masse by German armored cars and machine gun fire. The story of Roman Orlik, a Polish tank commander also perfectly paints the dire situation of the Poles. Commanding a small, two-man tankette, the TKS, Orlik managed to destroy ten German tanks and hold off a whole armored column. His small tankette, nicknamed “the Cockroach” by the German tankers, was armed with a rapid firing 20-mm autocannon, which gave Orlik a chance of penetrating German armor. His exploits were a major inspiration to many Polish freedom fighters later in the war. In accordance to the previously signed Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union held claims to the Eastern part of Poland, which fell under their sphere of influence. Hitler kept this in mind, and his government made repeated inquiries to the Soviets – wondering whether the pact will be followed through. The truth was that the Soviet Union was simply waiting for the end of the conflict with Japan, not wishing to strain their forces too much by fighting on two fronts. And when that conflict ended with a ceasefire on September 16th 1939, Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Leader, immediately ordered an invasion of Poland, which occurred on the following day, September 17th. This second invasion was the tipping point that really broke the back of the Polish army and its defense. The latter’s only remaining choice was to retreat further towards the border with Romania, and to regroup and reorganize there. The Soviet Union used a clever pretense for its invasion: they claimed that they were protecting the Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities that lived in Poland – since the Polish republic “ceased to exist” following the invasion of . And it was this very invasion that decided the fate of Poland – it finally convinced the Polish government that the war is lost for them. But, even so, the Poles refused to surrender to , or negotiate with them. Instead they chose a different path, ordering all of its units to flee Poland and reorganize in . By October 6th, the entire invasion was over. The last Polish operational combat unit surrendered on this day, putting an end to the campaign that began a month

before. In the eyes of the world, this conquest was a never before seen occurrence. The sweeping ferocity of the Blitzkrieg tactic, and the overwhelming strategic supremacy with which the Germans and the Soviets tore through Poland left the world stunned and surprised. The remnants of the Polish Army scattered following their defeat, some to Romania and Hungary, others to Latvia. From there, most of them found their way to Britain and , where they continued the war effort. The invasion of Poland brought many casualties on both sides, albeit much more for the Poles than for the invaders. Around 65,000 Polish troops were killed in the campaign, while 660,000 were taken prisoner by both the Germans and the Soviets. In comparison, the Germans suffered roughly 17,000 dead, and the Soviets just around 1,500. The civilian casualties were also very high, boosted with a number of massacres committed by the invaders – especially the Soviets. In total, more than 200,000 civilians were victim to the invasion. The brief but brutal German campaign in Poland ushered the world into a new war that would sur World War One in every regard. It was also a perfect “testing ground” for ’s new and advanced military technologies. The experiences from the campaign allowed them to address and solve any and all deficiencies in regards to their tanks, anti-tank capabilities, artillery, and so forth. But for the Polish people, it was one of the hardest chapters in their long history, one that brought suffering, toil, and loss of their home. But it was not enough to break their spirit.

The Fight for the North: German Invasion of Denmark and Norway

HITLER NEXT TURNED his attention to Scandinavia. For both the Allies and for the Germans, this region in northern Europe was of vital strategic importance. Norway in particular, even though it remained neutral, was strategically very important. One of the foremost of these vital points was the port of Narvik – for Germans it was the gate through which enormous quantities of iron ore travelled to from Sweden. And that iron ore was very important for the German industry. Furthermore, with its numerous ports, it was a very good base of operations for anyone wishing to dominate the Atlantic Ocean. And in the case of British and German naval competition, this was the ideal setup. Even before Hitler decided to invade Scandinavia for these reasons, the French and the British had openly discussed a plan to occupy Norway – as a response to the German threat. However, Hitler went through with his plan and on April 9th, 1940, the German army occupied Denmark and invaded Norway. Known as Operation Weserübung, it was yet another swift German invasion. Denmark was the first to fall. For Hitler, its strategic importance was twofold – firstly, he wanted to occupy it and remove a possible threat from his North; secondly, it was the perfect staging area for future invasion of Norway. Its position was also a perfect naval access to key German ports in the Baltic Sea. On April 9th, the German ambassador in Denmark met with the Danish Foreign Minister. The Germans announced that their army is occupying Denmark, protecting it from the future invasion of the French and the British. They also demanded that the Danish troops offer no resistance, otherwise the German Luftwaffe would proceed with the bombardment of the capital, Copenhagen. Yet, even before the meeting was over, German troops sprang into action. The invasion of Denmark was swift and perfectly coordinated. First troops made landfall by ferries and moved North from the town of Gedser. The Germans relied on paratroopers for the first time here: Fallschirmjäger troops landed on several locations, taking two vital airfields at Aalborg, and occupying the Masnedø fortress. At the same time, German infantry units landed in the harbor of Copenhagen and stormed its Citadel without any resistance. Their next target was the Danish Royal family, which resided in the Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen. However, the King was protected by his Royal Guard, which managed to repulse the initial German attack. However, faced with defeats all around the country, and with the looming threat of devastating Luftwaffe bombardment, the Danes capitulated around 06:00 AM, roughly two hours after

the invasion began. It was the shortest campaign conducted by the German army in the war. The casualties on both sides were very minimal: around 26 killed Danish soldiers, and 20 killed and wounded German soldiers. However, the Norwegian Campaign didn’t go so smoothly – it lasted for 62 days and was a bigger challenge than Denmark. The invasion roughly coincided with the Allied plans for occupying Norway, and it resulted in a bigger clash than was expected on both sides. One of the opening battles of the Norwegian invasion was the Battle of Narvik, a naval clash in which the German destroyers were forced to retreat by a smaller British destroyer fleet. Moreover, when the Germans attempted their initial invasion, their troop carrying ships were stopped in the Oslofjord – when the defiant defenses of the Oscarborg fortress destroyed the German flagship, sinking it and claiming close to a 1,000 lives. This major delay in the German advance allowed the Norwegian government, and their King to flee from the capital, Oslo. Once again, paratroopers played a vital role, landing at Oslo and Stavanger airfields and capturing them. Luftwaffe then easily dealt with the Oscarborg fortress, which was forced to surrender after heavy bombardment. As the German army progressed, a series of vital ports were quickly occupied, followed by major towns such as Kristiansand, Bergen, and Stavanger. Oslo was conquered in May 1940. When the port cities of Norway were successfully occupied, the Germans could face the opposition further inland. An Allied Expeditionary Force, comprised of British, French and Norwegian forces, attempted to stop the German advance, but their repeated counterattacks were mostly a failure. The Germans relied on fresh reinforcements that came via Denmark, and were also bolstered by their superior tank and mechanize infantry units, Luftwaffe , and numerical superiority in general. This was the defining reason that caused the British to decide to evacuate Norway on April 26th. Their decision was fully in progress by May when Hitler attacked . Nevertheless, fighting in Norway continued sporadically until June 10th, when the German occupation of Norway was finalized. It would remain occupied until 1945. German casualties numbered roughly 5,300 – while the Allies suffered 6,600 casualties.

The Blitzkrieg War: Hitler’s Invasion of

HITLER’S MAIN WORRY during the course of the early World War Two was a two-front war. Recognizing the necessity to conquer the nations of Western Europe – chiefly . By doing so, he would ensure an unchecked ability to further develop his resources, as he realized that to fully build the German military might, he would need several years. Furthermore, by conquering the Low Countries, and subsequently , he would limit the ability of the Allies to dominate the air war, and thus threaten the German industrial areas, specifically those in the Ruhr region. Last – but certainly not the least – was his ability to threaten Britain directly. From , he would have a clear reach of Britain from both sea and air. The German plan of attack was somewhat similar in nature to the famous Schlieffen plan of the First World War. Hitler wanted to completely the French defensive system – the Maginot Line – and to invade the Low Countries. This would allow him to proceed to attack from the north, where the protection was limited. Before the invasion even began though, Netherlands and Belgium were awaiting the attack. Both nations were almost fully mobilized in expectation of war, and have made previous agreements of a combined defense – they would each other. Although fielding a reasonable amount of soldiers – roughly 900,000 – their equipment was not as advanced as those of the Germans. Chiefly lacking was their armor – the Belgians fielded a limited number of outdated light tanks and tankettes, with just a small number of lightly armed tank destroyers. Furthermore, the combined air forces of these two countries also lacked noticeably in both numbers and quality. In comparison, the Germans were superior in every regard – both in manpower (around 3.5 million men), armor (10 panzer divisions) and in air force (5,500 aircraft). In the meantime, the British Expeditionary Force was stationed in , just south of the Belgian border. Their role was to provide to , and together they could provide ample reinforcements to the Low Countries. And just as in the Great War, the Dutch army toyed with the idea of again flooding certain strategic areas that would halt the German advance. On the other hand, the Belgian army was much better off – their borders were much better defended, and sported a combination of natural and man-made obstacle and fortifications. However, it was still a much easier approach than the Maginot Line of the French. Their series of fortifications adjacent to the Albert Canal were a tough nut to crack – Eben Emael stood as the largest of these forts, and

was in many ways an impregnable obstacle. However, there was one major flaw to these defense lines – the fortifications of the Albert Canal were not connected to the Dutch lines. This left a gap that could be easily exploited. The German plan of attack was somewhat innovative, and it was that very aspect that appealed to Hitler before the invasion began. The Germans first created a plan much like the Schlieffen plan before, and it was this exact approach that the Allies expected. However, Hitler disliked this version, and opted for another one – much bolder. It was centered on a three-pronged attack, and utilized Armies A, B, and C. The Army Group C, commanded by General Wilhelm von Leeb, would feint an attack on the Maginot Line. In the meanwhile, Army Group B, commanded by General Fedor von Bock, would proceed as planned with the invasion of Belgium and Netherlands. The Allies would then react to this invasion as planned, recognizing the Schlieffen plan pattern, sending their armies into the Low Countries. And here’s where the German catch lay: General Gerd von Rundstedt’s Army Group A - fielding around 1.5 million men, and 1,500 tanks – would make a swift thrust through the Ardennes forest, and in this way by the bulk of the allied forces, as well as the critical defenses of the Maginot Line. On May 10th, 1940, the German invasion of Netherlands began. Three major Dutch cities were the initial targets: Rotterdam, Hague, and Amsterdam. The German army attacked from several adjacent points, and focused on the Limburg region and the southernmost major Dutch of Maastricht. After successfully taking it, they succeeded in isolation a huge part of the Netherlands, preventing the possibility of reinforcements from the south. Again, the German paratroopers seized key Dutch bridges across the River Meuse, and in that way prevented the approach of any reinforcements. All the while, the German army exploited the aforementioned weak point between the Albert Canal and the Dutch defense positions. Almost immediately after learning of the invasion, the British Expeditionary Force and French troops began a march into Belgium, following the Dyle River, and in accordance to the previously created Dyle Plan. And in the process, the French command believed that the Ardennes forest was imable, and would thus secure their right flank as a natural obstacle. This great blunder was one of the key factors of German success in the invasion.

In the meantime, the key Dutch positions and towns were subjected to fierce aerial devastation from the Luftwaffe. As before, relied on aerial supremacy to pound their enemy into submission. The Dutch royalty and the government fled their country and found refuge in England, where they formed a government in exile. On May 14th, just four days after the invasion began, the Dutch commander in chief, General Winkelman, surrendered his armies, and almost all of Netherlands. Limited resistance would take a few more days to subdue, after which Netherlands was fully conquered. At the same time, German forces began their invasion of Belgium. After reaching Maastrich on the very first day of the Dutch invasion, the Germans crossed the Albert Canal into Belgium. Eben Emael, that fierce and nearimpenetrable fortress, was conquered by a never-before-seen and quite bold airborne assault. Yet again, the paratroopers showed their worth, dropping in behind the defenses with gliders and beginning a systematic destruction of the fort’s defenses from within. The very next day, the garrison surrendered, and the Germans had a clear path towards the town of Liege. Air supremacy was once more a vital aspect of German rapid success. On the first day the Luftwaffe managed to cripple the Belgian air force – destroying almost half of all its planes. By May 28th, after 18 days of hard fighting, Belgium was defeated and would remain occupied by the Germans until 1944. By May 13th, even before the end of combat in Belgium, the famous Panzer Group Kleist crossed the Meuse River. The following day, its lead elements managed to enter the territory of , south of the city of Sedan. The mediocre French defenses were suppressed and made to retreat by devastating aerial pressure. In fact, the French soldiers were largely lacking in proper antitank weaponry or anti-air defenses, mostly because the French command previously considered the Ardennes imable. The next day, May 15th, General Heinz Guderian – one of the main pioneers of the Blitzkrieg strategy – commanding the XIX Panzer Corps, broke through the French defenses and rapidly headed west. The German tanks made astonishing progress – the Blitzkrieg was in full swing, and the rapidity of German movements took everyone by surprise. This was the new, modern warfare that no one expected. Guderian moved so swiftly, that his superior, von Kleist, explicitly ordered him to limit his movement to only 8 kilometers a day. However, after numerous arguments and threats of resignation, Guderian somewhat maintained his rapid pace. The German tanks outnumbered and largely outclassed the French tanks,

and could not provide adequate resistance. The rapid pace of the Blitzkrieg allowed the Germans to effectively surround and outflank the French army – time and time again. Guderian devastated the French Sixth Army reinforcements he encountered, and severely undercut the right flank of the Ninth Army. The latter soon collapsed fully, with its soldiers surrendering in huge numbers. On the same day, the 15th, the Germans surrounded the French 102nd Fortress Division, destroying it in full. The German 7th Panzer Division, commanded by another legendary tank general – Erwin Rommel – also made blindingly fast progress, cutting through the French forces like a hot knife through butter. Rommel also notoriously kept up his pace vigorously, refusing to allow his division to rest. By May 17th, Heinz Guderian’s progress was unstoppable. He crossed the River Oise, entering the Somme valley, and through it racing towards the English Channel, reaching the town of Abbeville on the coast. With this, he effectively split the allied forces in two, severing lines of communication. Once there, he briefly paused, allowing reinforcements to secure his flanks, and then he made another rapid move northwards – this time with a clear goal in his sights, the French ports of Dunkirk and Calais. At this point, it is important to address the fact that both Heinz Guderian and Erwin Rommel ignored the directives of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command), and proceeded with their rapid and unstoppable Blitzkrieg movements. It is arguably this exact “disobeying” that contributed immensely to the overall success of the Germans. What’s more, Rommel made such dazzlingly fast progress through , that he could not effectively maintain communications with the High Command. This gained his 7th Panzer Division the famous nickname – Gespensterdivision (Ghost Division). The eventual fall of Belgium and the rapid advance of the Germans meant that the British Expeditionary Force – which was already decided on retreat – was threatened by encirclement. Dunkirk remained the only port from which thousands of British soldiers could escape from, and those thousands rushed in panic to complete the evacuation before the Germans closed in their two fold “pincer movement” encirclement. In the end, the British Expeditionary Force only narrowly escaped utter destruction. While the Germans were delayed in their advance by an ill-conceived order from Hitler, the British managed to provide limited – but important – air , and worked intensely on getting the trapped men from the beaches and across the channel. The Dunkirk evacuation was almost a miracle, and was completed by June 4th. Hitler,

however, could now focus on finishing his conquest of . The German offensive started renewed on the very next day, June 5th. The panzer divisions now received additional reinforcements, and the infantry was still in very high numbers – almost untouched. Their goal was to capture Paris, and the nature of the offensive had a clear aim – destroy all remaining French forces in the field, and complete the invasion. At this point we must note another contributing factor to the German superiority in the field, and some of the reasons they made such quick progress in combat. And that is their advanced military technology. German tanks were, for the most part, far superior to anything the French could field. They were more maneuverable, had decent armament, and a balanced and proper crew arrangement. And most importantly, almost all tanks had internal radios, which allowed for better communication and faster tactics in the field. In comparison, the French tanks had nothing of the sort. The staple of their forces was the Renault R-35 tank, which was slow, had only a two-man crew, a small caliber gun, and no radio. The only considerable efficient resistance they had were the heavy tank Char B1, which could mostly rely on its thick armor and not much else, and the medium tank SOMUA S35, which, although being one of the best in Europe at the time, was hampered by a lack of radio, lack of crew , and inadequate training. All of this resulted in a staggering loss of materiel for the French, and gave the Germans an unprecedented advantage. By June 12th, the French command realized that the Battle for was lost to them, as the Germans kept up their paces and continued to break French defenses in the field, sending one division after another into disarray. A few days before, on Jun 9th, a great portion of the French defense line collapsed under pressure, and the Italian entry into the war against on June 10th, all but sealed their defeat. By the 14th, the French abandoned their capital, Paris, as there was no point in defending it any further. The Germans seized it the same day. By June 25th the matter was settled – was defeated. Three days before, an armistice was signed that effectively split the occupied nation into two zones – the major portion of was to remain under German military occupation, while another would retain only nominal French sovereignty. When it was over, the Battle for left enormous casualties for the French. In total, they suffered approximately 2,260,000 casualties – of which roughly 322,500 were dead, missing, and wounded. In comparison, the Germans suffered

a total of 157,600 casualties, of which 27,000 were killed in action. This sheer difference in numbers is another testament of the unparalleled and devastating success of the Blitzkrieg.

North Africa and the Mediterranean––––––––

THE WAR PROGRESSED at a continuous pace – and was spreading outside the bounds of Europe. Italy was the next in line to spring into action, and in June 1940, the Siege of Malta has begun. This Mediterranean island was a British Crown Colony, and of vital strategic importance. By attacking Malta, Mussolini opened a new front in this global war – the North African theatre. In fact, Malta was very important for the control of the Mediterranean and North Africa, and this resulted in a strained out and difficult battle of attrition. The Axis forces resorted to blockades, bombardment, and attrition warfare in major Maltese ports. This siege would last until 1942. In the same time, the Italians proceeded with their invasions – all with the aim of creating a renewed Roman Empire. Their next target was British-held Somaliland which they conquered between summer and early autumn of that year. Next up was the invasion of Egypt – which also was held by the British. The Italians managed to invade Egypt from 9th to 16th September 1940, and this opened a whole new theatre, known later on as the Western Desert Campaign, which was centered on the desert regions of Egypt and Lybia. By December 1940, however, the British forces in Lybia and Egypt began a series of counter offensives against the Italians. By February 1941, their Operation Com was a complete victory, and they managed to recapture western Egypt and invade Cyrenaica. With a swift advance, the British managed to achieve a string of victories against the Italians in the desert, taking thousands of prisoners in the process. Seeing the repeated failures of the Italian army prompted Hitler to send aid to Africa. This consisted of the Deutsche Afrika Korps – an expeditionary force under the command of Erwin Rommel, who will gain an epithet “Desert Fox” for his achievements in this action. Once again, Rommel and his panzers, with their brilliant Blitzkrieg tactic, made dazzling progress. The Desert War that ensued, also known as the Western Desert Campaign, lasted until 1943. In the early operations, Rommel had crowning successes. His swift attack pushed the allies out of Egypt. In less than a month western Egypt was once more occupied by the Axis forces, and besieged the key strategic port of Tobruk. However, the success was somewhat short-lasting. By late 1941, the Allies launched another offensive, named Operation Crusader, which intended to relieve the Tobruk siege – which still continued to resist the Germans – and by the Axis forces on the Egyptian-Lybian frontier. Once more, Rommel’s

super tactics and his skill as a General were obvious. In mid November 1941, the British launched a surprise attack against the Axis positions, but suffered great casualties. By the end of November, the Allied 5th South African Brigade was destroyed, and the Allies suffered staggering tank losses. Nevertheless, New Zealander contingent managed to reach Tobruk and relieve the siege there. However, December brought hardships for Rommel, who suffered from a lack of supplies. This forced him to shorten the frontline and limit his lines of communications. By mid-December, he retreated his forces first to Gazala, and then to El Aghelia. The British managed to then capture the town of Bardia in January 1942, taking roughly 13,800 prisoners in the process. However, Rommel took the time to recuperate, and launched a surprising and brilliant counter attack, which resulted in the victory at the Battle of Gazala. Afterwards, the Axis recaptured Tobruk and invaded Egypt once again, driving the Allies all the way back to El Alamein. There, in October 1942, the Allied forces managed to defeat the Axis at the decisive Second Battle of El Alamein. Following this defeat, the unfolding war in Europe, and the defeat in the Tunisian campaign, the Axis surrendered to the Allies in May 1943, losing Africa. When the Italians failed to invade Greece between October 1940 to April 1941, suffering great losses, decided to step in once again. For Hitler, the Balkans were a major target. The oil fields of Romania were a lucrative and strategic resource, one that would remain a big focus throughout the war. By invading Balkans, Hitler would assist Italy, keep the British influence in the Mediterranean in check, and secure the oil fields as well. The situation in the Balkans got further complicated. Both Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact by March 1941, effectively entering on the side of the Axis powers. However, while Bulgaria did remain with the Axis, Yugoslavia did not. Its government was overthrown in a coup d’etat just two days after the g, by pro-British nationalists. Hitler, who relied on Yugoslavia as a potential ally, was greatly angered by this event, and decided to conquer both Yugoslavia and Greece without further ado. The German invasion of Balkans – of Yugoslavia and Greece – began on April 6th 1941. Known as the April War, the Invasion of Yugoslavia lasted from 6th to 18th April, and was in all regards a swift affair. The Yugoslav capital of Belgrade was

devastatingly bombarded on April 6th, and the nation was attacked from both north and south. Already weakened by pre-war intrigues and political instability, as well as tensions in both ethnic and ideological spheres, Yugoslavia stood no real chance against the vastly superior German army. It was quickly occupied in full and partitioned by the Axis powers. However, the rest of the war would be marked by great unrest in Yugoslavia. Since the occupation, it would descend into widespread partisan warfare, with various in-fighting parties of communists, royalists, fascists, and others. It would last until the end of the war. Greece fared no better. The attack was swift and overpowering – the Greek Metaxas defensive line soon fell, and by 30th of April German forces reached the southern Greek coast, capturing a number of Allied – mainly British – personnel and concluding their invasion of mainland Greece. However, the country was not fully occupied until the conquest of the island of Crete at the end of May that year. The Battle of Crete lasted for 13 days and pitted Greek and Allied forces against the German forces composed mainly of paratroopers. After initial successes, the Allies were defeated after losing key strategic airfields on the island, allowing the Germans to receive reinforcements.

The Race Against Winter: Operation Barbarossa and the German Invasion Of the Soviet Union

THE GREAT ESCALATION of the Soviet-German conflict was manifested in a military campaign of a devastating magnitude – Operation Barbarossa. Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22nd, 1941, had no parallel up to that point. The sheer scope of this operation eclipsed any such undertaking in general military history. When we take into consideration the number of men involved, the cost in lives and resources, and the effects it bore, we can understand that the war between Hitler and Stalin was truly a clash of the giants – with unimaginable proportions. In its initial stages though, it was a critical insight into the superiority of German military technology and its strategy. Attacking on such a wide front was the undoing of every invader of Russia up to that point, and the German high command had plenty of examples to learn from. Due to this technical supremacy, and the outdated Soviet tactics, the opening stages of Barbarossa were marked by decisive German successes. However, the way in which the invasion later developed became a sobering call for the invaders, and gave the Third Reich one of the biggest challenges ever. Early on in Adolf Hitler’s rule, many of his policies and plans for the Eastern Europe came out to the surface. In relation to his numerous racial and ethnographical proposals, the Reich came up with the so-called Generalplan Ost – or the “General Plan for the East”. As early as 1925, Hitler announced his idea of a new Lebensraum for the German people, that is “living space”. A major part of this idea revolved on the so-called superiority of the Germanic peoples. To secure this living space, Hitler meant to change the ethnographic picture of Eastern Europe, and to do that he wanted to remove all non-Germanic peoples, mainly Slavs. And standing in the way of this idea’s realization was the giant that was the Soviet Union. Although g a non-aggression pact early on in the war, Hitler still kept an interest in destroying the Soviet regime. And when the Soviets managed to occupy the regions of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, it placed them dangerously close to Hitler’s prized Romanian oil fields. He became increasingly suspicious of Joseph Stalin, realizing the growing threat of the Soviet Union. He thus planned invading it in May 1941, but this was postponed due to the involvement in the Balkans – something for which he later blamed Mussolini. One thing he wanted to avoid at all cost was the notorious Russian winter, which was the bane of so many would-be conquerors before him. And the few weeks of delay caused by the conquest of Balkans

placed him closer to it than he would have wanted. Hitler and his high command were convinced that the Soviet Union would fall in around three months. Once more he meant to apply the lessons learned from the conquest of , and to rely on the overwhelming supremacy of the combined aerial and ground forces, employing his panzer division in a fierce Blitzkrieg campaign. However, what ensued later on would quickly change the course of the Second World War. At his disposal Hitler had roughly 3.8 million soldiers in more than 152 divisions, ed by no less than 3,700 tanks. Luftwaffe boasted more than 2,500 planes. All together, it was one of the largest invasion forces in known military history, and sured any such force that threatened Russia before. But where the Germans excelled in technological superiority, the Soviets excelled in sheer, overwhelming numerical superiority. They relied on huge numbers of soldiers, and equally high numbers of tanks and planes. At the start of the invasion, the Soviets fielded 220 divisions, numbering roughly 2.9 million men. However, their tanks greatly outnumbered the Germans – they boasted roughly 11,000 tanks. But they did not outclass the German ones. Russians did have successful and reliable tank designs, but they lacked good crew arrangement, good armament, and proper training, which ultimately resulted in huge losses in the field. One mistake that Hitler’s high command made is omitting the fact that the Soviets could produce an enormous amount of reinforcements to their initial 220 divisions, mostly from the interior regions of their enormous nation. This fact would be a big changing factor later on, as the Soviets kept bringing in fresh troops and raising the number of their divisions to 360. Just as the year before in the Battle of , the Germans opted for a three pronged attack with the same three army groups and commanders. Von Leeb, von Bock, and von Rundstedt commanded Army Groups South, North, and Central. The Army Group North under the Command of Von Leeb struck across the Prussia and Baltic states towards the Soviet city of Leningrad. The main thrust was reserved for Fedor von Bock and his Army Group Centre, which spearheaded an attack in direction of Moscow and Smolensk. In the south, von Rundstedt’s Army Group South was focused on thrusting into Ukraine and

Poland, with the aim of seizing Kiev. This made the frontline extending across almost 2,900 kilometers (~1,800 miles), from the Baltic to the Black Sea, which came as a huge surprise for the Soviet Union and found them in a partially mobilized and largely unprepared position. Again, Guderian relied on the superiority of the Blitzkrieg, racing ahead and covering 80 kilometers on the initial attack. In some cases, the infantry simply could not keep with the rapid advance of the panzers. By June 27th, the Belarusian capital of Minsk was captured. In the process, hundreds of thousands of prisoners were captured, but the Soviets could afford both the loss of territories, and the loss of manpower. By July 10th, Guderian’s advance continued and he captured the key city of Smolensk, where his forces met up with those of General Hoth. However, soon after, the Germans began experiencing initial hardships. Mid July brought with it continuous rain, which turned the rural, dusty roads of Russia and Ukraine into a sea of thick, sticky mud – known as rasputitsa. This natural obstacle slowed down the German advance, as both the tanks and wheeled vehicles had trouble traversing the muddy roads. The Soviets didn’t make the situation any easier, and resorted to a vicious scorched earth policy, in which they burned villages, crops, and bridges as they retreated, leaving nothing for the advancing Germans. This was a major threat for the latter – with the winter approaching, the German army would depend on these things. In their retreat the Soviets also managed something extraordinary – they displaced entire factories. This was a feat never before heard of, and a critical part of later Soviet success. By taking these factories and relocating them to the interior, they placed them from the harm of the frontlines and kept a continuous production of military supplies. Extensive Soviet railways were instrumental in achieving this feat. The distances that the Germans covered by mid to late July were staggering. They conquered roughly 640 kilometers of land (400 miles), and were 320 kilometers (200 miles) outside of Moscow. However, the main disadvantage for Hitler – and the one he feared most – was approaching fast: Winter. As it approached, Hitler ordered the Army Group North to stop its advance – just outside of Leningrad (modern St. Petersburg). However, Army Groups South and Centre continued their pushes. Up to that date, all throughout Russia, the Germans were capturing huge numbers of Soviet soldiers. Just a few weeks before, a German encirclement resulted in the capture of 500,000 Soviet men, while in October of 1941, they captured further 600,000. This just goes to show

the insane amount of men that Soviets could spare – and still remain in the fight. Nevertheless, Germans began feeling the mounting challenge of this invasion. What was supposed to be a few weeks of rapid advancing, stretched out dangerously longer. The common German soldier was growing tired, quick and long marches and constant fighting took its toll, as did the growingly bad weather. And all the while, the Soviets kept producing fresh reinforcements from their near endless source of manpower. And what’s more, they were all better suited to the challenging weather. Soon enough, the German High Command became separated in their views – certain Generals wanted to stop the advance and take up a defensive line for the winter. However, the leading Generals: Bock, Brauchitsch, and Halder, urged the need to press on as hard and fast as possible – thinking that the Soviets were near their end. Hitler agreed – Moscow was too close for them to stop now. But, the infamous Russian Winter is a terrible foe – one that stopped many armies dead in their tracks. In December 1941, the Germans experienced their greatest challenge so far. The biting winds and subzero temperatures made it difficult to fight and advance, and the troops lacked suitable winter clothing and equipment. Men suffered frostbites, while tanks and vehicles had troubles traversing deep snow. Still, by December they managed to enter the outskirts of Moscow, but managed no further progress – Barbarossa stalled. With casualties reaching an all-time high for the Germans, it was obvious that the initial invasion of the Soviet Union was a failure. And when the hardy Soviet troops launched a massive counter-offensive in the Winter of 1941, things would take a new and harsh turn for the Germans. The counter offensive was not expected by the German High Command – they relied on the fact that the Soviet exhausted all their reinforcements and could not possibly muster any more men. However, they were thoroughly wrong. Stalin transferred his troops from the Far East of Russia, from the Siberia and Central Asia, finding enough of a force to mount a counter offensive along the front. Hitler ordered his Generals to hold the line, but they simply had no time to consolidate their forces and mount a viable defense. Thus occurred the first major disagreement between Hitler and his Generals, as the former repeatedly demanded that the German army should stand its ground. When the Generals refused and ordered a limited retreat beyond the Oka River – against Hitler’s orders – the majority of them were dismissed, including: Guderian, Brauchitsch, von Bock, Hoepner, and Strauss.

In the end, the Soviet counter offensives had limited success – they managed to push back the German front line several hundred kilometers back, and to remove the threat to Moscow, but all at a great cost of life. This was the end of the German Blitzkrieg “era”, and the war shifted to an entirely new form – and a wholly different direction.

The War in the Pacific

IN 1941, THE WORLD would receive its next shock, one that would hurl it into a conflict of a truly global scale. With Japan long harboring an increasingly expansionist policy, seeking to dominate the Pacific and most of its neighbors, it was becoming only a matter of time before they would resort to open acts of war. The conflict with China was an ongoing issue even before the war began, and now the Japanese were expanding their military might and focusing on the Allied powers and their naval and air bases in the Pacific. In the months preceding their entry into the war, the Japanese began a sharp increase in their military industry spending. Their military was dominated by two branches: the IJA (Imperial Japanese Army) and the IJN (Imperial Japanese Navy), both of which were considerably modernized and boasted large numbers of men and ordnance. As a plan of their preparations for war, Japan outlined its strategic objectives: to rapidly seize key economic resources in the Malay Peninsula and Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. Furthermore, as the Japanese command believed that the United States would inevitably get involved in the global conflict at some point, they wanted to remove their threat before that happened. Thus they planned to seize Guam, Wake, and the Philippines. The basis of the plan was thus: a rapid capture of their key strategic goals, and then an establishment of strong defenses with which all possible Allied attacks would be resisted. To gain time for creating the defenses, the Japanese sought to stun the Americans and buy plenty of time. And to do that, they found the perfect target – Pearl Harbor. On 7th December 1941, the Japanese simultaneous attacks finally began. Both the Navy and the Army launched several separated attacks on Allied powers across the Pacific. Thus began the Malayan Campaign against the British, the attacks on Hong Kong, Guam, Wake island, and the Fall of the Philippines, the quick Invasion of Thailand, as well as the notorious attack on Pearl Harbor. Seeking to quickly put out the Americans out of play in the Pacific, the Japanese carried out a surprise attack on their fleet stationed in Honolulu, Hawaii, at the Pearl Harbor Station. Believing that once they suffered a devastating blow, they would sue for peace with Japan and leave them free access to the Pacific. Thus it was that on the morning of December 7th, Japanese carriers and airplanes inflicted a crippling blow to the US naval power. Without any warning, they

launched an all out attack with torpedo bombers, kamikaze fighters, destroyers, and carriers, and destroyed eight American destroyers, 188 aircraft, bombarded the harbor, and caused close to 2,500 American casualties. The attack left the world and the United States in disbelief. The very next day, all major Allied powers and the United States, declared war on Japan. Three days later, the Axis powers declared war on the United States, which effectively drew it into a twofront war. Almost simultaneously, the Japanese forces executed airborne attacks on Clark and Iba airfields, close to Manila in the Philippines. They caused a great blow on American air force, which was unsuspecting and stationed on the ground. Also on December 8th, the Japanese began their attack on Hong Kong, which fell on 25th of the same month. Next, on December 10th, the Japanese began focusing on the Philippines, landing on the island of Luzon and closing in on Manila. It was up to General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of all American forces in the Philippines, to conduct a series of strategic withdrawal operations, which placed his troops to safety at Bataan. This left the capital of Philippines, Manila, undefended, with the Japanese entering the city on January 2nd 1942. Nevertheless, the Japanese continued towards Bataan a week later, commencing their attack. MacArthur was ordered to leave for Australia, and the remaining Filipino and American troops attempted a defense of Bataan despite being low on supplies and ammo. It finally fell on April 9th, and the Japanese captured some 76,000 Filipino and American prisoners, who were then forced to an inhumane 106 kilometer forced march through inhospitable terrain, on which they would suffer many casualties. It was known as the Bataan Death March. The Japanese expansion was swift and brutal, and quickly spread through the Pacific, even reaching Australia. In late January 1942, the Dutch East Indies were invaded, as was New Guinea, the neighboring Solomon Islands, British Burma, and the cities of Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul. The Allies could not defend Malaya, and made a desperate attempt to resist the Japanese army in Singapore – but ultimately failed, and were forced to surrender by February 15th. In February, the Japanese successes kept mounting, with the conquest of Timor and Bali. Allied air power was almost totally defeated in the Southeast Asia, which allowed the Japanese to establish aerial dominance and conduct far-reaching bombing runs. They even managed to reach Australia, bombing the city of Darwing in February, claiming 243 – mostly civilian – lives. Late February and early March brought new conquests – the IJN, Japanese Navy,

claimed a thorough victory over the Allies at the Battle of Java Sea. This prompted the Allied forces on Sumatra and Java to surrender after the end of the Dutch East Indies campaign. In April, the Japanese proceeded with conducting naval raids deeper into the Indian Ocean, targeting British naval bases in Ceylon. After suffering losses there, the British retreated further west. After eliminating this threat, the Japanese had a clear approach to attacking Burma and India. The war took another turn for the worse for the British, after they suffered great casualties at Burma, being forced to retreat towards the border of India and Burma. By late 1941, the Allies were slowly starting to recover from the initial attacks and start thinking about regrouping and returning the “punch”. At the time Australia was already hard at war – their troops were fighting overseas in Europe, mostly in the Mediterranean. This left their home country vulnerable to the Japanese attacks – which did occur: the Japanese air forces conducted repeated small attacks on Australian coast. This prompted the Australians to seek aid from the United States, which were formalized by a historic speech from the Australian prime minister, John Curtin. On 27th December 1941, he said: “The Australian Government regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom.” This plea for aid was further prompted by surprising and crushing defeat of the Allies in Malaya and Singapore, where Australian troops were also stationed – some 15,000 of their soldiers were captured in the process. All of this combined posed an enormous threat to Australia, especially when considering that the Japanese have invaded New Guinea, and from there had a clear path to Australian coast. This ultimately led to a formulation of a crucial defense plan by the legendary General Douglas MacArthur. The Australian Prime Minister thus agreed to place his troops under MacArthur’s command, who then became the Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific. He was headquartered in Melbourne, and the American troops began amassing in Australia from March 1942, hinting at an Allied recuperation.

Midway

AFTER THEIR INITIAL successes, the Japanese now focused on the second phase of their intended plans. And that involved an even larger expansion. Next targets in their aims were the rest of New Guinea, the Aleutian islands, Fiji islands, Samoa, Midway, and New Britain. However, they would soon suffer a major blow – perhaps the first significant defeat since their entrance into the war. And that defeat came at the legendary Battle of Midway. The Japanese Marshal iral, and the commander-in-chief of the Japanese combined fleet, Isoroku Yamamoto, focused his attention to Midway Atoll, a small coral island on the far outskirts of the Hawaiian Archipelago. The island was home of the American Naval Air Facility and had major tactical significance for the Americans. However, Yamamoto recognized the potential it carried, and knew that the subsequent operation against the island could tip the scales of the war – eliminating the strategic potential of America in the Pacific. iral Yamamoto had only four carriers at his disposal, those being the remnants of the preceding Battle of the Coral Sea: Sōryū, Hiryū, Akagi, and Kaga. With those ships at his disposal, Yamamoto hoped to gain aerial supremacy, and subsequently land his troops on the island, capturing it. The end result was supposed to attract a counter attack from the United States Navy, which would fall into a trap and be destroyed by the defensive Japanese lines. Alas, the bold and tall plan of Yamamoto was soon brought to light: American codebreakers intercepted the Japanese communications, discovering the plan of attack. Furthermore, the planned reconnaissance by the Japanese forces did not occur in time, and thus they could not know of the approaching American carriers that hurried towards Midway. This event completely went against Yamamoto’s plan – and he had no idea of it. The situation culminated on June 3rd, when US planes stationed on Midway spotted the Japanese fleet some 1,100 kilometers (700 miles) to the west of the island, engaging them. The very next day, Japanese aircraft carriers launched 108 planes to strike Midway, but the US fighters intervened and the effect was only moderate. In the meantime, the American carrier fleet – carrying 116 additional planes – moved in to engage the Japanese fleet. The following engagement was one of the decisive in the Pacific Theatre. American SDB Dauntless dive bombing planes managed to surprise the Japanese

carriers, successfully striking three of the four present – they quickly erupted in flames. The last remaining Japanese carrier managed to damage the US ship Yorktown, but was later destroyed by further bomber attacks. Yorktown, severely damaged, was later sunk alongside USS Hammann, by the Japanese submarine, I-168. Nevertheless, the battle ended as a major defeat of the Japanese, and their Midway operation was a complete and utter failure. It also reversed their initial advantage in the war – the initiative in the Pacific was now in the balance. And for the Allies, this was the perfect opportunity to reverse the tide of the war. The Battle of Midway was called “the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare”.

Guadalcanal

WHEN THE STORY OF THE Pacific Theatre of operations in the Second World War is considered, special attention needs to be given to the major battles that occurred in it. When things are considered from a critical angle, it quickly becomes clear that Pacific was one of the most brutal, unforgiving, and dynamic theatres in the whole conflict. Alas, due to the nature of this work, we cannot give as much attention as we’d like to every crucial engagement. Thus we focus on the major battles – those that became etched in military history for generations to come. And The Battle of Guadalcanal is certainly one such. Around August 1942, it became known to the Allies that the Japanese were constructing a major airfield at Guadalcanal, an island in the Solomon Islands chain, northeast of Australia. The Allies understood that the position of the airfield was critical for their success, and the tipping of the scales in their favor. Taking the island, they could utilize it as a base of operation from which to successfully eliminate the major Japanese force in Rabaul. Thus, the Guadalcanal campaign became the first major offensive of the Allies against the Japanese – the one initiative they sought after Midway. US Marines landed on the island on August 7th, surprising the outnumbered Japanese contingent. However, when word reached the Japanese forces at Rabaul, a fleet was quickly assembled and sent to intercept the Allies at Guadalcanal. This rapid reaction was a critical move, which resulted in the Battle of Savo Island in which the Japanese won a masterful victory, sinking four Allied heavy cruisers. Nevertheless, the battle on the island itself escalated into a bitter and drawn out conflict. Fighting for a strategic strip of dirt, both the Americans and the Japanese descended into a vicious battle of attrition which dragged on for six months. The Japanese initially lost the control of the airfield, and kept sending repeated attacks to reclaim it – suffering heavy casualties. By August, both sides engaged in yet another naval clash, this time with no decisive outcome, known as the Battle of Eastern Solomons. However, by October, the situation changed – and the Americans managed to strike a blow to the Japanese Navy, gaining a victory in the night clash known as the Battle of Cape Esperance. Further sporadic naval clashes occurred throughout October and into November, with losses on both sides, albeit the Japanese Navy was suffering a greater toll. Guadalcanal was also the location of some of the largest air battles as well,

pitting the air might of both nations against one another – both had formidable fighter aircraft at their disposal. Still, on the ground, things were much different. Spurred by their unwavering devotion to their Emperor, the Japanese infantry launched repeated mass charges on American positions, suffering jaw dropping casualties in the process. Their famed “Banzai” charges were akin to a mass suicide – but in the belief of the Japanese soldier, it was a worthy sacrifice for their Emperor and the eternal Japanese Empire. Naval carriers kept bringing in new reinforcements to keep up with the huge losses. After continuous naval engagements, the Japanese Navy at last realized that the engagement is simply too costly for them to continue. Each ship lost was a great strain on their forces, which could not be replaced as easily as those on the Allied side. In the end, the Japanese evacuated the Guadalcanal island in February 1943, abandoning the engagement. The ratio between the casualties in the end was the perfect insight in how devastating the “mass charge” tactic of the Japanese was – they suffered over 20,000 casualties, compared to only 7,000 on the American side.

Iwo Jima

THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC lasted much longer than the conflicts elsewhere in the world, and was marked by almost continuous offensives. The period between 1943 and 1945 was marked by increased Allied offensive campaigns, including the fighting in Burma, Solomon Islands, the Philippines, and India. However, as the end was steadily approaching for the Japanese, their fight became more desperate – and far more vicious. In 1945 the Americans faced their greatest challenge yet: they were bringing the fight to the enemy, and in earnest. Two major battles would mark the final conflicts in the Pacific – Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Both would be become the tragic symbol of the huge loss of life on both sides, with dubious strategic rewards in the end. When the Allies secured the Mariana Islands, they were much closer to mainland Japan. However, the Marianas were a whole of 1,900 kilometers (1,200 miles) away, and it was still quite a distance for the American bombers to travel. A closer air base was needed if the Allies were to threaten Japan from the air. The island of Iwo Jima, a part of the Volcano Islands group, came up as a suitable target, being halfway between Japan and Marianas. Its strategic value was at once clear to the American High Command, and the attack plan was soon under way. However, the island already had a Japanese force on it – it was used to spot any possible American air raids heading to Japan. It also boasted an aircraft contingent. Thus, this small, almost featureless strip of land in the middle of the ocean held a vital importance. Emergency landing airfields would be crucial for the American bombers, and put Japan in dire threat. All of this indicated a bloody fight. Alas, the Japanese recognized the strategic value as well. Losing the island, they would lose vital protection of their homeland as well. If Americans were to seize the airfields, their planes would protect the fleet, and Japan would lose control of the waters in the area. Thus it was, that from May 1944, the Japanese forces, commanded by Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, began constructing a series of far-reaching and complex defenses, exploiting the rugged terrain, discovering and creating tunnels, caves, and creating traps – all in preparation of the impending American attack. These earthwork became the iconic image of Japanese “holdout” fighting – the superbly camouflaged and hidden guns, an elaborate tunnel network, and strategic ages. Iwo Jima quickly became a natural, subterranean fortress of an unparalleled scale. The hills were dotted with artillery emplacements which were perfectly hidden and camouflaged and able

to fire on the Allies from a perfect angle. Much of these emplacements were positioned so well, that only a precise hit could disable them, making the attack far more complicated than expected. And perhaps most importantly, the Japanese morale and mindset must be taken into . Kuribayashi and his men all knew that Iwo Jima cannot be defended indefinitely, and that victory is next to impossible. However, they were all determined to fight until death – with surrender not being an option. Throughout the Pacific War, this mindset was present amongst the Japanese soldiers – the mass banzai charges and the kamikaze pilots being the famous examples of their blind sacrifice to the Empire and the Emperor. And so, the 21,000 Japanese defenders on Iwo Jima were ready to give the Americans a fight to the bitter end. What ensued in the following period is one of the bloodiest, bitterest, most vicious engagements in the Pacific War, which came as a sobering call for the Americans, and posed crucial questions in the strategic rewards when compared to the cost of life. The Iwo Jima attack was known as Operation Detachment and utilized around 70,647 men – a clear numerical advantage over the Japanese. Furthermore, the Americans wanted to cushion the defenses before landing the men – starting from June 1944, the US navy and airforce began a systematic bombardment of the island, hoping to decimate the defenders. However, this proved to be an utter failure: the Japanese were so well dug in that the intense bombardment left them almost untouched. The Japanese soldiers were most tightly concentrated around Mount Suribachi, an inactive volcano that dominates the island. It was here that the Americans first landed on February 19th 1945. For every inch they progressed forward, the US soldiers paid a bloody, high price: seemingly oblivious to the Japanese presence in the hills, they came under obliterating fire only when the beaches of Iwo Jima were chock full of men. As the first day of the engagement ended, the Americans made progress – but lost over 2,000 men in the progress. The dominating peak of Mount Suribachi was conquered on February 23rd, when the American flag was triumphantly raised over it – captured by the eye of the camera to become an iconic photo and a symbol of the Pacific War. Nevertheless, this was only the first achievement – Iwo Jima was yet to be fully captured. Fighting went on for a while longer – throughout February and into March. The entire island was fully secured only on March 26th, but that victory of the Americans came at a great cost. They suffered over 19,000 wounded men, and close to 7,000 killed. The Japanese on the other hand, fought to the last man: over 20,000 men gave their lives on Iwo Jima, defending an ideal – the notion of

an Eternal Empire that would soon crumble to dust. The sands of Iwo Jima were soaked with blood – but was it worth it?

Okinawa

However, Iwo Jima would soon after be sured in every aspect. The bloodiest battle of the Pacific there was around the corner, and would remain as a testament of the stubborn Japanese devotion, and the perseverance of the American soldier. And that battle was Okinawa. Okinawa Island is the largest in the Ryukyu Island chain that lies of the southern tip of the Kyushu Island of mainland Japan. Seizing it, the Americans would be one giant step closer to invading the “home islands” of Japan and finally subduing their foe. However, seizing an island so vital for both sides was not going to be an easy task. And what came next was to overshadow Iwo Jima in every regard. The Battle of Okinawa was nothing ever before seen on the Pacific theatre – the sheer scale of the battle, the numbers involved, the bitter Japanese no-surrender policies, and large scale suicide attacks: all of them served as ghastly reminders that war is a brutal affair, no matter where it is conducted. As Okinawa Island is situated in an island chain and just 550 kilometers (340 miles) away from mainland Japan, it was clear that the strategic value in it was immense: from its airfields, the Americans could deploy their bombers in large numbers, dominating the air space over Japan and ing a future invasion of Kyushu. With it in their grasp, the grip around Japan’s throat would reach a critical point. THE AMERICAN FORCES numbered roughly seven divisions, and totaled around 183,000 men under the Tenth Army. The latter was under the command of Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. In comparison, the Japanese troops employed to defend the island numbered close to a 100,000 men, which were further aided by the many civilians who called the island their home. They were commanded by Lieutenant General Ushijima Mitsuru. The British Pacific Fleet was also a part of the battle, with the goal of providing long range fire directed against the small airfields on surrounding islands. The American navy also acted, just as in the Battle of Iwo Jima: the days preceding the ground attacks were marked with intense air and naval bombardment of Okinawa, with the goal of softening the defenses. Afterwards came the first attack, on April 1st 1945. The battle would last for 3 months. The initial landings of the Americans were largely unopposed – the Japanese

forces retreated further inland, avoiding the naval bombardment. However, after the Allies seized the initial strategic goals, they had to defend after a major Japanese counterattack. This occurred on April 6th and 7th. The counterattack added a to the Battle of Okinawa a major naval aspect: the Japanese sought to distract the American fleet by engaging it in battle. Once distracted, the fleet would be attacked by suicide kamikaze pilots. However, the Japanese fleet – already short of fuel – suffered a terrible defeat in the ensuing clash. Even so, the Japanese tactics became noticeably more desperate. The flow of the Battle of Okinawa became symbolized by continuous kamikaze attacks. Young Japanese men, many of them 17 and 18 years old, had only one mission: to ram American ships and carriers, sacrificing their lives for the Emperor. For them, it was the absolute honor to do so: Japan of the time boasted thousands of years of strong military history, which was dominated by the Bushido code of honor, iconic to the Samurai of old. The young kamikaze pilots would compose their death poems, and – their planes laden with bombs – would attempt to evade anti air fire as they rammed their craft into American vessels. The latter thought of it as “inhumane warfare”, while the Japanese glorified the sacrifice to the Empire. Over the course of the three month battle, the Japanese kamikaze pilots flew 5,500 times inflicting terrible casualties on the Americans. Overall, the progress that the Americans made was slow and costly. The well entrenched Japanese soldiers put up a stiff fight, utilizing camouflage tactics, traps, and subterranean defenses. On the southern portion of the island, the historic Shuri Castle became the center of Japanese defenses. It fell to the Americans on May 29th, and was a significant strategic loss for the Japanese. By 21st of June, the Japanese defeat was clear. Seeing that the battle was over and lost, the Japanese commander, Mitsuru Ushijima, sends a message to Tokyo, reporting of the loss and sending his apologies to the Emperor. He then walks out onto a picturesque promontory on the coast, where he performs the traditional Japanese suicide – sepukku. Beforehand he refused the American commander’s plea to surrender. He was buried at the spot by the Americans, with full military auspices. Okinawa was a costly engagement for both sides. Americans did not expect such stiff resistance early on. They suffered close to 50,000 casualties, of which 12,500 were deaths. On the opposite side, once more, the casualties were appalling – the Japanese fought to the last man, suffering 110,000 killed, with just 7,400 taken prisoner. The deaths constituted for 94% of their force. Okinawa

was a vicious conflict, but ultimately one that would contribute to a swifter conclusion to both the war in the Pacific, and the Second World War on the whole. After seeing how devoted, bitter, and hard the Japanese soldiers fought in their losing moments, the Americans began having second thoughts on the planned land invasion of mainland Japan. Judging from the experiences up to that point, it was becoming clear that the Japanese soldiers and civilians alike, would fight to death if an invasion did occur. With their strongly militaristic background, history of rigorous moral code, and utmost devotion to the Empire of Japan and the Emperor, the Japanese would never surrender lightly. All of this clearly insinuated that the America’s plan of invading the mainland would end in catastrophic casualties. Even so, victory was likely – albeit it would come at great cost. So it was that the American high command opted for a new weapon – one that was never before utilized in the history of the world, and ultimately, one that would decide the outcome of the Second World War. On July 25th 1945, official orders were released for the atomic bombing of Japanese cities: Nagasaki, Niigata, Kokura, and Hiroshima. Preceding this, the consent for the use of atomic weapons was obtained from the United Kingdom. On the 6th of August, 1945, the American B-29 bomber, named “Enola Gay”, dropped its payload on the unsuspecting city of Hiroshima. The latter was an important military industry center and a crucial embarkation point. The bomber’s payload was the Little Boy, a 4.4 ton (9,700 lbs) enriched uranium gun type fission nuclear bomb. It missed the designated drop point by roughly 240 meters (800 feet), and caused unparalleled devastation. Just three days later, another B-29 bomber, the “Bockscar” flew over Nagasaki, another crucial military port, and the site of Japan’s largest shipbuilding center. The Bockscar dropped on it the “Fat Man”, a 4.6 ton (10,300 lbs) plutonium implosion type nuclear bomb. The resulting explosion could be seen hundreds of miles away, and caused massive devastation throughout the city – leaving in its wake nothing but expanses of leveled ruble. It was one of the most vicious weapons of war ever devised – and in a matter of seconds it caused unparalleled loss of life. Over 240,000 people died in both attacks combined. Even the crews of the bombers – many of whom were not fully informed on the nature of their payload, were left in awe after witnessing the effects and the explosion, the massive mushroom cloud and the blinding flash. And these effects were exactly

as the American president Harry Truman said they would be, when demanding the Japanese to surrender: “Expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this Earth”. Japan surrendered on August 15th, after being thoroughly shocked by the devastating attacks. On September 2nd the formally signed the “Instrument of Surrender”, which officially ended the war. However, in the aftermath of the atomic attacks, the world was divided in their justification. Many argued that the attacks effectively brought forward Japan’s surrender and prevented future loss of life. On the other hand, many were appalled by the brutality of such a weapon, and criticized the loss of innocent civilian life. Either way, it was a devastating way to end the war, one that remained etched in the pages of history as the final, brutal exclamation mark to the vicious War in the Pacific. And in the years following the atomic bombs, Japan would never be the same again.

The Great Eastern Blunder: Operation Zitadelle and the Axis Stall

IN EUROPE, HOWEVER, things were receiving a different character when compared to the initial stages of the war. As early as January 1942, the four major Allied powers gathered to sign the Declaration by United States, which effectively formalized the Allied Powers of the Second World War. This declaration was signed by 47 national governments between 1942 and 1945, and also affirmed the so-called Atlantic Charter, by which the United States and the United Kingdom defined their goals for the world after the ending of the war. Moreover, the g of the Declaration saw the allies agreeing not to sign a separate peace with any Axis powers – which meant that they would remain as a cohesive fighting force. But even so, it was still not certain what strategy the Allies would follow in the developing conflict. Their main objective, however, was clear as day – defeat by any means possible. When discussing the grand strategy to employ, the Soviets were adamant about the need to open up a second front – mostly in order to relieve the pressure on the Soviet Union. This went along with the American proposition of a large scale attack on from the direction of . This would open up a second front and threaten from parallel sides. However, the British command proposed a different idea – to strike from the peripheries, wearing out its strength and inflicting defeats. Those would act to lower the morale of German troops – which was incredibly high during the early victories – and bring about a surge in resistance and partisan movements in occupied nations across Europe. And all the while they would focus on gaining aerial supremacy and constantly bombarding . And while the Americans were adamant about their idea of an invasion of mainland Europe through , it was in the end concluded that such an approach was not possible in 1942 – and more time would be needed to put that into motion. Greater focus was to be put on development of tanks and armor in greater quantities, which would act as a backbone of a future conflict in Europe. In the following year, in 1943, at the Casablanca conference, Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, the US President, met once more. This time the Americans agreed to go along with the British plan of invading Sicily. By conquering this island, they would gain full control over the Mediterranean supply routes – a huge strategic advantage. It was known that the British lost their supremacy over this region early on in the war. The British went as far as wanting to pursue a greater conflict in the Balkans, as to draw in Turkey into the war. However, the Americans managed to dissuade them from

this idea, and got their committal to limit Allied actions in the Mediterranean only to the invasions of Italy and at a later date. For however, things were not as great as early on in the war. The invasion of the Soviet Union did not go exactly as planned, and by mid 1942 German losses were mounting. Nevertheless, although retreating further back after reaching Moscow, the Germans managed to keep most of the territory they gained in the invasion the previous year. Thanks to the good defensive strategies and superior military technology, they managed to repel significant Soviet offensives. In May 1942, Soviet offensives in the Kerch peninsula and at Kharkov in Ukraine were both repulsed, after which a major summer offensive was launched by the Germans in June 1942, known as the Fall Blau (Case Blue). The main goals of this offensive were the Caucasus oil fields in Azerbaijan, and the Kuban steppe. Case Blue was considered a direct continuation of the previous year’s Operation Barbarossa, and was yet another attempt by Hitler to put the Soviet war machine out of the war. However, things won’t go as planned again. The offensive itself was split in two directions, and accordingly to this, the Army Group South was also split into two groups: Army Group A, which was tasked with reaching the Azerbaijan Oil Fields near Baku, and the Army Group B, whose task was to advance towards the Volga river and Stalingrad (today known as Volgograd). With over 1,300,000 million men and roughly 2,000 tanks, the Army Group South still posed a great threat, and began its offensive on June 28th, again making fast progress. Stalingrad was reached almost a month later, on 26th of July. What ensued was a bitter and drawn out battle for the city on the Volga, which soon became one of the biggest tests for the Germans. Again relying on Luftwaffe and their artillery, the Germans reduced Stalingrad to rubble, and the battle became one of the defining struggles of the Eastern Front. It took the Germans three months to gain control over Stalingrad – until mid November. The Battle of Stalingrad also saw extensive use of Hitler’s auxiliary troops – his Hungarian, Italian, and Romanian allies. With these soldiers mostly positioned on the flanks, the Germans were now facing a renewed counter offensive from the Soviets at Stalingrad. The ruined city served as a considerable tactical advantage for the Soviets, whose strategic approach negated the German use of tactical movements. During the renewed combat, the German 4th Panzer Army soon became exhausted, and the task of defense was laid on the shoulders of the Sixth Army. However, Hitler didn’t order an attempt at break out and retreat – he instead decided to order them to remain in defensive positions. Encirclement

was now a very real threat. And soon enough, the Sixth Army began to greatly diminish in strength, which allowed the Soviets to retake much of the city. With winter now fully underway, conditions in Stalingrad became dreadful, with casualties mounting on both sides. To try and relieve the pressure on the Sixth Army and prevent encirclement, Hitler ordered a new offensive, called Operation Wintergewitter (Winter Storm). This offensive failed to gain anything to the Germans, and the end result was an additional two months of siege that fully exhausted the power of the Sixth Army. After more than five months of fighting in harsh conditions, the Axis forces in Stalingrad surrendered in February 1943 – having exhausted their ammunition and food. It was a major failure for the Germans – and one of the greatest in the war. Coincidentally, the devastating defeat in Stalingrad was also the first major failure of the war to be publicly announced to the German population, the first time the German government under Hitler acknowledged a defeat. One interesting fact is how it was done: the German State radio (Deutscher Reichsrundfunk) chose to play the sad 2nd Adagio from Anton Bruckner’s “Symphony No. 7 in E Major”, which contributed to the magnitude of such loss. That same somber piece was played again on May 1st, 1945, less than three years later, when that same radio station was announcing the death of Adolf Hitler. Nevertheless, early 1943 saw both sides in preparation for the new offensives. The Soviets managed to push back the Germans further back after Stalingrad, and in the process created a salient – a bulge that penetrates deep into enemy territory - around the city of Kursk. This placed them at threat of encirclement. Seeing this opportunity, Hitler devised a new attack, aiming to pinch off the salient at its base, from both north and south, and dealing a decisive blow to the Soviet Army. The operation known as Unternehmen Zitadelle (Operation Citadel) began on July 5th 1943 – but would prove to be a quick affair. Also, with close to 10,000 tanks used on both sides combined, Kursk became the biggest tank battle in military history – which it remains to date. In it, many new tank designs were tested in earnest, and the engagement became a crucial source of vital information in the development of armored warfare. Early on in the operation, the northern part of the German pincer failed to make suitable penetration, stalling. This allowed the Soviets to commence a strategic counter offensive, known as Operation Kutuzov, whose aim was to attack the rear of the northern pincer – thus creating an opportunity to both break the

possibility of German encirclement, and destroy the northern army group. On the south part as well the Soviets launched powerful offensives, which led to an enormous armored clash, the Battle of Prokhorovka. This clash itself greatly contributed to the Battle of Kursk being termed as the largest tank battle in military history. At Prokhorovka, the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army clashed with the German 2nd SS Panzer Corps, in a wide scale strategic tank battle. This was the clear evidence of the superiority of German armor: with better armament and thicker armor, most German tank designs outclassed the Russian ones. Prokhorovka saw Germans field roughly 294 tanks and tank destroyers, while Russians had around 616 of the same. And even so, the fierce German 88 millimeter tank guns decimated the mass attacks of the Russians: a ratio of one German tank lost per ten Russian, was often reported. Prokhorovka was in the end a failed engagement for both sides – the Germans achieved a tactical victory, and the Soviets an operational victory. The Battle of Kursk went on. By August 3rd 1943, the Soviets were once more on the move, with a new offensive underway. This was their Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev, centered on the southern pincer of the Germans. However, the German plan of operations was intended to weaken the possibility of further Soviet offensives, by weakening their forces by cutting off and encircling the remainder of the Soviets at Kursk. This also went along with Hitler’s desire to reinstate the image of as a formidable fighting force, raising his prestige amongst his Axis allies, first and foremost. And what’s more, any Soviet soldiers captured through encirclement could be used as a work force in German industry – a concept already utilized before. But the truth is that Hitler’s plans at Kursk were doomed from the start – even before the operation began. This is in part due to the fact that the British Intelligence – in particular their Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park – gained the ability to intercept and decipher many German high end encrypted messages. This enabled them to know of the planned attack at the Kursk Salient, valuable information that was ed on to the Soviets. The latter reacted to this by remaining at the salient, but entrenching themselves good and proper, with an emphasis on tank obstacles, designed to stop the infamous German Panzer spearhead. And while the German forces were busy in preparation of the attack, the Soviets had ample time to ready themselves. So it was that Kursk was a doomed operation from the very start. Coincidentally, it was the last major strategic offensive that the Germans were able to conduct in

the East – their diminishing strength and the developments elsewhere in Europe greatly contributed to this fact. At the same time as the Battle of Kursk was raging on, Hitler received new of an Allied Invasion of Sicily. This came as terrible news, and threw a big old wrench into Hitler’s plans. Originally, he relied on the prospect of fresh troops that were busy at training in , which would allow him to reinforce his forces on the Eastern Front and remain in the fight there. However, with the Allies in Sicily, Hitler’s hand was forced: the fresh troops from now had to be redirected to the South to deal with the new threat. With all this at play, Hitler pulled the plug on the Kursk offensive – after only one week of fighting. He diverted a part of those men to Italy, awaiting further Allied penetration. In essence, Operation Citadel and Kursk were an absolute failure for the Germans. It was the very first time that Hitler cancelled an offensive before achieving any noticeable breakthrough or a strategic success. What is more, the failed offensive meant that the dynamic on the Eastern Front changed – with the Soviet Union now gaining the initiative. This was largely due to the fact that the Soviet Union had enormous, dazzling industrial potential: even after suffering debilitating losses, they could still replenish the men and armor with great speed. This was not the case for the Germans, who left the fields around Kursk littered with the smoldering husks of their precious Panzers – which could not be as easily replaced. This fact was what gave the Soviets a crucial strategic initiative: one that they kept until the very end of the war. Even from the very first mentions of Operation Citadel, Hitler was advised not to go through with it. One of the staunchest opponents to the idea of Kursk was one of Hitler’s lead generals and the mastermind of the Panzer warfare – Heinz Guderian. After Hitler laid out the plans for Operation Zitadelle, Guderian was adamant about dissuading him from going through. He voiced his concerns, stating that such an operation would decimate the German tank forces – the same ones Guderian worked hard on reforming and rebuilding. Guderian was greatly responsible for fleshing out the advanced Panzer tactics that made German armor such an effective fighting force. However, now he was saying to Hitler that Kursk was not the way the tanks should be utilized, and the basis of the operation was violating two thirds of the rules he laid as essential to a successful tank attack. It seems that Guderian was seeing what Hitler failed to see: the German forces on the Eastern Front were already dangerously thinning; Guderian urged Hitler to conserve them, thinking of a future defense of Western Europe. On May 10th 1943, he met once more with Hitler. In this meeting he is quoted to have said:

“Is it really necessary to attack Kursk, and indeed [to attack] in the east this year at all? Do you think anyone even knows where Kursk is? The entire world does not care if we capture Kursk or not. What is the reason that is forcing us to attack this year at Kursk, or even more, on the Eastern Front?” To this, Hitler replied enigmatically: “I know. The thought of it turns my stomach.” Guderian’s only conclusion to such a statement from his leader was: “In that case your reaction to the problem is the correct one. Leave it alone.” In a sense, this is a huge insight into the traits of Adolf Hitler as a strategist, tactician and a military leader – it seems that he was often driven on a whim, seeking glory and pertaining to “dreams” of a glorious and larger-than-life German victory in each offensive, perhaps spurred forward by the still-fresh memory of the decisive German Blitzkrieg victories in , Poland, and the Balkans. Kursk was, however, not Poland – nor . The year was 1943, and opponents began to match German technology and strategy. And Hitler’s blunder at Kursk, his all too eager decision to attack, was a clear evidence of how quickly the war was gaining a modernized, advanced character. The Kursk blunder was in many ways the turning point for in the Second World War – and a negative one. It was an unnecessary waste of men and armor, at an undesirable moment in time. Most simply put, Kursk was how Hitler overplayed his hand. It is perfectly summarized by Heinz Guderian in one of his post-war works. And with his quote, we move on from Kursk to other events that followed. “With the failure of Zitadelle we have suffered a decisive defeat. The armored formations, reformed and reequipped with so much effort, had lost heavily in both men and equipment and would now be unemployable for a long time to come. It was problematical whether they could be rehabilitated in time to defend the Eastern Front. Needless to say the Soviets exploited their victory to the full. There were to be no more periods of quiet on the Eastern Front. From now on, the enemy was in undisputed possession of the initiative.”

Storming Fortress Europa: The Allied Invasion of Italy

BY MID 1943, THE DYNAMIC in the war began to noticeably reverse, with the Allies gaining more and more initiative across the globe. With the Axis forces in North Africa having surrendered on May 13th 1943, the Allies now focused their attention towards mainland Europe. One of the major operations began in June of the same year, with the onset of the Combined Bomber Offensive, CBO for short, which began on June 10th and lasted virtually to the final moments of the war. This was a combined Allied effort to gain aerial supremacy over Europe, and to conduct strategic bombardment of – in a way officially bringing the war to their doorstep for the first time since the start. Bombing would have achieved a string of tactical advantages that would weaken it and pave way for the planned invasion of Europe via Normandy. The Combined Bomber Offensive targeted long range V-rocket positions, industrial centers, major rail yards and railroads, factories, oil and petroleum installations, and a variety of other targets. However, cities and civilian population - perhaps inadvertently – became targets as well. The result was a huge loss of civilian life in , whose final tally at the end of the war would far sur the loss of life on many battlefields and occupied nations. One of the initial actions of this aerial offensive was also the most infamous as well. It was the Firebombing of Hamburg, a major German industrial center of the time. A historic Hanseatic port city, Hamburg was the pulsating heart of the German industry, and contained a variety of shipyards, U-boat pens, oil refineries, ordnance depots, and other industry targets. The Allies chose to name their operation Gomorrah, taking inspiration from the Bible quote: "Then the Lord rained brimstone and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah, from the Lord out of the heavens." (Genesis, 19:24). This was a fitting title, as the bombing was not conducted with use of “traditional” ammo. Instead, it was fire-bombing, using incendiary bombs. The result was a catastrophic attack that left the world stunned by its sheer brutality. In many ways, the firebombing of Hamburg sured the later Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in many aspects. Because the Allied bombers didn’t just hit the industrial targets – but also everything else in this second-largest German city. It was thoroughly annihilated. Fire bombing differed in many ways from the usual high explosive attack: in this case the victims often burned to death. As the bombing progressed, the sheer

devastation and the flames spiraled out of control, culminating in a firestorm. A tornadic fire arose with infernal winds that gained up to 150 miles per hour speeds (250 kilometers per hour), rising into the air as far as 300 meters (1,000 feet) and reaching temperatures of 800 degrees Celsius (1,470 Fahrenheit). It was truly a devastation of Biblical proportions – something that world has not seen before. It utterly devastated the city of Hamburg in its entirety, and caused more than 58,000 civilian deaths, with close to 200,000 other casualties. The event was later appropriately called the Hiroshima of . The momentum that the Allies were gaining was further defined by the growing unrests in Italy: Mussolini’s Fascist utopia was beginning to slowly crumble. With the war going terribly for the Italians, the King of Italy and Benito Mussolini began feuding. Greatly disappointed by the disastrous flow of the war up to that point, Mussolini made radical changes within the fascist government, removing key people who he claimed harbored greater loyalty to the King than to the Fascist regime. All the while, King Emmanuel III was growing highly critical of Mussolini’s war, and described these new acts as hostile towards the King. This sowed great discontent amongst the top ranking fascists, who began plotting of removing Mussolini from rule and playing to a different tune. These plots were the leading contributor to the future fall of Fascism in Italy. These plots that run side-by-side from the King and the top Fascists, resulted in the vote against Benito Mussolini, on 25th July 1943. The result of this was his arrest on that same day, and his confinement in the remote island of Ponza. The effects of this plot and the arrest were disastrous, plunging Italy towards certain – and quite chaotic – defeat in the war. On the same day, Hitler received news of the plot and the arrest of Mussolini, and was wracked with anger. Furthermore, the newly formed government of Italy switched sides, g the Armistice of Cassibile on September 3rd 1943. However, this did not stop the Germans from reacting in a way so iconic for them – lightning fast and vicious. In September that same year, Hitler personally ordered a daring paratrooper mission that would free Benito Mussolini from his imprisonment. In a film-like operation, elite SS commandoes and paratroopers discovered the whereabouts of the deposed dictator and rescued him in what was called the Gran Sasso Raid. Immediately after, starting on 8th September, the Germans invaded Italy with the aim of disarming its army: this they managed in record time – just 11 days. Over a million Italian troops were disarmed in these

few days, and its military virtually ceased to exist. Subsequently, most of Italy was occupied by the Germans and a puppet state was created: the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana, Repubblica di Salò), a “second chance” at a Fascist state led by Mussolini. However, with the impending Allied invasion and the confusion into which Italy was plunged, the nation would remain deeply divided and devastated until the end of the war. But one thing was obvious, even then: the defeat of the Axis forces in North Africa, and the subsequent Allied invasion of Sicily were the final nails in the coffin of Fascism – it would never again recover. After the successful Allied Invasion of Sicily – which contributed to the fall of the Fascist regime – Allies could now divert their attention to mainland Italy, at last properly storming the so-called Fortress Europa. With Malta being secured in the early war, the British RAF had the perfect base of operations with which to secure dominance of the skies. This was one of the crucial contributors to their victory in the Invasion of Sicily in 1943. This, and the skillful combination of amphibious landings and the strategic use of tanks by the US General Patton was the key to Allied success. In early September 1943, the British began their amphibious landings in Italy, beginning the Operation Baytown. However, the action did not result in a major clash of forces – the Germans expected the main thrust of the invasion to come at Salerno, and thus decided to move back further inland, delaying the British advances through sabotage and bridge demolition. What is more, the newly announced armistice between Italy and the Allies – mentioned in detail above – caused the majority of German troops in Italy to be occupied with handling the Italian army, leaving a smaller force than needed to oppose the Allies. The very next day though, the American forces began their Operation Avalanche, landing at Salerno. It was the first major clash between Germans and Americans on mainland Italian soil. Heavy fighting for the Salerno beachheads ensued over several days, which caused large American casualties, due to the repeated counter attacks from the Axis forces. However, by the end of the operation, and the beaches secured, the American 5th army continued their relentless drive towards the major Italian port city of Naples. In the meanwhile, the British 8th Army under Montgomery was making a rapid advance from their initial landing at the “toe” of Italy. General Montgomery made a cunning and accurate prediction that the Operation Baytown would in essence fail as a distraction – and it was exactly what happened, the Americans facing stiff resistance as the result. Nevertheless, the British 8th Army advanced over 480 kilometers (300

miles) inland, facing no opposition other than German engineer obstacles, which served as a delaying action. Eventually they managed to unite with the 1st Airborne Division around September 16th, near the Adriatic Coast, and from there captured major airfields near the town of Foggia in Apulia, on September 27th. This was a key strategic victory for the Allies – as were most sizeable airfield captures: it gave them a key advantage in air. Naples fell on October 1st, 1943, and five days later the Volturno river was reached. This was a milestone in the advance up to that point, as the river was a natural border and established the perfect defense line, securing all their acquisitions from counter offensives. With further British advances, southern portion of the Italian peninsula was secured by mid October 1943. The next objective that awaited them was the Volturno Line, known also as the Viktor Line for the Germans. This was the first (southernmost) in a series of prepared defensive positions, which stretched across the entire peninsula and all the way to Rome, in succession. However, the Germans didn’t have the intention of stopping their advance at this point per se. Instead, each new defense line was intended to delay and wear out the invading Allies, until they would reach the final defensive position south of Rome. And that is where the first major challenge in Italy lay for the Allies. Advancing through the three southernmost defense lines proved to be an enormous task, just as envisioned by the defending Germans. They were well dug in, seasoned soldiers, and the Allies were engulfed in a dragged out war of attrition. It took them until the middle of January 1944 to finally break through the Volturno, Barbara, and Bernhardt defensive lines, reaching the first major obstacle – the advanced Gustav Line. And it was here that one of the defining battles of the Italian Campaign occurred – the Battle of Monte Cassino. Perched on a hilltop promontory, the historic Abbey of Monte Cassino acted as a key strategic fortress for the Axis powers – and dominated the key paths towards Rapido and Liri valleys, and subsequently the approach to Rome. It was the most fortified part of the Gustav line, and would cost the Allies so much as they attempted to storm these defenses. Lasting from January to mid May 1944, the battle was the crucial engagement on the Allied way to the Italian capital. However, a lot of confusion marked the initial stages of this battle. The German positions at the abbey itself were very light at the beginning – unbeknownst to the Allies. Some positions on the slopes directly below it were all that stood

between it and the Allies. But the sporadic artillery barrages that rained down from its direction, made the Allied commanders to deduce that it is used as the observation point by the Germans, allowing them to pinpoint the Allied positions with uncanny precision. This caused for the ensuing bitter struggle and bombardment of this historic abbey by the Allies. They rained over 1,400 tons of high explosive bombs on it, reducing it to a ghastly shell, but this had no lasting effect on the German troops. Instead, the rubble created from the bombardment made for a perfect base for fortification, and was occupied by German paratroopers – they dug in and made the perfect perimeter. In the space of a couple of months, these positions – and the rest of the Gustav Line – were attacked four times by the Allies. Each time the success varied, and Monte Cassino held. The battle was one of sheer struggle and devastation in the rugged hilltop terrain and the rubble of the former abbey. Nevertheless, the perseverance of the Allies paid off – on May 16th 1944, the men of the Polish 2nd Corps in British Service were the ones to launch the final assault on Monte Cassino. It fell by May 18th. It was a victory for the Allies – but at a great cost. Attacking the heavily fortified positions resulted in over 55,000 Allied casualties, while the Germans suffered only 20,000 dead and wounded.

The Ferocious Steel: Armored Warfare in the Second World War and Its Development

ONE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY designs of the First World War, the tank truly found its place in the modern setting of World War Two. The experiences of the previous decades allowed tank designers to explore the concept and come up with new and advanced designs, some of which would thoroughly change the nature of warfare. New doctrines were developed, and the role of the tank as an armored fighting vehicle was adapted for various roles. At the onset of World War Two, almost all combatants boasted their own designs – some good, some bad. Undoubtedly, came on top with their superior designs that successfully combined sufficient armor protection, good armament, and good crew layout. However, achieving this balance, they sacrificed numbers of vehicles produced. Here, they were overshadowed by the industrial giant that was the Soviet Union, whose tanks boasted both good capabilities and an unparalleled supremacy in numbers. During the course of the war, the tank became a decisive factor in numerous campaigns and battles, and new models were constantly introduced, improved, and retired. In this chapter, we will touch up on some of the most successfully designs of the war, many of which make for an iconic symbol of this historic era. The experiences in the Great War showed the true worth of a fully enclosed, armed and armored fighting vehicle. Although it was originally designed with the intent to minimize the cost of life in mass infantry charges, and to cross trenches and barbed wire obstacles, the tank showed a much wider array of possibilities. The first and foremost was the fear. The approach of a hulking, impenetrable, and unstoppable steel machine was a new and unexpected thing for the common infantryman of the Great War. Without proper anti-tank capability, the basic soldier will often flee in face of an approaching tank formation – having no viable way to fight it. Another novelty that the concept of the tank introduced is the ability of swift, maneuverable, and fierce strikes at key strategic positions. With the design of the tanks becoming lighter and faster, so did its strategic worth increase. The ability to exploit gaps and storm weak defense points was a big advantage. And so it was that in the post-war years, all major powers got busy developing tank concepts that would redefine the military industry and the methods of future warfare.

While the early tank design was slow, prone to mechanical breakdowns, and had limited distance to travel, the tanks of the early and late 1930’s largely removed these issues. In the United States, Walter Christie stood out as one of the foremost tank designers of his time, whose innovations dictated many of the tanks to later emerge. His unique Christie suspension was a revolutionary breakthrough in tank design, and allowed these vehicles to easily tackle crosscountry obstacles at much greater speeds. Starting with early concept designs in 1928 and following years, his innovation became a great success. It was manufactured under license by many major powers, some of which later abandoned the design, while others relied mostly on it. The Soviet Union, for example, relied early on exclusively on Christie suspension. Their BT tanks, were light, extremely fast, and well armed for the time. In the United Kingdom, tank doctrine was somewhat different than in other countries, and characterized by a specific classification of intended roles. The British separated their designs into several branches: the Cruiser tanks were meant to be light and maneuverable, designed to “cruise” the battlefield and exploit gaps and execute fast flanking attacks. The Infantry tanks on the other hand were designed to be heavily armored, for which speed would be sacrificed. Often armed with large caliber howitzers and HE ammo, they were intended to match the pace of infantry and offer critical in their attacks. One of the foremost tank designers in Britain was the Vickers-Armstrongs Company, whose innovations in the field resulted in reliable tank concepts. One such was the Vickers 6-ton, a balanced tank design that offered a viable and potent fighting weapon to many nations around the world. It subsequently saw great refinement, producing notable vehicles of the early war, such as the Soviet T-26. Carden Loyd was another influential tank deg duo from Britain. Their main focus was on tankettes – light, small, and maneuverable little tanks that could suit a variety of basic roles. The Carden-Loyd tankette became a great success, and served as the base model for many subsequent tank designs around the world. The Universal Carrier is one of the best known derivatives of this concept. Surprisingly enough, Czechoslovakia also played a huge role in the history of the tank design. Their pre-war years were marked by a huge success in tankette and light tank deg, with a host of reliable prototypes coming to light. These tanks were designed and produced mostly by ČKD, Škoda, and Praga, and boasted some of the very best designs in Europe. But after falling into German

hands, these companies were employed in producing their models for the German army – their highly reliable designs such as the ČKD Lt. vz. 38, a fourman light tank, became the staple of the German tank corps in the early war. In the Great War, the French Renault FT became the defining tank design for all future concepts. However, in the Second World War, their tank deg noticeably lacked in quality when compared to all their neighbors. French tank industry was marked by numerous unorthodox features, such as the emphasis on two-man tanks, budget solutions, and heavy, cast steel construction. They were also limited by competing manufacturers, each one offering a different and unreliable design, which didn’t help the situation. Renault, Hotchkiss, FCM, SOMUA, AMX, FAMH,APX, and others all competed to find the perfect tank design for . The end result was far from perfect, but even so, boasted one of the largest tank armies at the onset of war. And while just a few of the many designs were capable of an effective role in combat, most were prone to mechanical failure, were either too small or too large, and relied on some unorthodox design features. Without a doubt, had one of the best tank armies in the world at the time. Beginning with clandestine designs and limited production, and rapidly expanding their designs with reliable innovations, the Germans managed to achieve a perfected balance in many of their influential designs. Led by companies such as Alkett, MAN, Krupp, Daimler-Benz, Rheinmetall-Borsig and others, it managed to refine some of the popular designs in Europe and come up with their own unique concepts. While relying on captured Czech tanks early in the war, they quickly supplanted them with their own successful designs. The reliable chassis and suspension of their light Panzer III tank design served as a basis for new concepts – the Sturmgeschütz assault gun was instrumental for infantry early on, and the foremost anti-tank weapon of the later war. During the course of the war, new designs came to the front. The Germans boasted the best anti-tank weapons in use, such as the 7.5 cm KwK 40, and the fearsome 8.8 cm KwK 36, and modern, reliable solutions in every regard. They perfected the role of “tank hunters”, mobile and well armed fighting vehicles with a large caliber gun in a fixed casemate. This design was the chief threat for the conventional tank. Moreover, the Germans relied on use of thick armor – their iconic Tiger I design was for a time the bane of any enemy tank on the battlefield.

Without a doubt, the tank became the iconic new weapon of the Second World War. Successful designs were developed continuously, and features were improved until they became perfect near the end of the war. Some relied on numbers, others on armor, while some boasted great firepower. However, the most successful ones combined all the features into a single, potent killing weapon. It is often fascinating just how far the design of the tank moved in such a short time. From the late 1930’s to the 1945, the basic concept evolved beyond the original scope – suring the dreams of all who laid its foundations. And in the decades after the war, tanks continued to be the backbone of every modern world army.

The Beginning of the End: Invasion of Western Europe

IN MID 1944, THE ALLIED pressure finally reached an all-time high. As the idea of invasion of Western Europe was in the works ever since 1942, and always hurried by the Soviet pleas for a second front, the Allies finally embarked on this historic crusade to turn the tides of war for good. And what was to ensue was one of the most celebrated operations in military history, a strategic operation on a massive scale that began a final thrust into with only a single aim – to bring the war to an end. Known to many as the D-Day and Operation Overlord, the invasion of Western Europe was the largest seaborne invasion in world history. The plans were began in 1943, with several possible locations considered as the landing point: Brittany, Normandy, Pas-de-Calais, and the Cotentin Peninsula. However, after careful consideration, Normandy came out as the most strategically viable solution. The ensuing Operation Overlord was then split into several operational phases. At its start were the amphibious landings – split over several beaches, the American, British, and Canadian forces would embark in order to secure a major foothold from which further operations were to be conducted. Along with this, the Allies once more relied on air superiority – gaining dominance in air was crucial to protect the troops on the ground and disrupt the German supply lines. Furthermore, the Allies relied on elaborate and far-reaching deceptions, seeking to give the Germans false information and catch them by surprise when the day of the invasion finally came. Besides this, the Allies sought to rely on paratroopers in significant numbers. They would land before the landings in enemy territory, attempting to secure key bridges in the vicinity of the landings and provide a clear line of advance. This was testament to the complexity of the Operation Overlord, and its cost in manpower and supplies. However, the success of the attack relied on one more thing – the weather. Choosing the right moment to attack was crucial for the outcome. After a lot of consideration and observation of the conditions, it was agreed that June 5th 1944 was to be the ideal date for attack. However, by the time of the invasion, on June 4th, the weathers were highly unfavorable, with high seas and high winds. This postponed the invasion to June 6th. Amongst the most iconic aspects of the Operation Overlord were certainly the

airborne operations of the American paratroopers – many of which would become symbolic with the invasion of Western Europe. What’s more, the paratrooper operations on D-Day were instrumental for its success. Operating in enemy territory, these elite soldiers had a multitude of task, all of which would help to minimize the option of enemy counter attacks, seizing key strategic objectives, as well as to help expand the area of the beachheads by attacking the German defenses from the rear. By far the most iconic of all paratroopers involved in the operation were the American soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division, whose bravery and deeds were often depicted in media. Iconic even more is the war paint of these soldiers – they headed off into battle laden with paratrooper supplies, their heads shaved in the style of Mohawk Natives, and their faces adorned with colorful face paints. Before the invasion began on June 6th, the atmosphere in the troop carriers crossing the English Channel was without a doubt tense and full of anticipation. It was also immortalized by a historic statement to soldiers, penned by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe, Dwight Eisenhower. The contents of this letter became a symbol of hope and raised morale for the Allied soldiers who faced their unknown fate. And it would be included in history books ever since. “Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force! You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world. Your task will not be an easy one. Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and battle-hardened. He will fight savagely. But this is the year 1944! Much has happened since the Nazi triumphs of 1940–41. The United Nations have inflicted upon the Germans great defeats, in open battle, man-to-man. Our air offensive has seriously reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage war on the ground. Our Home Fronts have given us an overwhelming superiority in weapons and munitions of war, and placed at our disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The tide has turned! The free men of the world are marching together to

Victory! I have full confidence in your courage, devotion to duty and skill in battle. We will accept nothing less than full Victory! Good Luck! And let us all beseech the blessing of Almighty God upon this great and noble undertaking.” On June 6th, the Americans were to land at beaches codenamed Utah and Omaha, with the 4th Infantry Division and the 1st & 29th Infantry Divisions, respectively. The British 50th Infantry Division was to land at Gold, and the 3rd Infantry and 6th Airborne Divisions at Sword. The Canadian 3rd Infantry Division was to land at Juno. At Utah Beach, the American soldiers didn’t land at the agreed position – the strong currents shifted their landing further to the south. However, this accidentally proved to be a more ideal solution. The soldiers disembarked in waves, with the infantry assault followed by disembarking tanks, and afterwards the engineer and demolition troops, who were tasked with removing a dense network of obstacles. By noon, the main opposition at this sector was disabled, and the great majority of the troops landed safely – some 21,000 of them. There were a total of 197 casualties at Utah. However, Omaha Beach was different experience, as it was the most heavily defended one. The aerial bombardment preceding the invasion had little effect on this sector, which left the German defenses largely intact. Moreover, the Americans didn’t expect to be facing an entire division, but rather a regiment. The ensuing landing at Omaha was thus a disaster. Strong currents led the landing crafts of course, and many of them got stuck on raised sandbars as they approached the shore – all while under heavy enemy fire. The Germans rained artillery and machine gun fire from their positions above. Men from the stuck crafts were forced to disembark in neck-deep cold waters, and then to wade for a 100 meters to reach the beach. However, burdened by their heavy equipment and under constant fire, many lost their lives attempting to do so. Numerous beach obstacles prevented the American armor for effectively landing on shore, and clearing the obstacles was next to impossible due to heavy enemy fire. It wasn’t until noon that day that the Americans managed to make some noticeable progress, mainly due to the fact that the German’s were suppressed by artillery fire from American destroyers off shore, and because they were running out of ammo. Nevertheless, the objectives for Omaha Beach were completed fully only 3 days later. Landing here was a costly affair, and one of the grizzly moments for the American men – they had 2,000 casualties.

Likewise, landings at Gold, Juno, and Sword beaches were costly in casualties as well – but not as costly as Omaha. At Gold, the British lost roughly a 1,000 men, and on Sword that same number. The Canadians at Juno suffered around 960 casualties. These landings were characterized by a prolonged fighting for a series of strong points, as well as the heavy use of the so-called Hobart’s Funnies. These were unique, specialist tank designs that were adapted for a variety of roles, many of them suitable for an amphibious landing. The so-called DD tanks were the foremost of these – a design that allowed them to wade deep water and basically sail onto the shore to fight effectively. Other designs included the Churchill Crocodile flame throwing tank, the bridge layer designs, bunkerbusting high caliber AVRE tanks, and so forth. They were instrumental in ing the troops on shore. Nevertheless, the Normandy landings were not a complete success early on. A majority of the pre-established objectives was not achieved, and major objectives – like the cities of St. Lo, Bayeux, Caen and Carentan, all remained unconquered. It wasn’t until 21st of July, 15 days later, that the major town of Caen was captured. However, the Normandy landings succeeded in gaining a major foothold for the Allies – a “base of operations” from which they could gradually expand their control and work their way inland over the next period. Elsewhere during this time, the Germans suffered further setbacks. In , the Operation Valkyrie saw treachery of Hitler’s closest officers – who plotted to assassinate him. This resulted in the failed attempt at his life, when a bomb was planted at his Wolf’s Lair headquarters: the explosion did almost no harm to him, and only served to greatly enrage him and give him a chance to purge his ranks of suspicious figures. Furthermore, the summer of 1944 saw the rise of the Warsaw Uprising, a 63 days of vicious fighting in the city of Warsaw in occupied Poland, led by the Polish resistance. In the end, the Germans gained victory, but it was one of the major setbacks, and further contributed to their later collapse in the East. This collapse was hastened by a series of Soviet offensives on the Eastern Front, of which the largest one was arguably the Operation Bagration, which almost entirely annihilated the German Army Group Centre. Operation Bagration was a massive scale offensive that dwarfed any such operation conducted during the war – with more than 2.3 million men fielded, it was the largest offensive that the Allies conducted to up to that point. And it also goes to prove that the Soviets had an almost inexhaustible source of manpower.

Ever since the iconic operation Barbarossa, the German Army Group Center was one of the fiercest fighting forces in the Eastern Front – and the major thorn in the side of the German Generals. However, Operation Bagration was the hammer that would obliterate that threat once and for all. It was the defining offensive of the summer of 1944, and a terrible blow for the already weakened German forces in the East. Once more, the Soviets relied on strength in numbers over anything else. For Bagration they fielded roughly 2.5 million men, 6,000 tanks, and 8,000 aircraft – a force not before witnessed. In comparison the German Army Group Center that stood facing them numbered only a little over one million men, and had at their disposal about 1,330 tanks and assault guns, and around 1,000 aircraft. And although the Soviets again utilized their deep battle tactics, this time they added another dimension to it, which helped them catch the Germans off guard. Around June 19th 1944, the mostly-Belarusian partisans conducted a series of sabotage operations deep behind enemy lines, which impacted German supply lines and communications. These preliminary actions were followed by extensive Soviet aerial attacks over the following days. And after this, Bagration commenced. It is important to note that the Soviets interestingly chose the anniversary of the German Operation Barbarossa to begin their attack. The operation commenced on June 23rd, under the cover of darkness, and took the Germans fully by surprise. The Soviets’ main objectives were centered in Belorussia, with the goal of encircling the main elements of the German army. Just five days later, the 3rd Panzer Army, the 9th, and the 4th armies have been destroyed. The Soviet tactic relied on mass spearhead charges over a wide front – in many separate places. This allowed for the implement of the deep battle strategy, which helped them to move swiftly and isolate pockets of enemy units behind them. This was perfectly exemplified when on July 3rd, 1944, the Soviets captured Minsk and captured over 100,000 German soldiers in the encirclement. However, there was another important strategy utilized by the Soviets, and it worked like a charm. It was known as maskirovka (roughly, “camouflage”), and was an intricate system of deception. They spread false intelligence in days prior to the operation, which all indicated that the offensive was aimed in the south – against Ukraine and Army Group South. And the German command fully believed these deceptions, to such an extent as to send further tanks from their reserves to the northern Ukraine. The encirclement of the German army around Minsk, and their capture on July

4th, effectively ended German military presence in Belarus, allowing the Soviets to proceed with further invasions towards Poland, Lithuania, and Romania. This allowed them to launch another decisive offensive by the end of July, known as Lvov-Sandomierz Offensive, which forced the German army out of Eastern Poland. By August 19th, Bagration was over, and the Soviets gained a major foothold in Eastern Poland. The ferocity and the swiftness of this offensive, as well as the sheer amount of Soviet troops in action, forced a speedy collapse of the German Army Group Centre, and with it almost complete collapse of the Eastern Front as it was.

A Bridge Too Far: Operation Market Garden

AFTER THE INITIAL OPERATIONS in , after the Normandy Landings, the time came for a new offensive in Western Europe. This time, it was the socalled Operation Market Garden, ingeniously envisioned by the venerated Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery – Britain’s celebrated military mastermind. Fought between 17th and 25th September 1944, Market Garden was however an operational failure for the Allies. Nevertheless, it was a crucial operation in the later stages of the war in Western Europe, and proved that even with the defeat looming, the German soldiers were still a fearsome fighting force. After suffering a series of critical defeats after the Normandy Landings, the Germans were on a rapid retreat out of and towards the German border. Arguably the most crucial of these defeats was the Falaise Pocket. In this decisive engagement of the Normandy Campaign, the Allies succeeded in encircling the German Army Group B, and the 7th Army and the 5th Panzer Army, inflicting terrible casualties as the desperate Germans attempted to flee the encirclement through the Falaise Gap that they kept open. The result was utter devastation – 10,000 German soldiers were killed, while over 50,000 were captured. And now, Montgomery sought to invade the Low Countries and create a deep salient far forward into the German territory. Through it, the plan was to establish a bridge head over the Rhine River – resulting in a major path for invading Northern . This plan was tactically sound, and ed by both the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt. However, while on paper it was sound, in the field things didn’t go as planned – as is the possibility with all military operations. In order to complete their objective of creating the salient and reaching the Rhine, the Allies needed to swiftly capture nine key bridges in enemy territory – by utilizing their airborne troops. Once these bridges were captured, infantry could proceed. Thus it was that the backbone of Market Garden was the First Allied Airborne Army, a formation freshly formed on August 2nd 1944. On the land, the British Second Army’s XXX Corps was utilized. It was up to that point, the largest airborne operation of the entire war. And although lasting for roughly 8 days and ending in failure to achieve its objectives, Market Garden still brought some gains to the Allies. Chief amongst those are the liberation of numerous towns in the Netherlands, including the two major cities – Nijmegen

and Eindhoven. The Allies also penetrated deep into German territory, creating a 97 kilometer deep salient. Nevertheless, they failed to achieve their main objective – crossing the Rhine. And with that, their goal of ending the war by Christmas 1944 became unattainable. As mentioned, this was one of the largest airborne operations ever, with the allies utilizing new, pioneering aerial technologies, of which the main was use of gliders. Their main attribute was versatility, and allowed for deployment in locations in enemy territory. The goal of these airborne troops was, as mentioned, the securing of nine main bridges on the road to Rhine. These were the main three bridges across rivers Meuse, Lower Rhine, and Waal, an also six more bridge over canals and small tributary rivers. The other branch of the operation was reserved for the ground forces. The XXX Corps was accompanied by around 5,000 vehicles – many of which were tanks. The initial operations of Market Garden achieved mixed results – a number of bridges were captured early on, but the airborne troops then failed to seize further objectives. This caused a major delay in the advance of the XXX Corps. Further delays kept repeating – the American 82nd Airborne Division did not succeed at seizing a crucial bridge over River Waal before the appointed date of 20th September, causing the XXX corps to fight for it themselves. Meanwhile, the British paratroopers were holding out in a desperate struggle at the Arnhem bridge – the XXX Corps was supposed to aid them, but instead they were caught up at Waal crossings. From 17th to 26th September, the Battle of Arnhem erupted at the vanguard of the operation. It turned out to be the most devastating engagement of the Market Garden, and severely challenged the Allied Airborne troops, inflicting many casualties. Both in Arnhem and around it – in Oosterbeek – fighting was centered on vicious door-to-door urban engagements, devastating the Dutch villages and inflicting civilian casualties as well. The Arnhem bridge was captured early on, but subjected to ferocious attacks and pressures from the Germans, against which the small British paratrooper detachment fought desperately to holt back. However, due to the early delays of the XXX Corps, they could not be relieved on time, and ultimately surrendered on September 21st.

Ultimately, it was becoming clear that Market Garden was an operational failure – the main objective was not met, and the Allies could not cross over the River Rhine. It wouldn’t be crossed until March 1945, several months later. Casualties were quite high in this operation, if we consider its very short duration. The Allies suffered over 17,000 casualties, and lost roughly 88 tanks in just 8 days of fighting. In comparison, the Germans suffered close to 8,000 casualties, and lost 30 tanks.

The Last Desperate Fight: Battle of the Bulge

IN THE WINTER OF 1944, the Germans decided to play their final gamble. It was certainly a well thought out plan, and had its merits: Hitler planned to launch a major offensive through the dense forests of the Ardennes in east of Belgium and in Luxembourg, through which he would penetrate deep into Belgium, denying the Allies use of the Antwerp port. With that, the plan was to effectively split the Allied forces into two halves, by which the Germans could encircle and devastate the four Allied armies and force them to negotiate a favorable peace. This counter offensive was perhaps Hitler’s final plan to turn the tide of the war in his favor and remain in the play. But what ensued next was one of the fiercest battles of the whole war, and without a doubt the bloodiest battle for the Americans, and the third deadliest campaign in the entire American history. The counter offensive began on December 16th 1944. Under the cover of an early morning mist, the Germans achieved the element of surprise, taking the Americans unawares. Their initial attacks relied on roughly 410,000 men, with a large emphasis on mechanization – over 1,400 tanks and tank destroyers were utilized. Adding to this the latter reinforcements, it is clear that this was Hitler’s last decisive attempt to turn his fortune for the better. The American troops stationed here were roughly four divisions – battle-weary and without any expectation of an attack. Their lack of preparedness was further cemented due to bad weather – reconnaissance was thus minimal. So it was, that when they faced the full force of the German initial attack, casualties were dreadfully high. In the initial attack, the American frontlines were pierced by the Germans after a single day of vicious combat. The Germans managed to seize critical crossroads and penetrate deeply – once again creating a prominent salient, i.e. a “bulge”, from which the battle gains its name. However, they too were greatly hampered by the heavy snowfall, which limited their movements and reconnaissance possibilities. Reacting to the counter offensive, the supreme commander of the Allied forces, Dwight Eisenhower, promptly bolstered the frontlines with reinforcements, attempting to hold the German advance in place. Soon enough, the Germans began to slow down, experiencing hard fighting near the town of Bastogne, and between Monschau and Elsenborn Ridge. These contested points prevented the Germans from fully achieving their initial objective, as the roads that lay beyond

them remained blocked. As the Americans recuperated from the initial surprise, the famous Lieutenant General George S. Patton began the first American counter attacks in the north of the bulge, aiming to flank the Germans. And as the harsh winter weather began subsiding, Americans could once more rely on their air . This was one of the major contributing facts that led to the eventual failure of Hitler’s counter offensive. Meanwhile, the combined forces of the American paratroopers of the 101st Airborne Division – the famous “Screaming Eagles” – with the assistance of tanks and tank destroyers, fought off continuous German attacks in the strategically important crossroads of St. Vith and Bastogne. One interesting story from the Battle of the Bulge belongs here, and simply cannot be overlooked – as it is the crucial insight into the morale of the American troops and their fervent devotion to fight against all odds. By 21st December 1944, the town of Bastogne – a key strategic point – was fully surrounded by the Germans. The Americans within the town were outnumbered, outgunned, and short on supplies, which resulted in some ferocious fighting around the city’s perimeter. But still, the Americans held out. This prompted the German commander, Lieutenant General von Lüttwitz, to request the surrender of the town. Hearing this, the American commander, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe simply responded: “Nuts!” His subordinates chose to convey this as the official reply, sending the German command an official response which simply stated: “To the German Commander: NUTS! The American Commander.” This served as a huge morale booster for the Americans at Bastogne, who prided themselves on the “Nuts!” exclamation and chose to fight on. Bastogne held out and was not conquered by the Germans in the end. By 27th December 1944, it was becoming obvious that Hitler’s Ardennes offensive was not a success. And by January 1945, the German salient began shrinking noticeably. The Americans kept up the pressure on the sides of the bulge, often hampered by snowfall, and successively defeated two smaller counterattacks by the trapped 2nd Panzer Division, who sought to break out. By late January, the original frontline was restored, with worn out, decimated

German formations falling back towards and the Siegfried Line. This was the final of Hitler’s major offensives – and in a way it cost him everything. His resources and troops on the Western Front took an enormous toll and were effectively depleted by the action. At best, he managed to delay the planned offensives of the Allies by roughly six weeks, making no difference in the end. On the other hand, the American victory was greatly hailed by the Allied powers, and their ability to withstand such a ferocious attack and recuperate against odds was very irable. Churchill famously declared that the Battle of the Bulge was “...undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war and will, I believe, be regarded as an ever-famous American victory”.

But even though it was an Allied success, it came at a great cost. Battle of the Bulge was a notoriously bloody engagement, having an enormous cost of life. The Americans suffered roughly 89,500 casualties, while for the Germans this number came close to 98,000. For roughly a month of fighting, this number is a catastrophic insight into the viciousness of such a desperate offensive.

Into the Lair of the Wolf: Crossing the Rhine

CROSSING THE RHINE was undoubtedly the chief objective of the Allies after defeating the German counter offensive in the Ardennes. By doing so, entrance into Western would be opened to the Allies, and the overwhelming of the remaining German Armies would be finalized. However, gaining the Rhine crossings was a task in itself, as the Germans too were aware of its strategic worth. Operation Plunder was thus the plan created by the British Field Marshal Montgomery – the operation of t Allied Forces, involving Canadians, British, and Americans – to cross the northern portions of the Rhine and pour into Northern . To help with the action on the ground, the Allies launched a “sub-operation”, known as Operation Varsity, which had for its objective the disruption of enemy defenses, conduct operations behind enemy frontlines, and to secure key bridges and positions. Varsity involved the dropping of over 16,000 paratroopers, and was one of the largest airborne operations in military history. It was a success and the crucial contributor to the later success of the Rhine Crossings. As a whole, the Allied Invasion of began on March 22nd, 1945. First to attempt the crossing of the Rhine was the US 12th Army Group, which began the crossing under the cover of night. The resistance on the opposite bank was sporadic, varying at different positions, since the Germans noticeably lacked in equipment, manpower, and morale as well. By March 25th, a substantial bridgehead was carved out on the West bank of the river, and Allies kept ferrying across armor and men. By the end of March, the Allies secured the Rhine crossings and poured into , further signaling the fact that the Allied victory in the war was inevitable. Hitler’s desperate gamble at the Ardennes left him largely powerless to resist the Allied invasion. However, the remainder of the armies would not go down without a fight – combat in the cities and villages of German was utterly ferocious, some of the hardest and most violent fighting of the war up to that point. Casualties near the end would mount to hundreds of thousands. Civilians too suffered greatly, both at the hands of the invaders, and as victims of the fighting. Furthermore, the Allies crossed the Rhine in a pincer movement – to the north and south, and in that way they trapped the German Army Group B in the Ruhr pocket. Between March 29th and April 4th 1945, the army was fully encircled, and its defeat gained the Allies control over the vital German Ruhr Industrial complex. Elsewhere in Europe, the turn of events was catastrophic for the rest of the Axis

forces – in the Pacific the Americans turned the tides of the war, encroaching on the Japanese mainland, while the Soviets steadily kept their pace of advancing towards , liberating Yugoslavia, and advancing all the way to Vienna by April 1945. Furthermore, in Italy, the Fascist leader Benito Mussolini was about to meet his fate. Realizing that his and the Axis’ war was certainly lost, Mussolini attempted to escape. Together with his mistress, Claretta Petacci, he was captured by Italian communist partisans while attempting to flee to Switzerland. He was seized in a village in northern Italy, called Dongo, on the shores of Lake Como. They were executed on April 28th, 1945 in the nearby village of Giulino. Their bodies were then transported to Milan, where they were hung upside down at the main city square, and abused and lynched by an angry mob. The extent of the abuse left their bodies badly mangled and virtually unrecognizable. Thus ended the Fascist dictator, Il Duce Benito Mussolini. Meanwhile the Soviet Army marched steadily onwards. In early March 1945, Hitler launched a desperate last offensive against the Soviets, aiming to protect his oil reserves in Hungary, chiefly around Lake Balaton, and to retake Budapest. Known as the Operation Spring Awakening, it lasted for two weeks but ultimately ended as a German failure, allowing the Soviets to exploit the situation and continue their march towards Vienna. This major counterattack was known as the Vienna Offensive, and quickly overwhelmed the retreating German defenders – mostly through sheer numerical advantage the Soviets had. Defended desperately by the Germans who were running short of virtually everything, Vienna fell on April 13th. Adolf Hitler was enraged by the failure of the operation, and more importantly by the loss of Vienna – which he often regarded as more important to him than Berlin. Following this failure, he issued a command to the commander of the 6th SS Panzer Army – Sepp Dietrich – known as the Armband Order that his SS troops, notably those of the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte, were to remove their SS armbands, as a sign of disgrace. Hitler claimed that they did not fight irably. Sepp Dietrich refused to complete this order, and never issued the command to his troops. Fully aware of the situation in which was, Dietrich joked that his 6th SS Panzer Army is fittingly named, as they “have only six tanks remaining”. With the American advance over the Elbe-Mulde line, and their advance across the Alps – where they captured Hitler’s notorious Berchtesgaden – the end of the war was nearing. In no time the Allied powers were converging on the German capital Berlin, where the last decisive fight of the war was to be led. Hitler was making his last stand.

The Looming End: Battle of Berlin

THE HISTORIC BATTLE of Berlin was preceded by a relentless Soviet advance from the east. Facing Allied advances from virtually every directions, the German armies were on the brink of defeat, but still opted to stand ground in the capital, partially driven by Hitler’s increasingly delusional plans for breakouts, counter offensives, and victory. To all that surrounded him, it was clear that nothing of the sort was possible. Furthermore, the citizens of also believed in Hitler, choosing to fight to the bitter end instead of surrendering. They harbored particular hatred towards Communists, and thus resolved to keep Berlin free of it – by any means possible. One of Hitler’s last desperate orders was the mobilization of the so-called Volkssturm, or the People’s Army, comprised of poorly trained unconscripted men, whose ages ranged between 16 and 60. This, and the use of Hitler Youth children in combat, was the perfect insight into the blind devotion of German citizens to the regime they served. In the east, the Soviets began the crucial offensive over the River Narew, known as the Vistula-Oder Offensive. In a very short amount of time they broke through the enemy defenses and made dazzling breakthroughs to the west, gradually taking Poznan, Danzig, and eventually East Prussia, which placed them even closer to Berlin. For Hitler, the situation was becoming all but hopeless. With the casualties mounting to dazzling numbers, and with supplies reaching an all time low, effective resistance was next to impossible. Most importantly, the Germans lacked fuel. However, when the American President Roosevelt died on April 12th, Hitler hoped that it would cause a rift amongst the Allies, giving him a chance to react, but this did not happen. All the while, the image shown to the general populace and the army was encouraging and positive, even though Hitler’s health was increasingly frail and the situation anything but positive. Hitler would still hand out Iron Cross decorations, mostly to the Volkssturm and Hitler Jugend – some as young as 12. In the meanwhile, the Americans decided not to invade Berlin on the ground. It was already known that the city would fall under the Soviet sphere of influence, and thus it would cost them unnecessary casualties. Instead, they opted for an air attack, conducting the savage Bombardment of Berlin. By April 9th, the Soviets managed to capture the Historic town of Königsberg, allowing further advance by the Soviet armies from Belarus. This brought the total number of Soviet

soldiers converging on Berlin to and incredible 2.3 million men, severely outnumbering the ragged remnants of the German armies. Berlin was slowly being encircled. By the time of Hitler’s birthday on 20th April 1945, Soviets began a relentless artillery bombardment of the town. Even then, Hitler’s birthday was marked, with him once more handing out Iron Crosses to heroic soldiers outside his bunker. At this time he was visibly frail and worn out. All the while he kept issuing illogical orders that increasingly showed his lack of awareness of the situation, often relying on divisions that were no longer active. All around, the situation was turning hopeless, with the remaining German armies unable to put up suitable resistance. Perhaps the last fighting force of the Germans, the IX Army commanded by Colonel General Gotthard Heinrici, was at the brink of being encircled and sought desperately to fall back. When the realization of the situation reached Hitler on April 22nd, he was consumed by rage. The fact that his military plans were unable to come to fruition infuriated him, and he chastised his assembled Generals, blaming them for the war’s failure. Supposedly, he announced to them that he will remain in Berlin and take his own life. The battle then shifted to the city itself, with the Soviet troops converging on the outskirts, attacking at the Tempelhof Airport, the S-Bahn railway, and other approaches to central Berlin. This turned into bitter urban fighting, which further devastated the city, and inflicted many casualties on both sides. As German defenders gradually retreated back towards the center, the Soviets were approaching from several directions, from south, east, and north. Early on April 29th, the Soviets managed to cross the Moltke bridge over the River Spree, which surrounded the Reichstag. This area saw some of the most intense fighting, since the building had immense symbolic significance for the Germans. It took the Soviets until May 2nd to gain full control of it. Meanwhile, hidden in his Führerbunker, Adolf Hitler signed his short, concise last will and testament. He then officially married Eva Braun, his long time partner. The next day, April 30th, he received the information that the last remaining defenders of Berlin were rapidly exhausting their ammunition supplies, indicating the nearing final defeat. Hitler granted permission for the defenders to attempt a breakout from the city – apparently in order for soldiers to save themselves. The previous afternoon, he received the news that Benito Mussolini was executed on the preceding day. These news seemingly struck him

and gave him determination not to be captured alive. As the Soviet troops were closing in on the Reich Chancellery, Hitler and his wife chose to kill themselves rather than be captured. It is most likely that they both bit on cyanide pills and shot themselves simultaneously, although theories suggest that Hitler shot himself while Eva bit on the pill. Nevertheless, their bodies were taken outside the Führerbunker, doused in gasoline, and cremated, burning beyond recognition. Adolf Hitler was dead, and Berlin surrendered on May 2nd. Sporadic fighting continued until the Second World War in Europe ended on May 9th. However, the global conflict was not yet over, and would rage in the Pacific for a few more months, until the Americans utilized their Atomic weapons to decimate mainland Japan and force it out of the war. With that, the Second World War was finished on September 2nd, 1945. It was one of the most devastating conflicts in human history.

In the Wake of War: The Aftermath

THE END OF THE SECOND World War brought the entire world into a wholly new era, changing the political picture of the world from its roots. Without a doubt, the chief change in the world was the establishment of two major world powers, the United States of America, and the Soviet Union – both of which would come to influence the globe, and whose power struggle would later lead to many new conflicts around the globe. In fact, the end of the second world war, was sadly not the end of warfare in the world. Almost continually ever since, there were numerous wars fought around the world, some beginning even as the dust of this devastating global war hasn’t even settled fully. However, immediately after the cessation of hostilities – particularly in Europe – the Allies split their occupation of and Austria. The latter once more became neutral, after being annexed by Hitler before the outbreak of war. however, was split between the Soviets, and the Western Allies. It was divided into two occupation zones, the eastern under Soviet rule, and the western under the Western powers. These two zones would become the separated states of Eastern and Western respectively, after 1949. Immediately after the war, was subjected to an elaborate and lasting process of “denazification” through which all memory of National Socialism was to be eradicated. All those in any way previously associated with National Socialism were promptly removed from any positions of power, and the leading German leaders from the war were trialed for alleged war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials. Those tried at Nuremberg included some of the highest ranking figures from the war, several of whom were sentenced to death, including Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hermann Göring, Joachim Von Ribbentrop, Julius Streicher, and Alfred Rosenberg. Territorial changes after the war were also considerable, especially when previously German territories were considered. Poland gained major additions, including parts of Pomerania and East Prussia, and Silesia and Neumark regions. Ethnic German populations in these regions were subject to expulsion and forced back into proper. There were ethnic German populations all over Europe, including Yugoslavia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia.

However, parts of Poland were also taken by the Soviet Union, which in turn expelled the Poles. Soviet Union also saw great expansion, especially after incorporating the three Baltic nations, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Furthermore, the so-called Eastern Bloc emerged after the war, with numerous satellite states under Soviet influence or direct control. These included the newly formed communist Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, People’s Republic of Albania, People’s Republic of Bulgaria, Romanian People’s Republic, Republic of Hungary, Czechoslovak Republic, Ukrainian SSR, Belarusian SSR, Republic of Poland, and so on. The Allies also formed the United Nations – which we known today – after the end of the war. Its original goal was to maintain world peace: however, there was no peace ever since in numerous parts of the globe. On the other hand, in comparison to the Soviet Communist Eastern Bloc, the Western Allies formed NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, formed in April 1949. These two spheres of the world, for the lack of a better term, would descend into a fierce period of political tensions and all out competition, basically a power struggle. This period is known as the Cold War, a period of tension that would last from 1947 to 1991. Across the globe, numerous wars would erupt over time in the wake of the Second World War, some virtually immediately after. One of the major such conflicts was the Korean war, resulting from the division of Korea into Soviet occupied North and US occupied South. The war lasted from 1950 to 1953. Another crucial conflict was the First Indochina War in Vietnam, pitting French and Vietnamese forces against each other, in a vicious war that would last from 1946 to 1954. The earliest forms of it began even before the Second World War was fully over. In China, the civil war resumed in 1946, between the Nationalist and Communist forces. By 1949 the Communists were victorious, and from that victory emerged the People’s Republic of China. The defeated nationalists retreated to the Island of Taiwan, where they established the Republic of China. The matter is still contested to this day. In the Middle East, after the end of the war the State of Israel was created, giving rise to the heated conflict between Israel and Arab countries. Conflicts began in

1947, and escalated into the First Arab-Israeli War which lasted until 1949. However, hostilities in the region lasted intermittently until 1979 and on. When economy is regarded, many nations involved in the Second World War experienced different results. For example, the United States suffered the effects of the war the least – partly because it was involved outside its mainland territory. The post war era in America is one of the idealistic representations of American society. The 1950’s were marked by a sharp increase in birth rates, and a very high GDP. Its industry entered a golden era, and America dominated the world economy. The image of the nuclear family was perfectly exemplified in the average American family of the 1950’s. However, this ideal façade hid something far uglier – the United States’ young men were once more subjected to ferocious war, and not too long after the horrors of the Second World War were over. The Korean War was one such conflict, while the Vietnam War became far more infamous – lasting over 19 years, after it began in 1955. The Soviet Union also experienced a steady rise in the years after the war, and its industry boomed, despite the huge losses it suffered in the war. Life in the USSR is idealized to this day in post-Soviet nations. In Europe though, after the introduction of foreign aid in the form of the Economic Marshall Plan, economy began recovering substantially. In the years after 1948, , Italy, and all experienced a rapid recovery and their economies boomed significantly, allowing them to recover from the devastating effects of the war in a relatively short period. Nevertheless, the Second World War served as a testament into the growing unrest in the world which was introduced with the onset of the 20th century with numerous changes in its every aspect. It remains to this day one of the ugliest pages in the entirety of human history, and a war on an unprecedented scale, that turned out the very worst in man. And all we can hope, in these tumultuous times, is that it never again repeats.

A War on an Unparalleled Scale: The Casualties

IN THE WAKE OF THE First World War, the world was stunned. Conflict on such a scale was never before experienced, and many believed that it never will be again. However, less than two decades later, history repeated itself, and this time on an even larger scale. The Second World War became one of the most devastating conflicts in human history, bringing death on such a massive scale that it defeats the sense of logic. World War 2 was – much like its predecessor – the war of firsts, with many new military technologies coming to the forefront. New, modern weapons were used on a massive scale, including an assortment of aircraft and tank designs, new weaponry, V2 long range rockets, jet fighters, and the infamous atomic bombs. Sadly, this was not the last time they have been used: Major powers continued to develop these weapons over the decades, and military industry has been on a steady rise over the world ever since. Just as is the case with the First World War, the estimates of the total amount of casualties in the Second World War vary. It is generally agreed that roughly 60 million people died: of that 40 million are civilian deaths, and 20 million military deaths. All over the world, ethnic tensions rose, and countless civilians were killed in pogroms, massacres, genocides, internment camps, and due to diseases and starvation. The Soviet Union alone lost close to 8.7 million soldiers in the war, and 19 million civilian deaths, which goes to showcase just how vast the land is and how much men it could muster. In the end, when all things are considered, the Second World War was truly the conflict on a Biblical scale, and sadly – the most violent one. It brought to the surface the ugliest face of mankind, showing just how ugly the man in war can be. But this remains as a lesson to those willing to listen: let such wanton hatred never repeat itself.

Conclusion

THE TRULY WISE MIND is always open to learning. Expanding, enriching, and broadening our horizons, and accepting facts are marks of an intelligent person. Moreover, the desire to improve, grow better, and work on your mistakes are the positive attributes of every human being. And from such a massive lesson as is the Second World War, a lot can be learned. However, the ever covetous world leaders seem to have learned little – as the war never ceased, only spread out across the globe into sporadic, pocketed conflicts that never allowed us to rest easy and flourish. But can it be that it is in the hands of the individual to make things right, to forgive, forget, improve, move on, and put forward the hand of peace? Can we learn from the world’s mistakes and vow never to let them repeat? Sad is the fact that so many souls – innocent or else – were trapped in the cogs of a violent machine that was the Second World War. In the ever present striving for power between the major world powers, the common man finds himself trapped and trampled by the mechanism of war. And all that you can do is stand powerless and mute in the face of such careless destruction, seeing the obliteration of your home, city, nation – your creed and kin, and your culture. Today, we can only look to the future, preserving the memories of all that was lost, and hoping for a better tomorrow, free from wars and free from hatred. Let the old enemies lie in the past, and let the hatred lie with them. For it takes courage and it takes a great human being to look forward and to step boldly with only the best intentions in mind: peace, prosperity, humility, and respect. Where is the honor and the gallantry of ages past? Where are the noble deeds of people? All we can do is send out a plea – let us not walk in the footsteps of such unseemly history. Let the actions of the world leaders never again repeat themselves thus, and let the sacrifices of the innocent always be ed, and given the respect that is due. For it is on their bones, and on their lives, that the world as we know it today is built. Writing this book, we relied only on the affirmed literary and historic sources, in order to deliver to You, the reader, only the best and accurate information. Needless to say, the author devotedly wrote this work from a neutral standpoint, without any political or other affiliations. And let this work be read from such a standpoint as well.

By Aleksa Vučković

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University Press. Winchester, C. 1998. Ostfront: Hitler’s War on Russia 1941-45. Osprey Publishing. Wright, D. 2001. Iwo Jima 1945: The Marines Raise the Flag on Mount Suribachi. Osprey Military. Zaloga, S. Sicily 1943: The Debut of Allied t Operations. Osprey Publishing.

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