The Goddesses And Gods Of Old Europe - Gimbutas.pdf 302d3e

The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe 6500-3500 BC

Marija Gimbutas

The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe 6500

-

3500

bc

Myths and Cult Images

N ew and updated edition with 2 5 2 illustrations 1 7 1 text fig u re s and 8 maps

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS B c rk c lc y , Los A n g clcs

To the inspiration o f Franklin D. Murphy Chancellor o f U C L A 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 8

Contents Preface to new edition

9

Introduction

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C A U llR A T liD

DATluS A N I)

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THE PREPARATlON OV THiS VOLUME WAS CSENEUOUSLY SUPl‘ORTED l)Y THE SAMUtiL H. KHESS FOUNDATION T h e line dravvings for this voltune \vt*re done by Linda M o iim -W illiam s: the photographs w ere taken bv Kalman Konva and M iod rag Djordjević.

1 Cultural Background Tm ;

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ITS SIG N IH C A N C .H

U N I V E R S I T Y O I; C A L 1F O R N 1A P R E S S B erkelev and Los Angeles, C'aiifornia

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R E G IO N A L A N I) CH KO NO I.O GICAl. SU B !)!V ISIO N S OI: O i.D Europi;

ISBN: 0 -520 -0 4 6 55-2

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Librarv o f Gongress C atalo g C'ard N um ber 7 2 -S 2 32 3 *tV; 1974. iyS2 Tham es and Hudson Ltd. London O riginallv publisheđ in the U nited States ot Am erica in 1974 bv U niversitv o fC a lifo rn ia Press under the title

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Nevv and updated edition in paperbaok iyN2 R eprin ted 1 yt/> Ali riglus reserved. N o part of’ tiiis publication inav be rrodueed or cransmitted in anv torm or bv anv means, eleetronie or m echanka], inelm iing photoeopv, iveording. o r anv othor in forn ution storage and retrieva! ’.vstem, \vithoi»? prior pcrnm sion in \vriting trom the publisher. Pritued and boinui in CJrcat Britain bv

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Schem aticism

37

SlIORTliANI) T m ; Ni:oirnii<: a r t is t ' s rhai .itv - not a imivsicai ri ;a u t y

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3 Ritual Costum e

44

D e c o r a t iv e m o tifs o n c l a y fig u r in es a s a r eplec tio n OF C OSTUM E AN D ORN AMENTS

Hip-belts Dresses M en ’s costume Footivear Coiffure and caps S U M M I N G -U P

T he p rim o rd ia l ecg

101

T h e f ish

107

44 45 45 51

51 54 55

7 Mistresses of Waters: the Birdand Snake G o d d e ss T h e in v o c a t io n o f rain , th e

beah

a n d th e id eogram s

o f th e B ird Goddess T he m e a n d e r , sy m b o i. of

112

i 13 c o s m i c wa t e r s

124

T h e o r ig in o f t h e B ird G o d d e ss a n d her im a g e d u r in g

4 The M ask N o n - h u m a n visage T he V in ca m ask

57 57 57

E V O LU T IO N OF THE V l N Č A MASK

61

D e CORATION AND PERFORATIONS FOR A T T A C H M E N T

64

5 Shrines and the Role of Figurines

I 32

T he ‘L a d y B ird’ a n d th e ‘ L a d y S n a k e ’ of th e C h a lc o lit h ic era

136

T h e S n a k e a n d B ird G o d d e ss as n u r se

14 2

R e c a p it u la t io n

i 44

T h e B i r d G o d d e s s a n d S n a k e G o d d e s s in M i n o a n

PARALLELS IN C R E T E AND A N C I E N T G R EEC E, AND THE T HEATRICAL EMPHASIS

THE N e O L I T H I C

66

67

C r e t e a n d in A n c i e n t G r e e c e

8 The Great G o d d e ss of Life, Death and Regeneration

C l a Y MODF.LS OF SHRINES

67

R E M A I N S OF SANCTUARIES AND SACRIFICIAL PI-ACES

71

FOLDED ARMS o f THE N e OUT H IC PERIOD

P a r a l l e l s w it h M in o a n - M y c e n a e a n sh rines

74

T h e c h r y s a l i d g o d d e s s w i t h f o i .d e d a r m s o f t h e

145

152

T h e a n d r o g y n o u s a n d c o r p u i .e n t g o d d e s s w i t h

C h a l c o l i t h ic per io d

S h RINE EQUIPMENT AND OBJECTS RELATED TO CUI.T PRACTICES

80

152

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T h e m a c . i c a l s o u r c i ; o f i.iff : w i t i i i n t u f : g o d d e s s : h e r mouth

, h a n d s a n d eggs

163

V o t i v e o f f e u i n g s . I n s c r i b e d FIGURINES, VESSELS, s p i n d l e WHORLS, AND OTHER OBJECTS S U M M I N G -U P

6 C o sm o gon ic al and Co sm o lo gical Im ages

85 88

89

T h e f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r i .d , t h e m o o n A ND THE BUI-I.

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T he epiph an ies

169

The do$, a tioitble of the Moon Goddess The doe, a douhle oj the (joddess oj Regeneration The toad and the turile: the goddess in thc shape oj a human Jbetus The hedgehog: the goddess iu the slnipe oj an tinitiuil uterus or jbetus ■ The bee and the lmtterfty: the bttll-born Goddess oj Transformation and Regeneration The bear: thc goddess as niother and nurse

169 17 1 174 179 181 190

R e c a p i t u l a t i o n o r v a r i o u s a s p f .c t s o f t h e p r e h i s t o k i c

G r e a t G oddess

195

H e k a t e a n d A r t e m is : s u u v iv a l o f thi: O l d E u r o p e a n G r e a t G o d d e s s in A n c i e n t G u e e c e a n d w e s t f . r n A n a to lia

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9 The Pregnant Vegetation G o d d e s s T h e d o t (s e e d ) a n d t h h

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T he enth ro ned P reg n an t G oddess

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T h e pig, t h e s a c r e d a n i m a i . o i : t h e G o d d e s s o r

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V e g e tatio n A t t U S l O N S T o DftMETfili, K o K l i AND PiiRSKPMON'E IN GlitiliK

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314

10 The Y e ar-G o d

2 16 2 16

T h e p h a i . i .u s T he ith yph a llic : m a s k e d

god

220

T h e isui . i. w i t h a h u m a n

mask

224

A llu sio n s to D io n v su s

227

T h e \s o r r o w f u i . g o d ’

230

T he D iv in e C h ild

234

C o iitin sio n s

236

A bbreviations

239

Decails o f sites in d u d in g radiocarbon dates

24!

B ib lio grap h y

256

C a ta lo g u e

270

I»dcx

300

Preface to new edition M uch new material on the m ythical im agcry o f O ld Europe has cm ergcd during the tcn-year interval betw een the w ritin g o f The Gods and Goddeacs oJ'O'id Europe and the present edition, but the basic concepts have rem aincd unehanged. T h e nevv discovcrics- have served on ly to strongthcn and the vievv that the cuiture calied O ld Europi1 w as characterized b y a dom inancc o f w o m an in societv and vvorship o f a Goddess incarnating the C re a tiv e principle as Source and G iv er o f A li. In this cuiture the m ale elem ent, man and anim ai, represented spontaneous and life-stim u latin g - but not lifegenerating - pow ers. This p riority is represented in the present title by a ehange in w ord order, from The Gods and Goddesses to The Goddesses and Gods o j O ld Europe. T h e term O ld Europe is applied to a pre-In do-European cuiture o f Europe, a cuiture m a t r i f o c a l and p robably m a t r i l i n e a r , agricultural and sedentary, egalitarian a n d peaceful. It contrasted sharply w ith the cnsuing p ro to -In d o -E u ro p ean cuiture w hich was patriarchal, stratified, pastoral, m obile, and vvar-oriented, superim posed on ali Europe, except the S o u th e rn a n d vvestern fringes, in th e course o f three w aves o f infiltration from the Russian steppe, between 4500 and 2500 bc. D uring and after this period the fem ale deities, or m ore accurately th e Goddess C reatrix in her m any aspeets, w erc largely replaccd by the predom inantly m ale d ivinities o f the IndoEuropeans. W hat developed after c. 2500 uc: was a m elange o f the tw o m yth ic svstems, O ld European and Indo-European. T h e analysis o f O ld European m ythical im agery has reconstituted a link between the religion o f the U p p er Palaeolithic and that o f the pre-In do-E u rop ean substratum o f European cultures; w ithout consideration of the very rich evidence from O ld Europe, neither the Palaeolithic ideological struetures nor those o f early historic G reeks and other Europeans can be well understood. The persistence o f the Goddess vvorship for m ore than 20,000 years, from the Palaeolithic to the N eolithic and beyond, is shown by the continuity o f a variety

o fa s c r ie s o f conventionalizcd im ages. H er specific aspccts o f p o w e r such as life -g iv in g , fertility-givin g, and b irth -givin g are extrem ely lo n g lasting. T h eir indentification was m ade through study o f sym b o licsign sin cised o n figu rin esan d asso ciated culticobjects, as w ell as postures, attributes, and associations. M o re o f this detailed evidence w ill appear in a forth co m in g study by the author on signs and sym bols o f O ld Europe. The object o f the present vo lu m e is to transm it som e notion o f the variety and com plexity o f the philosophical ideas o f ou r European forebears. Los Angeles, California i gSi

M arija Gimbutas

Introd uction T h e tradition o f sculpture and painting encountered in O ld Europe (for a defm ition o f this term, sec p. 17) was transmitted from the Palaeolithic era. I11 art and m ythical im agery it is not possible to draw a line between the tw o eras, Palaeolithic and N eolithic, ju st as it is not possible to draw a line between w ild and dom estic plants and animals. M uch o f the sym bolism o f the early agriculturists was taken over from the hunters and fishers. Such im ages as the fish, snake, bird, or horns are not N eolithic creations; they have roots in Palaeolithic times. And yct, the art and myths o f the first farm crs difFered in inspiration and hence in form and content from those o f the hunters and fishers. C la y and stone figurines were being fashioncd long before pottery was first made around 6500 BC . The vast increase in sculptures in N eo lith ic times and the extent to w hich they departed from Palaeo­ lithic types w as not caused b y technological innovations, but b y the perm anent settlement and grow th o f com m unities. A farm ing econom y bound the villages to the soil, to the biological rhythm s o f the plane; and animals upon which their existence w h o lly depcnded, G yclical ehange, death and resurrcetion, vvere ascribed to the supernatura) povvers and in conseqitence speeial provision vvas made to p ro te « the capricious lifc forces and assure their perpetuation. As carly as the scventh m illennium n c traits associated w ith the psychol~ o g y and religion o f the farm er are a characteristic fcature o f sculptural art. This art was not consciously im itative o f natura] form s but sought rather to express abstract conceptions. A bo u t 30,000 m iniature sculptures o f clay, m arble, bone, copper or gold are presently know n from a total o f some 3000 sites o f the N eo lith ic and Chalcolithic era in southeastem Europe. Enorm ous quantitites o f ritual vessels, altars, sacrificial cquipm ent, inscribed objeets, clay models o f tem ples, actual temples and pictorial paintings on vases or on the vvalls o f shrines, already attest a genuine civilization.

T h e three m illennia sa w a progressive increase in stylistic đ ive rsity , p roducing e ver greater varicty o fin d iv id u a l form s. Sim ultancously, a m ore naturalistic expression o f anatom ical generalitics grad u ally em ancipated itself from an initial subordination to the sym bolic purpose. T he study o f these m ore articulatcd sculptures, their ideogram s and sym bols and the h igh ly developed vasc painting enabled the author to distinguish the different types o f goddesses and gods, their epiphanies, their devotees, and the cult scenes w ith which they w ere associated. T h u s, it is possible to speak o f a pantheon o f gods, and to reconstruct the various costumes and masks, which th row m ach light 011 ritual dram a and life as it was then lived. T h ro u g h the deciphering o f stereotype im ages and signs w ith the help o f quantitative and qualitative analyses it becomes clear that these early Europeans expressed their com inunal w orship through the rnedium o f the idol. In the m iniature sculptures o f O ld Europe the em otions are made manifest in ritual drama in v o lvin g m any actors, both gods and worshippers. M uch the same practice secms to have bccn currcnt in A natolia, Syria, Palestine and M esopotam ia in the corresponding periods, but only in southcastem Europe is such a quantity o f figurines available for a com parative study. T h e shrines, cult objeets, m agnificent paintcd and black pottery, costum es, elaborate religious cerem onialism , and a rich m ythical im agery far m ore com plex than was hitherto assumed, speak o f a refined European culture and society. N o longer can European N eo h th ic-C h alco lith ic developm ents bc sum m cd up in the old axio m , E x oriente lux. W hen the m agnificent treasures o f the M inoan civilization w ere unravclled in the beginning o f the twentieth century, Sir A rthu r Evans w ro te : ‘I venture to believc that the scientific study o f Greek civilization is becom ing less and less possible w ithout taking into constant that o f the M inoan and M ycenacan w orld that vvent before it’ (JH S 19 1 2 : 277). W hile his rem ark was am p ly ju stified, the question o f w hat went before the M inoan civilization rem ained to be posed. N o w it is becom ing less and less possible to understand the M inoan civilization vvithout the study o f the culture which preceded it. The study o f this culture, to which I have applied the nam e ‘ O ld E u ro p e’, rcveals new chronological dim ensions and a new concept o f the beginning o f European civilization. It was not a single small legendary island claim ed b v the sea som e 9000 years ago that gave rise to the fabulous civilization o f C rete and the C yclad es, but a considerable part o f Europe surrounded by the castem M editerranean, Aegean and A driatic Seas. The m any islands w ere an aid to navigation and facilitated com m unication with Ana­ tolia, Levant and M esopotam ia. Fertile river valleys lured the first farm ers deeper inland into the Balkan Peninsula and Danubian

Europe. O ld Europe is a produet o f hybridization o f M editerranean and Tem perate southeast-European peoples and cultures. European civilization between 6500 and 3500 b c was not a p rovincial refleetion o f N ear Eastem civilization, absorbing its achievem ents through diffusion and periodic invasions, but a distinet culture developing a unique identity. M an y aspeets o f this culture rem ain to be explored. O ne o f the main purposes o f this book is to present, as it w ere, the spiritual manifestations o f O ld Europe. M y thical im agery o f the prehistoric era tclls us m uch abou t hum anity - its concepts o f the strueture o f the cosmos, o f the beginning o f the w o rld and o f human, plant and animal life, and a'lso its struggle and relations w ith nature. It cannot be forgotten that through m yth, im ages and sym bols man com prehended and manifested his being. T h o u g h profusely illustrated, this vo lu m e docs not claim to present every aspect o f the m y thical im agery o f O ld E u ro pe; the illustrations w ere seleeted from m any thousands, w ith a view to sh ow in g the most representative exam ples and not ju st the most beautiful sculptures or vases. Basic inform ation is derived from the system atically excavated sites, which are listed w ith full chronological details at the end o f the book. The docum entation o f the illustrated objeets is contained in the C atalogue.

N ote on rad io carbo n a n d d en d r o ch ro n o lo g ically CALIBRATED DATES AND THE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

T he d iscovcry and developm ent o f the radiocarbon dating technique by W illard F. L ibb y (Radiocarbon Dating, 1952) gave archaeology its most pow erful means o f diseovering the age o f prehistoric cultures. W ithin tw o decades o f its developm ent and im plem entation radio­ carbon analysis had revolutionized earlier conceptions o f European N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic chronology, extending its span by alm ost tw o m illennia. Prior to this, stratigraphic and typological interpretations had been used to a theory o f the spread o f agriculture from the N ear East to Europe in the fourth m illennium b c . The backbone o f this universally accepted chronological outline was the postulated N ear Eastem đerivation o f the Vinca culture w ith its typical fine ceram ics, rcsult o f a m igration from the N ear East via A natolia subsequent to the T ro y I period, datable, it w as believed, by analogies to historic Egypto-M esopotam ian civilization to ju st after 3000 b c. Vinca was firm ly located within the relative chron olo g y o f the European N eolithic-C halcolithic cultures and so through its supposed historic conncction becam e the datum around which the absolute ch ron ology o f European prehistory was estimated. This chronological system is still maintained by a small m inority o f

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the m ethod. C u rren tly archaeologists ineluding the author o f this vo lu m e use the ‘ Suess c u rv e ’ (named after D r Hans E. Suess, o f U C S D ) fo r corrcction o f radiocarbon dates to app ro xim ate true age. C onsequcntly, European N eolithic and C h alcolithic ch ron ology is u ndergoing a second revolution which extends the span o f prchistoric developm ent by a further m illennium . The most im portant effect o f radiocarbon ch ron ology and o f this m arked extcnsion o f it to approxim ate true age has been to dem onstrate the antiquity o f European prehistoric cuiture, and its autonom ous g ro w th as the equal rather than the dependent o f N ear Eastern cultural evolution. Socio-econom ic developm ents that 20 years ago w ere compressed into little over one m illennium are now seen to have required at least three m illennia to evolve, emphasizing the stability, lon gevity and cultural continuity o f the O ld European N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic civilization. A chronological table o f the cultural com plexes o f O ld Europe appears b elow . T h e given years represent true age, i.e. radiocarbon dates converted into true age on Suess’ calibration curve.

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European prehistorians w ho w ere encouraged b y the recent disc o very in an E arly V inča context o f the Tartaria tablets, w hich they consider to be an im p o rt fro m M esopotam ia at about 3000 BC. This c h ro n o lo g y w as com pletely discredited by radiocarbon analysis, w h ich b y 1970 had supplied 300 dates for O ld European N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic samples, placing the beginnings o f the N eo lith ic in the seventh m illennium BC. T his called fo r not o n ly a readjustm ent in the absolute dating o f N eo lithic-C h alcolith ic cuiture but also an im portant rearrangem ent o f the relative chronologies o f E u rope and the N ea r East. H o w e v e r, b y the early 1960’s it becam e evident that radiocarbon dates w ere inaccurate. T h e accuracy o f the process was dependent upon the valid ity o f the assumption (am ong others) that the radio­ carbon content o f atm ospheric carbon-dioxide had rem ained constant during geo lo gically recent time. Discrepancies between radiocarbon and calendrical chron ologies w ere soon rem arked, fo llo w in g the radiocarbon analysis o f w o o d samples o f kn ow n age fro m historic E gyp tian and N ear Eastern sources; and it has since been dem onstrated through the m arriage o f dendrochronological research and radiocarbon analysis that there have been variations in the level o f atm ospheric radiocarbon through tim e, and that these are o f tw o sorts: localized fluctuations, and a lon g-term trend in w hich the divergen ce betw een the radiocarbon and true ages increases w ith increasing sam ple age du ring the m illennia b c . D e n d ro ch ro n o lo g y is the study o f the chronological sequence o f the annual g ro w th rings in trees. W ithin the confines o f a particular environm en t the ring patterns o f different tree specimens can be m atched and related one to another, a technique made possible b y the fact that annual rings vary in thickness due to varyin g local environm ental conditions from year to year. So a m aster-ch ron ology can be com piled incorporating both livin g trees o f great age and dead, prcscrvccl trunks w hich can be fitted into the ring-pattern sequence. The bristle-cone pine o f the W hite M ountains o f C a lifo rnia has p rovidcd an unbroken sequencc extending back into the sixth m illennium b c . R a d io ca rb o n analysis o f ring samples o f k n ow n age idcntified the inaccuracy o f the radiocarbon dates; and, w id i the accum ulation o f sufficient analyses, was able to supply curves and tables o f conversion which perm it corrcction o f radiocarbon dates to approxim ate true age. Dates falling between the third and fifth m illennia b c in ‘radiocarbon years’ require a corrective addition, incrcasingly large w ith increasing age, o f a few hundred to as m uch as a thousand years to align them with approxim ate true age. D irect com parison o f the radiocarbon content o f historically dated samples from ancient E gyp tian contexts w ith that o f bristle-cone pine samples o f equivalent true age has indcndently confirm ed the valid ity o f

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Cultural Background

T h e d e s i g n a t i o n ‘ C i v i l i z a t i o n o f O ld E u r o p e ’ a n d its SIGNiFICANCE

M a p I : O ld Bi trope: the area oj autochthonous European civiliza tion , c. 7 0 0 0 -15 0 0 b c in re lation to the rest oj Europe

Villages depending upon dom csticatcd plants and animals had appeared in southeastem Europe as carly as the seventh m illcnnium BC, and the spiritual forces accom panying this ehange in the economic and social organization are manifested in the em ergent artistic tradition o f the N eolithic. The developm ent o f a food-producing econom y and subsequent cultural innovations can no longer be sim ply cxplained as an introduetion o f vagu ely designated colonists from A natolia or the east M editerranean. D uring the seventh, sixth and fifth millennia b c the farmers o f southeastem Europe evolved a unique cultural pattern, contem porary with sim ilar developm ents in Anatolia, M esopotam ia, Syro-Palestine and E gyp t. It reached a clim ax in the fifth m illcnnium b c . A new designation, Civilization o j Old Europe, is introduced herc in recognition o f the collective identity and achievem ent o f the diffcrent cultural groups o f N eolithic-C h alcolith ic southeastem Europe. The area it occupied extends from the Acgcan and A driatic, ineluding the islands, as far north as C zechoslovakia, southem Poland and the vvestem Ukraine. Between c. 7000 and c, 3500 ne, the inhabitants o f this region developed a much m ore com plex social organization than their vvestem and northem neighbours, form ing scttlements which often amounted to small tovvnships, inevitably in vo lvin g eraft specialization and the creation o f religious and governm ental institutions. T h ey independently diseovered the possibility o f utilizing copper and gold for ornaments and cools, and even appear to have evolved a rudim entary script. If one defines civilization as the ability o f a given people to adjust to its environment and to develop adequate arts, technology, script, and social relationships it is evident that Old Europe achicved a m arked degrce o f success. 17

I

T he most eloquent vestiges o f this European N eolithic cuiture are the sculptures, w hich bear witness to facets o f life otherw ise inaccessible to the archaeologist: fashions in dress, religious cerem onialism and m yth ical im ages. T h e inhabitants o f southeastem Europe 7 0 0 0 years ago were not the p rim itive villagers o f the incipient N eolithic. D uring tw o m illennia o f agricultural stability their material w elfare had been persistently im proved by the increasingly efficient exploitation o f the fertile river valleys. W h e a t , barley, vetch, peas and other legum es w ere cultivated, and ali the dom esticated animals present in the B alkans today, except for the horse, w cre bred. Pottery tech nology and bone- a n d sto n e-w o rkin g techniques had advanced, and copper m e t a l l u r g v was i n t r o d u c e d into east Central Europe by 5 5 0 0 b c . Tr'ade and C o m m u n icatio n s, w hich had expanded th ro u g h the m illennia, must have provid ed a trem endous cross-fertilizing im petus to cultural g ro w th . T h e archaeologist can infer the existence o f far-ran g in g trade fro m the w id e dispersion o f obsidian, alabaster, m arb lea n d S p o n d y lu ssh c ll. T h eseasan d inland w aterw aysd oub tlcss served as p rim ary routes o f com m unication, and obsidian was being transported by sea as early as the seventh m illennium b c . T h e use o f sailing-boats is attested from the sixth m illennium onw ards b y their incised depiction on ceramics. T h e continued increase in prosperity and in the com p lexity o f social organization w o uld surely have produced in southeastern Europe ah urban civilization b ro ad ly analogous to those o f the N ea r East and C rctc o f the third and sccond m illennia b c . T h e increasing cultural m om entum o f ’fifth m illennium European societics was, hov/ever, cut short by the aggressive infiltration and settlem ent o f sem i-nom ad ic pastoralists, ancestors o f the IndoEuropeans, w h o d i s t u r b e d m ost o f C e n tra l and e a s te r n Europe during the fourth m illennium b c . T h e colourful pottery and sculptural art o f O ld E u ro p e ’s incipient civilization qu ickly vanished; only around the A egean and on the islands did its traditions su rvivc to the end o f the third m illennium b c , and on Crete to the m id-second m illen­ nium b C. T h e E arly H elladic cuiture o f Greece and the C yclad es and the M inoan civilization on C rete, w ith its wealth o f palače art, epitom ize the N eo lith ic and C halcolithic cuiture o f O ld Europe.

R e g i o n a l a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s o f O i .d E u r o p e

T h e d evclopm cn t o f the N eo lith ic was characterizcd by an increase in sedentary habits and rcliance upon dom esticated plants and anim als, larger d em ograph ic units, a continued grow th in artistic and technological sophistication, and a m arked regional diversity o f m aterial cuiture.

iS

B y 6000 BC, and increasingly through the ensuing m illennium , O ld European cuiture can be divided into five m ajor regional variants vvhich display w ell-d eveloped traditions in ceram ic art, arehiteeture and cult organization. T h e five variant traditions o f O ld European civilization are: 1) T h e A egean and central Balkan, 2) T h e A driatic, 3) T h e m iddle D anube, 4) The eastern B alk an , and 5) T h e M o ld avian -w est U kranian.

I THE AEGEAN AND CENTRAL BALKAN AREA

Neolithic, C. 7000-5500 BC. T h e beginnings o f N eo lith ic art in the A egean and central Balkan area can be dated to c. 7000-6500 BC, along w ith the em ergence o f a well-established village society. This earliest N eolithic is k n o w n b y a different nam e in each o f the m odern European countries o v er which it was distributed, the term inological distinetions refleeting m od em political boundaries rather than significant cultural variations. It is k n o w n as Proto-Sesklo in G reece, w here the Sesklo settlem ent near V o los in T hessaly was the source o f N eolithic te rm in o lo g y ; Starčevo in Y u g o sla v ia after the eponym ous site east o f B elgrad e; Koros in southeastern H u n gary and C ri§ - the R om anian nam e fo r the same R iv e r K o ro s - in w estern R om ania. This com p lex occupied the drainage area o f the V ard ar and M orava in M acedonia and Southern and central Y u go slav ia and the southeastern part o f the m iddle Danube basin, extending as far as M old avia in eastern R om ania. T o sim plify term in o logy, this cultural bloc w ill be referred to as ‘the A egean and central B alk an N eolithic’ . T his N eo lith ic cuiture left rem arkably h om ogeneous artifacts: bone, Stone and ceram ic artifacts, ineluding distinetive painted bow ls and ring-based jars, ali closely resem bling each other. W heat, barley, lentils, vetch and peas w ere cultivated and am ong the dom esticated animals, sheep and goat w ere the m ost num erous, a characteristic feature o f the w arm er and drier conditions o f the A egean and east M editerranean. A lth o u gh the basic econom ic pattern was faithfully transferred from the south to the m iddle D anubian basin, N eolithic farm ers in northern Y u g o sla v ia , H u n gary and R o m a n ia had to adapt to a som ew hat dam per, m ore h eavily forested en viron m en t: consequently cattle and p ig w ere increasingly exploited b y m ore northerly settlers, and fishing and hunting usually playeđ a m uch m ore im portant role. T h e cli.mate was slightly vvarm er and w etter than it is today. ‘T e lls’, created by the accum ulation o f cultural debris, attest the perm anence o f these farm ing com m unities on extensive Coastal and inland plains in the A egean area and B ulgaria south o f the Balkan M ountains. Further north, they occur less conspicuously, especially in the upper river valleys o f central Y ugoslavia,

19

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IV

H u n g a ry and R o m a n ia , w h ere the deposit is usually shallow and m ore w id e ly distributed. This m ay reflect a partially horizontal displacem ent o f settlem ent through tim e, possibly as a result o fse m inom adic agriculture, in v o lv in g periodic abandonm ent and reoccupation o f sites. T h e use o f w ood en rather than substantial m ud-brick structures w o u ld also explain the less-m arked accum ulation o f m idden deposits in the w etter northerly environm ents. M o re than a thousand P ro to -Sesk lo, Sesklo, Starčevo and K o ro s (Cri?) sites are recorded, o f w h ich about fifty have been extensively excavated during the course o f the last century. T h e area o f distribudon and the nam es o f sites m entioned in the text are indicated in the m ap. M o st o f the radiocarbon dates fo r this com plex range from the end o f the seventh to the beginning o f the fifth m illennium BC. E m p lo y in g the corrective scale produced b y radiocarbon analyses o f d en d roch ro n olo gically dated w o o d samples these dates w o u ld yield an app roxim ate true age o f 7000-5500/5300 BC. T h e process o f separating out into regional groups progressed steadily. B y 6000 b c , the Sesklo cuiture o f Thessaly and central G reece w as ty p o lo gica lly distinct from the artifact assemblages o f the rest o f the central B alk an region. Further north, typical form s o f the Starčevo com p lex persisted into the m iddle o f the sixth m illen­ nium , fm ally u n d ergoing a rapid transition, m ost đ e a rly reflected in ceram ics, to fo rm the V inca com plex.

Chalcolithic, c. 5500 -3500 b c . The Vinca sequence is best docum ented at the site o f Vinča itself, 14 km . east o f B elgrade, excavated interm ittently between 1908 and 19 32 by M . Vasfc. T h e stratified m ound yielded about 12 m. o f cultural debris, o f w hich the Vinča remains occupy about 7 m. and the Starčevo, below , a depth o f almost 2 m. N o other site with such vvell-defm ed stradfication has yet been discovered, and it has rem ained the backbone o f the skeletal ch ron ology and ty p o lo g y o f Vinča assemblages. At V inča alone, alm ost 2000 figurines were dis­ covered , b y far the greatest n um ber unearthed at a single site. O ther im portant settlements excavated during the last fifty years are indicated on the map, w here they are seen to cluster around the m odem tow ns o f Belgrade, V ršac-Tim i$oara, C lu j, K ragu jevac, Priština, K o so vsk a M itro v ica, Sko pje and Šcip. M an y settlements o f the Chalcolithic period are large, occupying as m uch as t:wenty or m ore acres o f river terrace. T h e houses are o f tw o or three room s and are organized into streets. Vinča sites such as P ločnik, P otporanj, C rn ok alačk a B ara, M ed ved n jak, Selevac, D ren o vac, G rivac and V alač must have been townships rather than m ere villages. 22

M a p I V : Vinča cit'ilizalion , c. 5 3 0 0 —3 5 0 0 b c . A real distribution and sites mentioned in text

R ad io carb o n dates converted to app roxim ate true age provide an accurate ch ronological definition o f the southeast European N eolithic and C h alcolithic cultural sequence. This d iverges radically from the conservative traditional ch ron ology w hich m aintained that the European N colith ic and C h alcolithic encom ed nothing m ore than stagnant cultural backwaters, incapablc o f autonom ous innovation and g ro w th . W hen Professor Vasić first reported the results o f his excavation o f the Vinča m ound in the lllustrated London N ew s in 1930, hc described the site as ‘a centre o f A egean civilization in the second m illennium bc;\ He believed that the settlem ent was continuously occupied from about the beginning o f the M iddle

B ronze A g e in the A egean d ow n to the conquest o f the area b y the R o m a n s. Finally, shortly bcfore he died he asserted that V inča was rather a colo n y o f the G reeks, and this suggestion continues to bc cited m som e m odern histories o f the Balkans. T h e cuiture was considered m uch too advanced, its art treasures too sophisticated, to be o f N eo lith ic or C h alcolithic age, som e 7000 years old. T h e calibrated radiocarbon dates obtained from eight sites o f different phases o f the Vinča cuiture (Anza, Predionica, Vinča, M ed ved n jak, Banjica, Valač, G o rn ja Tuzla and D ivostin) place this cuiture betw ecn 5300 and 4000 BC. T h e artistic tradition produced in the late sixth and fifth m illen nium b c in the central B alkan Peninsula is one o f the m ost rem arkable and distinctive o f European and N ear Eastern prehistory. T h e discovery o f the Tartaria tablets and other signs inscribed on figurines and pots, coupled w ith evidence o f a m arked intensification o f spiritual life in general, has nourished a diffusionist explanation. M an y w o u ld attribute the appearance o f the Vinča com plex to m igration or intensive stim ulus-diffusion from the east, in particular from A natolia. In this context the tablets are believed to have reached the D anube region fro m M esopotam ia not earlier than about 3000 B C . D espite stratigraphical evidence, typologies, natura! scientific dating techniques, and new excavations indicating strong influences from the east Balkans and not Anatolia, som e archaeologists persist in vievving the Balkan prehistoric cultures as in ferio r; and this, even though m ost o f them find no m arked cultural hiatus betw een the Starčevo and V inča com plexcs. The first attcmpts at linear w ritin g appear not later than the m id-sixth m illennium b c and the E arly Vinča inscribed figurines, spindle w horls and other objects are definitcly o f local m anufacture. The m uch-discussed problem o f the origin o f the black-polished and ligh tly channdled pottery p redo m inant am o n g the Vinča ceram ics can be explained by postulating continuous cultural and exchange between the central and eastern B alk a n s: the black-polished vvares w ith channelled decoration w ere first m troduced by the N eolithic inhabitants in the M arica valley o f central B u lgaria, during the early phases of K aran ovo . T he vvare spread first to M acedonia and subsequently to the central Balkans during the K aran o vo III phase, the true age o f w hich is ap p ro xim ately 54 00-5300 b c . Despite constant w ith neighbouring cultures Vinca sculptural art rcm ained m arkedly distinet from that o f other groups. Indeed, the m ythical im agery, perhaps m ore than anything else, refleets the European roots o f the Vinča coin plex. D ne to intensive com m unication via the prehistoric ‘h ig h w a y ’ o f the R iv e rs Bosna and N eretva connectcd by a narro\v o f the D in aric Alps. a cuiture o f the central Balkan background in Bosnia

developed into a separate entity know n as Butmir, thus nam ed after the B u tm ir settlement at Sarajevo, excavated in 18 9 3-9 6 ; it is noted for its spiral-dccorated globular and piriform vases and a significant num ber o f sculptures. T h e B u tm ir cuiture is d with Vinča, but also was strongly influenced by the A driatic D a n ilo -H va r and Southern Italian M atera-Serra d ’A lto cultures. T h e k ey site for ch ron ology is O bre II, excavated in 1967-68 b y A . B cn ac and the author. T he site yielded an ideal, uninterrupted four-m etre stratigraphy and a series o f radiocarbon dates. These place the three periods o f the B utm ir civilization betvveen c. 5 10 0 and 4000 b c . 2 THE ADRIATIC ARKA Neolithic, c. 6500-5500 b c. The early N eolithic cuiture o f the circum -A d riatic region is know n as the Impresso com plcx, characterized by grit-tem pered wares impressed w ith cardium shells or finger-nails. T h e sim ple pottery bow ls ornam ented in this w a y and the farm ing eco n o m y w hich they served are believed to have developed as a result o f difFusion, coupled with m aritim e m ovem ent and trade along th e A driatic littoral and off-shore islands. The Im presso cuiture o f vvestern Y u go slavia, vvestern Greece and S o u th e rn Italy represents on ly a part o f the w id cly dispersed circum -M editerranean com plex. Impresso sites occupy caves or take the form o f open settlements enclosed by a ditch, and their econom y was based upon dom esti­ cated sheep and cattle, fishing and hunting, and eultivation o f w heat and barley. T h e material cuiture was poor in ceram ic art and sculpture until the produetion o f n c w form s was stimulated by with central Greece, perhaps the result o f m ore extensive m aritim e activity which is otlierw ise witnessed by the widespread distribution ofobsidian from Lipari, one o f the Aeolian islands north o f S icily, and from Sardinia. Advanced Neolithic-Chalcolithic, c. 5500 -3500 bc;. Elaborate ređ-on-cream painted wares appeared in S o u th e rn Italy, m arking the inception ot the Sialoria period. I his in turu \vas succeeded by the Scrra d'Alto period, characterized by baroque handles, ‘fruitstand’ shapes and other com plex ceram ic form s. O11 the Y u g o slav coast, there em erged the Danilo com plex, d o se ly related to B u tm ir, and characterized by geom etrically dccorated painted vvare and zoom orp hic cult vases. T h e radiocarbon dates from the earliest Scaloria sites w ith painted w are d uster around 5500 b c (th eaverage calibrated date is 5550 b c ), and for the sites ofth e advanced stage (Scrra d’ A lto, H var-successor to Danilo) fali vvithin the first h a lf o ft h e fifth m illennium b c .

Villages in the plains around Foggia and M atera in southeastem Italy w ere large. T h e settiement o f o di C o rv o near Foggia occupied ap p ro xim ately 50,000 square m etres and ineluded m ore than a hundred com pounds (Tine 1972). C aves w ere used as sanetuaries, particularly those w ith stalagmites and stalactites.

3

T H E M I D D IE D A N U B E BA SIN

Neolithic Central European Linear Pottery, Alfold, Tisza and Bukk complexes, c. 5500-4500 b c . A fu lly developed N eo lith ic culture and econom y evolved b y about 5500-5000 BC in the M iddle Danube Basin and the foothills o f the Carpathians. T h e earliest N eolithic assemblage representing the Linear Pottery c u lt u r e ('Bandkeramik") o f C en tral E u r o p e and th e related A lfold group in eastern H un gary reveal strong centra! Balkan (Late Starčevo and E arly Vinca) influence. N evertheless, the local robust, tall-statured European o f ‘ C ro -M a g n o n B ’ type, distinguished b y a m esocephalic skull and ‘rectangular’ f a c e - a v e ry w id c m andiblc and short, straight nose - continued to occupy the arca, com prising both the M esolithic and N eolithic inhabitants. It seems that the local M esolithic population was gradually converted to an agricultural econom y, fo llo w in g the exam ple o f the farm ers to the south and east. T h e p r a c tic e o f e x t e n s iv e slash-and-burn a g r ic u lt u r e i n v o l v i n g periodic resettlem ent effected the rapid spread o f the N eolithic econom y am o n g the indigenous population from H olland in the west to R o m a n ia in the east. The second stage o f N eo lith ic develop­ ment is m arked by the appearance o f the Zeliezovce variant west o f the m iddle D anube in H ungary, Slovakia and A ustria, the ‘ m usicnote’ (Notenkopf) decorated pottery phase to the north, and the B u k k culture in the Carpathian foothills. The Tisza com plex, nam ed after the R iv e r Tisza, m ay have developed from the A lfo ld E arly N eolithic and is contem porary to Early Vinca. Advanced Neolithic and Chalcolithic Len$yel, and Tiszapolgar and Petrefti complexes, c. 5000-3500 b c . In prehistoric as in early historic times com petitivc struggle tor occupation o f the fertile valleys o f the M iddle Danube Basin seems to have played a significant role in the culture history o f the region. T he periodically m igrating farmers o f the Linear Pottery culture w ere supplantcd by the Lettf>ycl com pIex w hich has cjuite di (Teren t

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M ap V : Adriatic civilization tUtrini; the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periodi, 6 5 0 0 -15 0 0 b c . Butmir s it a have a Central Balkan haclcground injlnenced hy tlie Adriatic (iviU zation. Circles indicate lite i oj seventh and si.\tli millennia 11 c ; d on indicate tliose o f fifth and early fourth millennia nc:

2 7

architectural and artistic traditions. The L engyel physical type, the so-called ‘A tlanto-M ediecrran can’, contrasts w ith the ccntral E u ro pcan C ro -M a g n o n , although a closely rclated physical typc is knovvn from central Italy. A nalogies to the L en gyel com plcx w ith its settlements fortified w ith w id e ditches, and its sophisticated painted p irifo rm vases and footed stands, are found in the D anilo com plex along the A driatic coast o f Y u go slavia. This m ay reflect an ethnic infiltration from the A driatic area to the Sava basin and the region east o f the Alps. T h e L cn gyel sites are distributed over a large territory ineluding eastern A ustria, ccntral and eastern Czechoslovakia and Southern Poland. T h e settlements consist o f tw o house types - rectangular tim ber struetures built w ith upright posts and scm i-subterranean dvvellings. These villages w ere located on large flat terraces and surrounded b y fortifications, enorm ous ditches and palisades w ith tow ers. A djacent to their settlem ent, the villagers cultivated vvheat, barley and Italian m illet; in addition to tending sheep/goat and kceping dogs they dom esticated both cattle and pig and engaged in hunting. Each o f these anim als also played an im portant part in ritual practices, ju d g in g from the frequent zoom orphic figurines and specially prepared offcring-pits w hich contained aurochs skulls or d og skeletons. L en gyel scvilpture retained a uniquc identity th rou gh out, and so form s a separate unit in the m osaic o f O ld European art. T h e classical L en gyel cuiture in central Europe began som e tim e in the fifth m illenium b c , its later period cxtend ing into the fourth m illennium b c . T h e ceram ic sequence for w hich a painted period w ith three sub-phases and an unpainted period w ith tw o sub-phases can be recognized, corroboratcs these w id ely separated dates. T h e Tiszapolgar com p lex in the east H ungarian plain em erged as a successor to the Tisza grou p . It is also referred to as the H ungarian E arly C o p p cr A ge because o f the occurrence o f copper axes, awls and pendants. T h e com p lex derives its name from the cem etery o f Tiszapolgar-Basatan ya in northeastern H u n gary w ith 156 burials near the settlement area. These people o f M editerranean type buried their dead in shallovv pits in a crouched position accom panied b y large and small vases, copper and shell bead necklaces, copper and gold pendants, flint blades and copper and stone axes. T h eir ceram ic form s - biconical vases and w id e bovvls 011 pedestals - are gen erally related to those o f the L e n g y d cuiture, but they did not paint their pottery. T h e Bodrof’kereszti'tr o r M iddle C o p p er A ge co m p lex is a continuation o f T iszapolgar and term inated around 3500 b c w ith the infiltration o ft h e steppe elem ent and East Balkan refugees. T h e Pctrefti grou p in T ransylvania is contem poraneous and culturally d o s d y related to the K aran ovo and Cueuteni cultures. Its beginning m ay have been connected with the north w ard m ovem en t

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o f the K aran o vo people along the R iv e r O lt and painted-pottery peoples from H ungary. The site o fP e tre jti itself lics near C lu j and its cultural deposits overlie E arly Vinča laycrs.

4 THE B.ASl BAI.KAN ARKA Neolithic, c. 6000 - sooo bc:. The East Balkan civilization began before or around 6000 bc: with the first appearance o f N eolithic occupation along the M arica river valley o f B u lg a ria ; the m ost n o tew orth y sites are K a ran o vo at N o va Zago ra, A zm ak near Stara Z a go ra , and Kazaniik, ali in central B u lgaria, and Č avd ar east o fS o fia . In the low cst levd s o ft h e teliš, representing the K aran ovo 1period, rectangular one-room ed houses

~9

VII

w ith w attle-and-daub w alls and aligned plank floors w ere arranged in parallel row s. T h eir contents p roved to be surprisingly advanced, including tulip-shaped vases w ith a black or w hite geom etric design painted on a red slip, one-handled cups, three-legged cult vessels, m arble and clay figurines and a rich bone and stone tool assem blage including num erous m ill-stones and sickles o f deer antler w ith inserted flint blades. Plentiful rem ains o f einkorn, em m er, wheat and lentils, and bones o f dom esticated sheep/goat, cattle and pig confirm the role o f agriculture. A lth o u gh fundam entally related to the central B alkan N eolithic, w e have here another distinguishable variant o f southeast European N eo lith ic culture. T h e highest B u lgarian tells have a stratigraphic depth o f as much as 1 8 m ., com posed o f accum ulated debris from the sixth to the third m illennia b c . T h e stratigraphies defined at the K aran o vo , A zm ak and Kazanlik tells yield an ideal docum entation o f the evolu tion and con tinu ity o f m aterial culture o ver a lon g p eriod ; the K a ran o vo scquence, phases I to V I, has becom e universally adopted as a ch ron ological yardstick fo r the developm ent o f East Balkan civiliza­ tion during the sixth, fifth and part o f the fourth m illennia BC. A large nu m ber o f radiocarbon dates from the K aran o vo and A zm ak tells, rresenting K a ran o vo I—III, form an alm ost perfect sequence; calibrated, they run from the end o f the seventh m illennium to about 5200 b c . T h ere was a considerable inerease in population du ring the K a ran o vo III phasc, vvhich must have begun around 5500-5400 b c , w hcn elements o f the K aran o vo III assem blage w ere carried, prob ably by ethnic expansion, northw est into the lo w er D anube region and southw ard beyond the R h o d o p e M ountains to M acedonia and T h race. In the north the intruders had to confront the settlers o f the C en tral European Linear P o ttcry culture, w h o occupicd the lo w er D anube and the H am angia grou p on the B lack Sca coast. Chalcolithic, c. 5200/5000-3500 b c . T h e East Balkan C halcolithic is com posed o f tw o diffcrcnt cultures: H am angia on the B lack Sca coast, and M arica-B oian-G um clni^a in R o m a n ia , B ulgaria and northeastern Greece. T h e Hamangia sites are lo c a te d a lo n g th e C oastal s trip o f th e Black Sea betvveen northern B ulgaria and the vvestern U kraine. M ost inform ation com es from 350 excavated graves o f the cem ctcry at C ern avo d a in the low er Danube region (Berciu 1966). Skcletal cxam ination rcvealed a predom inantly M editerranean population, but w ith a distinet local b rach ycep h aliccom p on ent. T h e ir settlements are found 011 the lo w tcrraces o f rivers. The H am angians practiscd m ixed farm ing, cultivating w hcat and vetch and herding sheep/goat, cattle and pig. T he carlicst ceram ics .V/<7/> 1-7 / : /:a>l Balkan civiliza tio n : distribution o f Karanovo, B oian-(hinw lni(a and Hamangia complc.vcs during the N colifhic and Chalcolithic pvriods. Hatchcd are a daiotvš Hamangia complcx. o. 5 5 0 0 -4 5 0 0 n e

•V u lk a n e sti

Bolintineanu

k e

a&mangia

Buchares*t#},vk

?ir?ova lavoda

G ju le ?ti# ;

T a n g ir u V j^

Salcuta \ H o ta r e lle * ^ B d T a n \ a stu . ’ • V adastca® Q J^ jn fire sti ^ ^ use _ R 'D ^ »

H otn ica K ojaderm en •

‘V ^ K a z a n i i k * Veselinovj '^ a t T đ v o V ,

A zm ak*

R M anea Ja r T ja t a * ”

Jasatepe* v

Dikiitash, Sitagroi J

)

L ovec / ^ ® P i 0 W liv

• Paradim i

|

^

Black Sea

were carđium -im pressed. O rnam ents, found abundantly as grave goods, include huge bracelets and beads o f Spondylus shell. A rou nd the m iddle o f the fifth m illennium the H am angian com plex was superseded b y the G u m e ln ip civilization. T h e Marica com p lex represents t h e S o u th e r n branch o f th e East B alkan civilization, nam ed after th e R iv e r M arica in ccntral B u lgaria. T h e Boian tradition is a northern variant o f the East Balkan civilization. It is named after an island settlem ent in the Danube south o f Bucharest. D u rin g its second (Giule§ti) phase, B oian material cuiture spread as far as M oldavia in the northeast. Skeletons from a large B o ian cem etery at Cernica near Bucharest w ere predom inantly o f sm all-statured M editerranean type. T h e nam e 'Vadastra civilization ’, derived from a m iddle layer o f the stratified site on the Danube in w estern R o m a n ia , is not a separate cuiture but a w estem variant o f the East Balkan civilization parallel to the B oian tradition. The M arica, Vadastra and Boian groups are not different cultures but integral parts o f one civilization, which in its advanced stage and clim ax is k n o w n as the Cum elnija civilization. A t least five hundred tells containing Gum elnita material remains have been recorded in R o m a n ia , B ulgaria and eastern M acedonia, o f w hich about thirty have been system atically excavated. The Gum elnita site itself lies southeast o f Bucharest on the Danube and was excavated between 1924 and 1960. O ther im portant sites from G um elnita deposits are Cascioarele, Sultana, V idra, T an giru and Hir§ova, ali in the lo w er Danube region o f R o m a n ia , and R u se , Chotnica and Kodjaderm en in northern B ulgaria. In the M arica V alley, in addition to A zm ak and K aran ovo (VI), know n sites cluster around Stara Z ago ra and P lovd iv. N orth o f the A egean, the m ost n o tew o rth y are the reccntly excavatcd Sitagroi and D ikili-T ash m ounds on the Plain o f D ram a. Sedentary Gum elnita com m unities occupicd com pact villages or small townships for a m illennium or m ore, producing deep accum ulations o f cultural deposit, rich in artifacts. The subsistencc econom y depended upon the usual crops and dom esticates - w hcat, six-ro w barley, vetch and lentils; and cattle, pig, shcep/goat and dog. T h ere was a steady grow th in m etal-produetion and trade: copper ncedles, awls, fish-hooks and spiral-hcaded pins w erc produced and, at the end o f the period, axes and daggers, a d evelopm ent which is also found in the Vinča, T iszapolgar, Lengyel and Cucuteni cultures. W orkshops o f flint, copper, gold, SpondyIus shell and pottery have been diseovered, im plyin g craft-specialization and general division o f labour. G old was obtained from T ransylvania and copper from C arpathian sources. G um elnita fine ceram ic vessels are distinguished by the m anner in w hich colour and decorative patterns are blendeđ vvith exquisite

form s, clear evidence o f an advanced technique. G raphite painting, which becam e the dom inant me.thod o f decoration, required special kilns to provid e the prolonged period o f reduetion necessary to prevent oxidation o f the graphite. Shapes range from large decorated storage vessels for grain to cups, profiled dishes, biconical or piriform bow ls and am phorae and h igh ly stylized anth ropom orph ic, zoom orphic and ornithom orphic form s. Schem atism is a characteristic o f ali East Balkan sculptural art. D u ring the B oian phase, figurine form was bound by rigid conventions, w hich w ere subsequently relaxed to perm it the inereased freedom and versatility displayed by Gum elnita figurines. Lincar signs (possibly w riting) w ere cm ployed b y the East B alk an B o ia n Gum elni(a civilization throughout its existence.

5 THE MOLDAVlAN-WUS'r UKRAINIAN ARHA

Neolithic, c. 6 500-5000 b c . D uring the B oreal and Atlantic clim atic phases, the black soil region northvvest o f the Black Sca, intersected by the fertile valleys o f the Prut, Siret, Dniester and S o u th e rn B ug, offered a suitable en viron m ent fo r the inception and developm ent o f a N eolithic eco n o m y. T h e Dnicster-Biig N eolithic c u i t u r e , com prising perm anent villagc settlements based on agriculture, developed indigenously and was only subsequently influenced from the south and west, in the sixth m illennium b c by the Central Balkan (Starčevo) com plex, and in the fifth b y the East Balkan (Boian) and Central European (Lincar Pottery) com plexes. The uninterrupted cultural continuum is ideally defined by stratigraphic and typological studies, reinforced by radio­ carbon dates, w hich reveal a D niester-B ug sequence o fth ree aceram ic and five ceram ic phases.

Chalcolithic, c. 5000-3500 b c . The N eolithic cuiture \vas succecdcd by the tw elve consecutive phases o f the C h alcolithic Ciiciitcni (Russian : Tri pol civilization. Subsistencc was based upon the cultivation o f cinkom whcat, dom estication o f cattle and pig, and intensive hunting o f forest fauna and fishing. H ovvcvcr, the forest environm cnt made shifting agricul­ ture neccssary and conscqucntly there was 110 accum ulatioii o f mound deposits such as are found in Bulgaria and Southern R o m a n ia . The earlicst villages w crc located 011 flood-plain tcrraccs and w crc later establishcd on higher ground during the vvetter A tlantic phase. The large C ucutcni villages are alw ays situated 011 extensive raised river tcrraccs.

33

Vili

T he Cucuteni civilization is clearly d w ith its Southern neighbours o f the East B alkan tradition, and form s the n o rth erly outpost o f O ld European culture, extending as far as the m iddle D nieper in the northeast. Ethnically, it appears to have com prised a m edley o f the indigenous inhabitants and infiltrating M editerraneans. Southw estern and East Balkan influences played an im portant part in transform ing local ceram ic styles, both at the inception and during the evolution o f C ucuteni culture, w hich in its classical period, around 4500-4000 b c , achieved a rem arkable artistic m aturity in its ceram ic products. Characteristic o f the Cucuteni peoples are their colourful bichrom e and trichrom e vases, bow ls, ladles, and other p ottery fo rm s; equally distinctive are libation ju g s, vessels for divination, altars and schem atic anthropom orphic and zoom orphic figurines, vvhich reveal an adherence to elaborate ritual practices. Pictorial representations on Late Cucuteni vases are o f utm ost im portancc as a source o f m ythical im agery. T he fortified settlement o f Cucuteni in north i 1 M old avia, after which the culture is nam ed, was excavated in i> 9 - 10 by H ubert Sch m idt and in 19 6 1-6 5 b y M . Petrescu-Dim bc i(a. T rip o ly e on the m iddle D nieper was excavatcd at the end ' the ninetecnth cen tury b y V . V. K h v o jk a . A lm o st one hundre years o f p rolific excavation by R o m an ian and Soviet archaeolog: > have m ade this one o f the best archaeologically docum ented gions in eastem Europe. T h e siže o f C ucutenian (Tripolyean) villages a 1tow ns inereased during the course o f the fifth m illcnnium b c . D u i g the first h a lf o f the fourth m illcnnium , the C ucuteni culture 1 veloped into an urban civilization. T h e largest to w n , near T a l’r : south o f K ie v , consisted o fa b o u t 1,50 0 houses in an area o f 700 ac s w ith a potential population o f 20,000 (currently under excavation / N . M . Shm aglij o f the A rch aeological Institute o f the U krainian A< lem y ofScien ces, K iev). Follov/ing the initial excavation o f the settle ent at C ucuteni, the classical period was called ‘ Cucuteni A ’ ai the late period ‘C ucuten i B ’ . This tc rm in o lo gy survived, alth oi i it subsequently required elaboration : an intervening phase is ider fied as ‘ C ucuteni A B ’ and phases prcceding Cucuteni A w ere cessarily term ed ‘ P ro to -C u cu ten i’ . In S o viet literature the ‘T ri >Iye’ sequence is d ivided into A , B and C . The C ucuteni cu ltu r rontinued to the m iddle o f the fourth m illcnnium vvhcn it v s disturbed and transform ed b y K u rgen W ave N o . 2.

34

T /ip o ly e « ^ fshchina® Zhukovtsi • St. Buda

Luka-Vrubleve:

;lateni

• Krynichka

Tru^e§ti • »\Larga-Jijiei \ »Cucuteni Tirpesti«

•Habasesti

• i Frumusira

,

•\lzvoare #lTraian

N ovyf- Rusesl

/

f

JAr*usd .A N A L P S

Bucharest •

M ap V i l i : Cucuteni (T rip o ly e ) civilization, c . 5 0 0 0 -15 0 0 (brokeri Iine) is uncertain

Black Sea

bc

. Th e ivestern limit

35

2 Sh

Schematism o rth and

In the earliest level o f the Vinča m ound, representing the N eo lith ic Starčevo com plex, a ceram ic figurine usually described as a ‘seated goddess w ith large buttocks and cylindrical neck’ was found. For a fem ale representation it has an extrem ely reduced form , w ith no distinetion between head and torso, and on ly a cylindrical neck . ading the buttocks. Its general shape suggests a bird but there is no indication o f w ings, beak or bird-legs. Even as a hybrid, perhaps h alf-w om an and half-bird, it needlessly lacks naturalistic detail. This means that w e are confronted w ith the problem o fd ete rm in ing the artist’s ultim atc intention. In the first place w e m ust decide w hat the sculpture presents, its subject m atter; beyond this, w e must also try to understand its sym bolic content, for on ly in this w a y can w e hope to com prehend the psycho-social dynam ic that inspired its produetion. Stratigraphical evidence shows that this figurine dates from ro u gh ly 6000 b c , and there are m any like it in sites o f the same period. Som e figurines are even m ore reduced, rendering the m erest outline o f hum an or bird form . E xcavation o f N eolithic sites has yielded num erous ‘ b u m p y’ figurines, often little m ore than tw o ccntim etrcs long, w hich archaeologists classify only as indeterm inate or am biguous objeets. Exam in ed as isolated, individual pieces they rem ain enigm atic, their role unknovvn; but once w e identify these m iniatures as belon ging to a single hom ogencous grotip o f figures, thev can be recognized as vastly reduced versions o f the larger ‘steatop y g o u s’ figurine-type w hich w ill be fully described in later ehapters. W ith these and m any larger figures lacking in detail, it is evident that the sculptor was not striving for aesthetic effects; he w as producing sculptural ‘shorthand’ , an abstract sym bolic conceptual art, im ages that were em blem atic o ft h e divine regardless o f the cxtent o f their sehematization. T h e true m eaning o f the figures can best be 1 S c h c m a t i i ' c d l e m a l e t i j j u r c . I l.iir i n d i c a t e d b y i n c i s i o n . V i n c a m o u m l . H a r l v s ixth m ille n n iu m

ih:

37

sought in the m ore detailed, less abstracted figurines w h ich reveal the naturalistic detail that betrays subject m atter and so brings us closer to understanding the content o f the w o rk . Sculptural ‘shorthand’, unthinking and repetitive, illustrates the conservative nature o f the tradition w ith in w h ich the sculptor w o rk e d ; each culture translates its basic explanatory assum ptions into equivalent fo rm structures and creativity is on ly expressed in subtle variations fro m the socially prescribed norm s. For the sociocultural historian it is m ore im portant to exam ine the conventional than the fe w and slight deviations from it, since his w o rk is to com prehend the inherited and collective - rather than the individual - psyche.

T h e N e o lith ic a r t is t ’s r e a l it y -

not

a

p h ysic a l

r e a lit y

B o th figurine subject m atter and the form al repetition o f the collectiv e ly approved style g iv e an insight into the content and purpose o f figu rin e art. A rt reveals m an ’s m ental response to his environm ent, fo r w ith it he attem pts to interpret and subdue reality, to rationalize nature and give visual expression to his m yth olo gizin g explan ato ry concepts. T h e chaotic form s o f nature, including the hum an fo rm , are disciplined. W h ile the C y cla d ic figurines o f the third m illenniiim BC are the m ost e xtrem ely geom etricized, rigid constraint o f this kind, though less m arked, characterizes m ost o f the groups o f O ld European N eolithic and C halcolithic figures. T h e artist’s reality is not a physical reality, though he endow s the concept w ith a physical form , w h ich is tw o-dim ensional, constrained and repetitive. Su pernatural pow ers w ere conceived as an explanatory device to induce an ordered experience o f natu re’s irregularities. These p ow ers w ere given fo rm as masks, h yb rid figures and animals, prod u cing a sym b olic, conceptual art not given to physical naturalism . T h e p rim ary purpose w as to transform and spiritualize the b o d y and to sur the elem entary and corporeal. It follo w s, then, that form al reduction should not be ascribed to the technical inability o f the N eo lith ic artist to m odel in the round but to requircm ents dictated b y deeply im planted concepts and beliefs. N evertheless, since w e are dealing w ith an art that has often been term ed ‘p rim itive’ in a partially pejorative scnse, it is necessary to digress briefly in defence o f the N eolithic sculptor’s ability and to stress that he w as not lim ited to unnaturalistic form s b y the inadequacy o f his m anual skills, the nature o f his raw m aterials o r the lack o f neccssary tcchniqucs. In short, old European figurine art was the ou teom e o f skilled craftsm anship, con form in g to m atured traditions. T h e . beginnings o f p ottery m anufacture are blurred in the

3«

archaeological record, fo r the earliest clay vessels and artifacts w ere unbaked and have not survived. T h e earliest fired ceram ics, includ­ ing fine burnished and painted w ares from the late seventh m illennium B C, are articulately m odelled and reveal a com plete m astery o f ceramic tech nology. Stone and bone was fm ely carved and g ro u n d : Proto-Sesklo and Starčevo villagers in the A egean area and centra! Balkans fashioned beautiful spoons o f bone and painstakingly ground miniature stone ornam ents such as perforated pendants and buttons. T he serpentine toad from the site o f N ea N ikom edeia in M acedonia is an outstanding w o rk o f art o f the seventh m illennium b c . Stone and bone sculptures are fe w com pared to those o f clay, but they sh ow a like degree o fstylization , though one m igh t expect them to be, i f anyth in g, m ore schem atic still. T w o sculptures have been seleeted to dem onstrate this: a typical Early Vinča clay figu rin e w ith a triangular masked head, bum p fo r a nose, slanting incised eyes, stum p-arm s, projeeting buttocksandnaturalistically m odelledbreasts and n avel; and the m arble figurine from Gradac, also o f the E a rly Vinča period. T h e different raw materials do dictate a differing expression but the figures are alike in style and detail. B o th com prise masked heads, arm stum ps and inarticuiate Iegs. O th er m arble sculptures are still m ore reduced, lacking ali facial features. D urin g the fifth m illennium , carvin g in m arble became m ore self-conscious and em ancipated itself fro m the influence o f clay-m od ellin g. B on e figures w ere entirely schematic. A fifth-m illennium exam ple o f a stylized hum an figu re carved out o f bone from a g ra v e in the cem etery o f C ernica near Bucharest is a case in point. Its head is broken. T h e tw o rounded protuberances apparently p ortray folded arms. T h e abdom inal and pubic area is emphasized. A lth o u gh drastically reduced, this little sculpture is probably a p ortrayal o f a Great Goddess in a rigid position, standing in the nude w ith folded arms, a type encountered in graves throughout the O ld European period and in the C yclad es o f the third m illennium b c . A lm o st ali o f the knovvn figurines o f copper and gold are schem atic, tw o dim ensional silhouettes o f the human body, cut from a flat piece o f material. T h ro u gh o u t the seventh and sixth millennia b c figurine art was clearly dom inated b y abstract form s such as cylindrical p illar-like neeks and a hybrid torso o f fem ale buttocks and a b ird ’s b o d y, but at the same time other quite different form s were produced, som e o f them strikingly naturalistic. A n exceptional fem ale figurine assigned to the Sesklo period in Thessaly sits in a relaxcd position w ith her legs to one side, her hands resting on her thighs. In profile the nose is exaggerated and beaked but the head and body are naturalistically proportioned, dispensing with the pillar-like neck o f earlier sculptures.

39

171

3, 4 5

6

7,8

3, 4 Fem ale fig u rin e w ith m asked hcad and stum ps fo r arm s. V in ča m ou n d . c. o f sixth m illen n iu m b c

6 Bone

fig u r in e from th e cem etery o f C ernica, So u th e rn R om an ia. Late sixth

m ille n n iu m b c

7, K Seated nude figu rin e from Thcssalv Sesklo cuiture, c. 6ooo n e

9 C lassical V in ča fig u rin e . S c h e n u tiic d ab o v c the w aist, rou n d ed b e lo w . S e le v a c near S m ed erev sk a Palan ka, southeast o f B c lg ra d e . c.

sooo bc

10 Sq u a ttin g Late V in ča figu rin e. Indsions ind icatc dress and punetate design sym bo lizes snake m o tif. c. secon d h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m

,

bc

. , ,

l i , 1 2 Sq u attin g m an, hands resting on tig n tly

d ra w n -u p knees. Fafos I, V in ča site at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o s la v ia . c. 5000 BC

T

he

C

h a l c o l it h ic

trend

to w ard s

m ore

n a t u r a l ist ic

scu lptu r e

in

th e

era

T h e gradual trend tow ard m ore naturalistic sculpture can be traced in the V inča statuary. The Vinča m ound and other Vinča settlements p rovid e a large group o f figurines com bining sehematization o f the upper part o f the b o d y w ith alm ost naturalistic m odelling b elow . A sculpture fro m Selevac in centra! Y u go slav ia provides a classic exam ple in this series: the figure has exquisitely m odelled abdom en and hips, the legs m erging to provid e a stable base. T h e head is schem atized, pentagonal, w ith sem i-globular plastic eyes; the arms are represented b y perforated stumps. O ne o f the most exquisite sculptures fro m the Vinča site is a perfectly proportioned squatting w o m an , u nfortunately headless. A nother rem arkable Vinča sculp­ ture, also headless, from the site o f Fafos, depiets a man w ith knees d raw n tigh tly to his chest, his hands placed on them and his back bent slightly forvvard. His life-like posture, w ith the excep tionally accurate m odelling o f the arms and the hands tightly grasping the knees, is unique in European art o f c. 5000 b c . A n exquisite rendering o f the rounded parts o f a fem ale body, especially abdom en and buttocks, occurs occasionally in ali parts o f O ld Europe. A n extraordinary series o f m ale sculptures, each ind ivid u ally seated 011 a stool, is distinguished for perfeetion in portrayal o f the m ale body, particularly the slightly curving back. T h e excavation o f the B u tm ir site yielded several finely executed heads, rem arkable for their realism ; the conventional m asked features are here replaced b y a w ell-m odelled forehead, eye-b ro w s, nose, lips, ehin and ears. U nm asked hum an heads m odelled in the round occasionally occur in other cultural gro u p s; even in the Cucuteni area, in w hich figurine art reached an extrem e o f schem atic sym bolism , a fe w naturalistically rendered hum an heads w ere discovered, w ith eyes, nostrils and m outh show n b y impressed holes. Figurines w ith unm asked heads and hum an facial features com prise the rarest category o f N eolithic and Chalcolithic sculptures. T h e finest sculpture was certainly the produet o f exceptionally gifted m em bers o f society, though the varyin g intensity o f individual m otivation w ould also bc refleeted in the quality o f the artifact. N evertheless the eruder figurines which w ere the norm w ere no less rich in sym b olic content.

43

9

10

11,12

246, 2 4 8 -2 5 0

H ip - belts

3 D

Ritual Costume e c o r a t iv e

m o t if s

on

f ig u r in e s

as

r e f l e c t io n

of

CO STU M E A N D

M ost captivating are the hip-belts, which have a large button resting on either hip and a third in fro n t o f the pubis. T h e belts w ere p rob ab ly fashioned in leather, although som e w ere apparently m ade o f large beads or clay dises. T h e large buttons m ay have been m anufactured o f bone, w o o d , clay or stone. M ushroom -shaped buttons o f w hite, green o r y e llo w m arble, alabaster and calcite, diseovered in Vinča settlements, m ay have served as studs for belts, jackets or other garm ents o f h eavy fabric. Figurines vvearing large buttons on the hips have been diseovered in the deepest layer o f the Vinča m ound, belon gin g to the N eo lith ic Starčevo period, and they continued to be represented in sculpture until the final phase o f occupation at the V inča site. H ip-belts are also portrayed on East Balkan figurines. Fem ale figurines vvearing hip-belts appear to be otherw ise naked, except fo r the usual facial masks.

O RNAM ENTS

i Figurine irearing a h ipV/f made o f large and m a li ’ises. V in i a mound. c. }o o o

D ecorative m otifs frequently occur on figurines to indicate costum e, refleeting the stylistic conventions and characteristics o f dress w ithin the sculptor’s society. Late V inča figurines teli us m ost about costum e design since they are less abstract than earlier N eolithic figurines and less conventionalized than those o f the East Balkan and Cucuteni civilizations. T h e ir careful detail, reinforced b y less substantial evidence from East Balkan (Gumelni^a) sculpture, enables us to reconstruct O ld European dress style c. 4000 b c . T h e usual decorative technique was deep incision, often enerusted w ith a w h ite paste m ade o f erushed shells, or filled w ith red ochre, or black, w hite or red paint. Alternating dark and light bands, set either d iagonally or vertically, w ere som etim es produced b y this m ethod, p robably to depict a garm ent m ade o f several broad, different coloured s o f material sewn together. Plastic relief decoration was also em p loyed . A pplied ‘buttons’ arranged in one, tw o or three row s indicatc belts, m edallions and necklaces. B oth m en and w o m cn w o re a circular pendant hanging in the m iddle o f the chest or at the nape o f the neck. It m ay have been an em blem sign ifyin g particular status, or m ore spccifically sym bolic o f go d ­ desses or gods. T h e first indications o f necklaces on fem ale figurines are to be traced on the prim itive cylindrical Starčevo figurines. A ctu al shell, clay, stonc and bone hcads have been frequently fou n d : in the N eolithic settlem ent o f Vrsnik, near Štip, Y u go slavia, hundreds o f shell beads w ere deposited in a small globular black polished vasc. N u m erou s beads o f shell, alabaster, m arble, copper and clay w ere recovered from the sites o f C h alcolithic V inča, B u tm ir, L en gyel, East B alkan, C ucuteni and other cultural groups. Several strings o f beads frcquently appear on Cucuteni figurines.

44

D

r esses

T h e incised decoration o f som e figurines indicates long, elegant go w n s. T h e y m ust have been w ell-fitted to the fem ale b o d y, narrovvin g at the waist and at the bottom . Breasts, buttocks and legs are w elldefined in m ost sculptures, as i f the dress w ere o f light fabric. C o m m onest are tw o-piece dresses, consisting o f skirt and blouse. The m ajority o f the ‘ clothed’ figurines have incised m arkings suggesting a blouse o f six o r m ore equal s o f m aterial sew n together. It has a sim ple ‘V ’ neck at front and back and m ay be sleeveless, shortsleeved or lon g-sleeved. T h e blouse or bolero norm ally extends ju st b e lo w the vvaist, but seated figurines w ear blouses or jerk in s extending d ow n to the stool or throne. A suggestion o f decorated sleeves appears on som e o f the m ost im pressive figurines, perhaps im p ly in g the portrayal o f richly clad goddesses. A b o vc the shoulders a spiral m o tif is usually encountered, and below it three or m ore parallel incisions. T h e B arilje vo seated goddess has a shoulder and sleeve decoration o f spirals and tvvo groups o f lines. The constricting lincs across the m iddle o f the arm s and at the wrists o f this figure m ay represent arm -rings and bracelets. A similar constriction appears on the arm o f the sculpturc from Ć uprija, but this figure is uniquc for another reason: it bears upon its back w hat appears to be a bag, perhaps a leather pouch for carrying a baby. The bag is suspended o v er the shoulders and neck b y a massive belt or ropc vvhich is clearly indicated b y an incised applied ridge. Dress fashions show considerable divcrsity, and various fabrics and perhaps em broidcry can be inferrcd from the differin g zigzag, ladder and net patterns w hich adom the blouses. T h e skirt, discernible on alm ost ali standing and seated figurines in w hich the

45

2 Classical Vinča figurin e with wliite-eucnisted incisions indicaling closefitting full-length dress. Potporanj site at Vršac, northeastern Yugoslaviq

16 U p p c r part o f large figu rine w ea rin g a m ask m arked vvith triple lincs under cycs and m canders on top and a m ed allion . Fafos II at K osovska M itro v ic a . V in ča culture, c. 4500 BC

1 7 ‘ T h e m asked la d y o f B a r ilje v o ; n e a r Priština, So u th ern Y u g o s la v ia , w e a rin g elaborate dress w ith constricted sleeves and a m ed allion . O rig in a lly seated 011 a throne. c. 4500 4000 BC 18, 19 Late V in ča figu rin e fro m C rn o k a la ć k a B a ra near N iš, Y u g o s la v ia , vvcaring tight skirt o f cross-hatched design vvith 'fo ld s ’ at b o tto m . R c c ta n g u la r at back o f the shoulders suggests a s c a rf o r is purely sym b o lic

13 , 14 Late C u cu ten i fig u rin e sh o w n vvearing fiv c n ccklaces and a broad belt w ith frin g e at front. Sipintsi (Sch ip cn itz), w estcrn U k ra in e . E a rly fou rth m illcn n iu m b c

i

5 Late C u c u te n i fig u rin e w c a rin g tw o n ccklaces and a h ip -b elt a b o v e the c x a g g c ra tc d and d ccoratcd p u bie area. B ilczo Z lo t c . w estem U k rain e. E a rlv fou rth m illenn iu m Rt:

6 Vinca fig u rin e wearing tight skirt which hugs the hips and leaves the belly exposed. Gradac site, Southern Yugoslavia

3 L oiver h a lf o f fem ale figure ivearing a hip-belt m th a large disc on the pubis and upon each hip. Vinča mound. c. $ 3 0 0 - 3 1 0 0 b c

4 Seated l 'inča fig urin e ivearing tu’o-piece dress and perhaps a bolero. H er legs inerge with the stool. M iddle part o f blouse painted black at fron t and back. Banjica site ticar Belgrade. Barly fifth millennium bc:

7 V inča fig u ri ne ivearing checkerboard skirt. W hiteenerusted dots and incisions. Vinča mound. c. 5006 BC

$ Miid - Vinča figu rine iccaring broad hip-belt unth fritige in fro n t, back and sides, ed hy straps over shoulders. Vinča mound. Early fifth millennium b c

s l'orso 01 figurine. H hiteenc.rustcd incisions indicatc blouse or tunic o f fabric with fiet and ladder motifs. I 'inča mound. c. early fifih millennium B C

? I ? 3cm

have curving diagonal incisions o ver the legs suggesdng folds at the hem o f the skirt, o r ribbons securing and folđ ing up the hem beneath the skirt.

M en ’s c o st u m e

g L o w er h a lf o f a Vinča fig u rin e slioivn ivearing a spiral-decorated narroiviiig skirt tvliich a u li in folds. Dottcd pattern in fro m may represent an apron. Bcletinci at O brež, district o f Srem ska M itrovica, northern Yugoslavia

.5, 7

9

S

20

21

lo w e r torso is preserved, is the m ost elaborate form o f attire. T h e belly is almost alw ays exp o sed ; the skirt, not necessarily sew n or attached to the blouse, generally begins b elow the w aist-line, h uggin g the hips. T h e w h ite enerusted incisions reveal net patterning, horizontal lines divided into sections, checker-boards, dots, spirals and meanders. T h e skirt usually narrovvs b elow the knees, w here ornam ent either term inates or ehanges into parallel lines. A n apron w as som etim es w o rn o ver the skirt, w ith a fringe or tassels indicated around the apron sides and at the back. As a rule, V inča, Gumclni^a and C ucu teni figurines w ear hip-belts, som etim es ed by shoulder straps and frin ged at the front, back and sides. T h e long skirt usually reaches to the tocs but in a num ber o f figurines legs and fcet are visiblc, either naturalistically portrayed or vvith indications o f cloth covcrin g. C lear definition o f breast and navel suggests that the seated figure from Čaršija wcars no clothing ab ove the v^aist. B e lo w the belly, a dottcd apron vvith tassels or skirt fringe on each side covcrs her lap. T h e figu rc’s fat legs scem to be bound, perhaps w ith thongs or w o ven bands, but are p robably otherw ise bare. O th er figurines clearly reveal draped cloth and vvrappings around the legs and the skirt was possibly slit b elow the knees and fastened w ith w o ven bands, ribbons or thongs. O n a fine exam ple from C rn ok alaćk a Bara a skirt is incised w ith vertical lines, its hem indicatcd by a horizontal linč. B e lo w the hem are tw o double lines ing around the front o f each leg, presum ably representing binders o f w o ve n m aterial. T h e costum e this figure w ears givcs an im pression o f constraint and rcstricted m ovem ent. M an y figurines

50

Male sculptures are usually portrayed nude in a standing or sitting position, but som e w ear em blem s, pendants or collars. Late C ucuteni figures w ear a hip-belt and a band or strap ing d iago n ally over one o f the shoulders and across the chest and back. One category o f Vinča m ale figurines appears fu lly dressed in ‘sailor blouse’ and knickers. A broad V-shaped collar m ay depict a blouse or som ething w o m over a blouse. T w o or three incisions above the shoulders are either a decorative m o tif or an em blem . A grotesque standing masked man from the Vinča site o f Fafos at Kosovska M itrovica is o f considerable interest: he vvears padded knickers, and his belly is exposed and his hands, n o w broken, probably w ere on his hips.

0J 1» 2i

31 c m

it Late Vinča seated m ale? fig u rin e from Valač, Southern Yugoslavia, shown in blouse and knickers. I Vh ite-i nfi Iled incisions indicate dress. Broad V-shaped collar painted in red, probah! y oj symholic nature 1 2 A decorated shoe, probah!)' leather. East Balkan Gum elnifa complex. Vidra, lower D anube, Romania. c. 4 5 0 0 b c

10 Cucuteni man portrayed u'itli a liip-belt, dagger and chest-hand. Bercfti site near Bujor, eastem Romtmia. c. 4000 11c:

Fo o tw ear

Figurines produccd during this period in the Balkan Fcninsula do not reveal details o f foo tw ear. Som e sculptures cleariy sh o w bare fect with toes indicatcd, but in on ly exctional cascs w erc shocs portraycd b y incision or b y m odelling.

24, 25 G ro tcsq u e m asked fig u rin e w ith 'padded k n ickers’ and expo sed belly fro m Fafos I at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o sln v ia . First h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m b c

2 0 Seated V in ča fig u r e fro m Č aršija, central Y u g o s la v ia , vvearing h ip -b elt, d ottcd apron in fron t and side frin ges. L e g -b in d in g s ju s t b c !o w knees and calvcs. T op lcss except fo r goddess em blem o r V-shaped collar

23 U p p e r pa rt o f a Late V in ča fig u rin e fr o m P ločn ik, So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . w earin g broad, red, V-shaped collar. Sleeves c o n stric te d b e lo w shoulders and three incisions 011 ea ch shoulder. T h e mask is m arked w ith V signs and parallel lin es. c. late fifth m ille n iu m b c

2 1 Late V in ča fig u rin e w c a rin g tight skirt. T w o d o u b lc lines ing arou n d legs indicatc leg-b in d in gs. L ig h t b ro w n fabric w ith w h itc encrtisted incisions. C rn o k a la čk a B ara, southeastem Y u g o s la v ia 22 Legs c o v ered b y skirt folds characterizc this large V in ča figure. R ed paint on bare toes. V ilica m oun d. M id -fifth m illennium b c

e la b o r a te coiffures consisting o f double-spiral coils round the head.

Som e figures, m ale and fem ale, w ear peculiar conical caps, hoods or coifs, vvhich are decoratcd w ith r a d ia l incisions and extend o v e r the mask. T h e most celebrated o f such figurines, w earing a tiered conical cap, is the little man (or w om an) from the site o f V inča. P o in t e d c a p s . m ust have been w id cly in fashion during the sixth and fifth m ille n n iu m b c throughout southeastern Europe. E la b o r a t e c o i f f u r e and cro w n or turban appears on ly on B ird and Snake Goddess p o in te d

3 C jlin d rica l head with mg hair neatly combed and ounđ at the end. Starčevo iyer o f the Pavlovac site, outhern Yugoslavia. E arly <xth millennium BC

figurines. SU M M IN G UP

4 M asked head fro m the /inča mound shou/ing hair ivided into tu/o s by a air-band. First h a lf o f fifth -tillennium BC

5 Vinca masked head from he site o f Crnokalačka Bara tortli o f N iš, southeastern t'ugoslat/ia. H ead behind he mask shows hair neatly ombed and cut. c. first ta lf o f fifth millennium b c

e

«

2. '

—

-

3

1

4 cur,

COIFFURE AND CAPS

t.1

'4

15 16

A lth o u gh the face is certainly masked on a m ajority o f the figurines, long free-hanging hair falling d o w n the back to ju st belo w the shoulders is often evident behind the mask. L on g hair, carefullv indicated even on the schem atizcd exam ples, characterizes the cylindrical figurine heads o f the seventh and sixth m illennium b c , and special attention to coiffure persisted throughout the duration o f the Vinča cuiture. A masked head from Vinča itsclfsho w s the hair divided into tw o sym m etrical s b y a central ribbon, attached, at back and front, to a second ribbon that es around the cro w n o f the head, disappcaring at the back vvherc it is overh u n g by hair. This hair-style, interpretcd as ‘p lu m age’ b y Vasić, is indicated b y incision. M an y o f the later V inča figurines indicate hair ve ry ncatly com bcd, parted and cut, descending to b clow the cars. Som e have a band around the cro w n o f the head. A catcgo ry o f Cucuteni nude or sem inude fem ale figurines has ‘ p o n y-tails’ vvhich fali to the vvaist-line and end in a large bun. East Balkan m iniature sculptures indicate very

The costume detail preserved on clay figurines attcsts a particular richness in the style and ornam ent o f fem ale and male garm ents during the fifth and early fourth m illennia b c . C o m p arab le indication o f dress on figurines o f the seventh and sixth m illennia b c is rare, but sufficient to affirm the presence o f hair-styles, hair ornam ent, bead necklaces, pendant m edallions and hip-belts. In the fem ale costum e o f the Vinča and East Balkan cultures several dress com binations rećur persisten tly: fu lly dressed figures wear blouses and tight skirts, or long dresses, and possibly boleros; the others w ear either skirts vvhich hug the hips or hip-belts ingaprons o r a lo n g sk irt-lik e fringe, leavin g th e n a ve l and upper h a lf o f the torso exposed. Lon g, tight and rich ly ornam ented skirts are characteristic o f ali cultural groups. A t least tw o form s o f attire are discernible on m ale figurines: some are dressed in decoratcd blouses w ith tros extcnding below the knees, vvhile others vvear only belts or shorts and chest bands. The m en’s blouses charactcristically display broad V-shaped collars. N ecklaces, exclusive to fem ale costum e, vvere strung with beads o f M editerranean or Adriatic shell, stone, bone, copper or clay; equally popular vvere clav pendants, and arm -rings and bracelets o f shell, bone and copper, w o m by botli m ale and fem ale figurines. T he richly clad figurines are p robably not m eant to depict ordinary villagers; they are m ore likely to p ersonify specific go d ­ desses o r gods, or represent vvorshippers or priests attending rites, garbed appropriately in masks and festive costum e. M uch that typifies costumes vvorn during the fifth and fourth millennia in Balkan Europe can bc readily recognized in the illustrations o f goddesses and vvorshippers preserved on M inoan frcscoes, statuary, seals and signet rings o f the second m illennium b c . The exquisite M inoan fem ale costume m ay represent the culm ination o f a tradition vvhich began in N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic Europe. Like the sculptured deities or vvorshippers o f their Balkan predecessors, the M inoan goddesses and their votaries alw ays vvear lavishly decoratcd skirts o f various designs and colours. Topless fashions vvere popular

1 6 N ude Cucuteni figurine with long hair ending in a large round coil. K ryniclika, Podolia, uiestcrn Ukraine. c. early fourth millennium BC

/7 M iniature M id-V inča masked head, u'earing a conical cap decoratcd u’itli (hevrons. Vinča mound. 5000 - 4500 BC

in both periods and so w ere necklaces and arm -rings. W ide-open blouses and bolero-shaped jackets, typical and distinctive in M inoan fem ale dress, had been w o rn by Vinča and East Balkan w om en. Individuals h aving im portant roles in ritual celebrations and dressed as goddesses and gods w ere the m ost extravagan tly clad in both periods. H o w e v e r, som e difference can be n o te d : where the M inoan skirt w as flounced, that o f the B alkan N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic was close-fitting. Essentially the same tradition continued from the B ronze A g e to the tim e o f classical G reece. O n vases o f the sixth and fifth centuries BC gods appear in sleeved decorative robes; D ionysus wears one on b lack-figu re vases and so does A n d rom ed a on a krater o f the fifth century B C , although sleeved robes had becom e unfashionable by that tim e (B ieber 19 3 9 : Figs. 4 3 ,6 3 ). M inoan, M ycenaean and ancient G reek festival attire is an inheritance from the O ld European civiliza­ tion. T h e parallelism is striking. W h at was the origin o f the exquisite O ld European costum e? T h ere is no reason to assume that this surprising sophistication o f c. 5000-3500 b c was an im ported elem ent, stim ulated b y A natolianEast M editerranean fashions: like the Vinča and East Balkan script and ceram ic designs, O ld European costum e design developed w ith in a local tradition. T his is not to say that Europe was culturally isolated from the A natolian-M editerranean w o rld , for generalized stylistic sim ilarities im p ly interm ittent cultural and exchange. O n ly lim ited com parison is possible between the costume o f O ld Europe and other parts o f the civilized w o rld - Anatolia, M esopo­ tam ia, Syro-Palestine and E g y p t - because now here else w ere garments so frequently illustrated on figurines before 4000 BC. A few M esopotam ian figurines, dating from the H a la f and U baid periods o f the fifth and fourth m illennia, display necklaces, belts or short skirts and chest bands (Dales 19 6 3 : 2 1) , w hich are analogous to typical Balkan attire. D u rin g the seventh and sixth millennia b c there was a m arked resem blance betvveen European and A natolian ceram ic produets, including figurine art and its associated costum e fashions. M ost o f the figurines o f this period from Catal H iiyu k and H acilar in Central A natolia are portrayed nude, but in H acilar som e vvear shorts or belts w ith aprons at front and back (M ellaart 1960: Figs. 6, 9 - 1 1 , and 14), w h ilc others appear to w ear blouses or dresscs indicatcd by vertical and horizontal painted lines, display elaborate hair-styles, and w ear conical caps (M ellaart 19 60: Figs. 13 and 18).

5<>

4 The Mask N

on

-h

um an

v is a g e

The mask v/as not invented b y the earliest agriculturists; it is as old and as universal as art and religion. N eolithic m an fo llo w eđ a tradi­ tion established by his Palaeolithic forebears, adapting the mask to his ow n modes o f ritual and artistic expression. Each o f the cultural groups ineluded in this study possesses a characteristic style o f figurine art, and com m on to each style is the portrayal o f masked faces devoid o f realistic facial features. Cucuteni art evidences little interest in the hum an head. E arly Cucuteni figurine heads are disproportionately small and schem atic in relation to the b o d y, and later becom e almost disc-shaped, with tw o large eyes, or frequently - on male figurines - on ly a single eye. The eyes, holes pierced through from the back o f the head, are the only indication o f facial features; there is no m outh. T h e un ifo rm ity o f this figurine type, found w id ely distributed o v er the western U kraine and east R o m a n ia , suggests that enduring conventions, rooted in popular rcligious beliefs, dictated aesthetic values. The heads o fE a st Balkan figurines are typically either beaked and narrow or unnaturally broad, with large noses and perforations in the m outh and car arcas for attachments. T o us they appear unfam iliar, even u g ly (cf. Pl. 207), presenting an uncom fortably non-hum an visage suggestive o f a mask.

T

he

V

in č a

m ask

The Vinča artist attached particular im portance to the mask and it is the distinctive and unusual features o f his sculptural masks that render V inča statuary so uniquc. T h e Vinča figures, m odelled less schem atically and displaying a greater variety o f form s than their East Balkan, M iddle Danubian or A driatic counterparts, are the key to the interpretation o f Balkan N eolithic-C halcolithic-sculptures.

57

30 Mask m od elled in re lie f upon the neck o f a vase fro m the site o f G la d n ic e , near Priština, Southern Y u g o s la v ia . S ta rč e vo culture. Early sixth m illen n iu m bc

3 1 A n im al m ask (ram ?) fro m V in ča site at G rad ac, sou theastem Y u g o s la v ia

26 V in ča fig u rin e vvearing a larg e m ask— part or handle o t'a vessel. T h e h u m p on the back p ro b a b ly p o rtray s a b a g fo r c a rry in g a b ab y 27 N a ttira listica llv depieted m asked head fro m the V in ča in o un d . 5000 - 4.Š00 ih : 2fi Late V in ca head w ith co itfu re and coflfee-beah eyes. T h e truncated lo w e r part o f th e fa c e en d in g in a sharp trian gle sh o w s it to be a m ask. P red io n ica near IJriština. S o u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . c. 4500 4000 1«: 29 V in ča head fro m the site o f C rn o k a la ć k a Hara. Southern Y u g o sla v ia . <\ sooo 4,-ioo ih

32 S ty !iz ed an im al m ask from Late Vim'.i site at P ločn ik, So u th e rn Y u go sIa via . m arked w itll triplc lines. 4 S 0 0 4 00 0 ih

2 6, 2 7

Vinča figurines are dem onstrably m asked; on m an y o f them the m ask is clearly outlined, its angular projections extending clear o fth e face w h ich it conceals. It is this evidence, supplied b y the detailed three-dim ensional m od elling o f the V inča heads, w hich sustains the m ore equivocal assertion that the schem atic East Balkan and C u cu ­ teni figurines are also masked. In v e ry fe w o fth e V inča figures is the face depieted in the round: m ost conform to a stylized facial representation w h ich clearly suggests a m ask. T h e evidence for this being strictly form al, the purpose o f this ehapter is to display the range o f variation o f the masks and to delineate their form al evolution w ithin the life-span o f V in ča art and o f it s ancestry. It is alm ost unbelievable that during the thirty or m ore years in w h ich essays treating Vinča art have appeared, there has been no sustained reference to the m ask, its m ost captivating elem ent. T he contours o f the m ask are evident in profile v iew o f m an y o f the better preserved heads. T h e facial triangularity or pentagonality, or the protrud in g angular ‘cheek-bones’ have been rem arked by Vasić, S re jo v ič and others, but that this points to a mask and the dom inant part it played has on ly been acknovvledged incidentally. S re jo v ič (1965 : 35) ascribed the flat decorative faces o f the Vinča figurines to a trend tow ards stylization': ‘T h e elaborate ornam ental patterns and shading had to com pensate visually the loss o f the threedim ensional, sculptural representation o f the hum an fig u re.’ B ut there w as no need o f ‘com pensation’ in this sense, for the Vinča artist was am p ly capable o f producing fine sculpture in the round. It is in these figures that the elaborated mask representation reaches its most co m p le x and dram atic form . T h e Vinča artist w as clearly not m otivated to show individualized facial features. N evertheless there does exist a variety o f so-called ‘naturalistic’ heads, som e o f vvhich show neatly com bed hair and ‘d re a m y ’ half-closed eyes. D o these n onconform in g exam ples represent realistic facial m odelling, vvithout the im position o f a mask? O ne o f the best k n o w n and most naturalistic am on g them is the ‘little man o f V in ča’ , vvearing a conical cap. His face is vveli-proportioned, w ith fu lly detailed facial features. H ovvever, vievved from the back even this exceptional figure rcveals an unnatural protrusion o f the ‘cheek-bones’ : it too m ay bc m asked, despite the appealing h u m anity o f its features. O ther sim ilar small figurines portrayin g m en w ith pointed heads, w earing caps or hoods, are clearly masked. T h e same is truc o f the distinctive, exctionally w ell-m odelled heads found in the K o so v o M etohije province near Priština, produets o f the Late Vinča period. O ne o f the m ost aesthetically pleasing is the head from Fafos. A n o th er exam plc is the head from Predionica, near Priština: its hair is indicatcd, the eycs are ‘ cortce-bean’ shaped. The 60

' fc

massiveness o f the nose, dom inating the face, gives a false im pression 0fm ascu lin ity, the coiffure being that o f a w o m an . O ne is struck by the uncom prom ising lines o f the ja w : dom inated b y the nose, the low er part o f the face is truncated im m ed iately b elow it, lackin g any indication o f a m outh. The cheek-bones and ehin project unnaturally. A head fro m C rnokalaćka Bara is rendered w ith sem icircular plastic eyes, large nose and sculpted hair. The clear dem arcation o f forehead and hair, the stylized spiraliform ears and the row s o f stabbed im pressions, w h ich m ay have facilitated som e sort o f attachm ent, ali im ply that this is a masked head. The spiral o f the ear is an extension o f the facial mask. A nim al masks w ith horns or ears from the Vinča culture are exquisitely stylized.

Evo

l u t io n

of the

V

in č a

29

31,32

m ask

In the N eo lith ic period masks w ere m odelled in re lie f on cvlindrical figurines or upon the neeks o f large vases. C ylin d rical P roto-Sesklo, Sesklo and Starčevo figurines vvearing clearly defined masks are knovvn from . the sites in eastern and vvestern Thessaly and from Y u go slavia. T h e y are diam ond-shaped, oval or ro u gh ly triangular with the lo w e r part rounded. O ne o f the finest exam ples o f a mask m odelled in relief on a vase vvas unearthed at the Starčevo settlem ent at Gladnice in Southern Y u go slavia. A cylindrical sanctuary idol from Porod in , southvvestern Y u go slavia, vvears an im pressive beaked mask w ith huge sem i-spherical eyes, m odelled in relief. These form s suggest that the masked design vvas an early tradition o f southeastem Europe vvhich vvas sustained through the m illennia, and integral vvith the spiritual foundations o f the society it nourished. In the m id-V inča period (7-5~<5 m. deep in the Vinča mound) the masks becom e pentagonal, ineorporating the characterisdcally protruding angular ‘cheek-bones’, a lon g and m ore clearlv defined nose and huge inciscd or raised sem icircular cyes vvith bovv-shaped brovv-ridges. T h e pentagon or broad triangle rem ained the basic facial outline th rough out the Late Vinča period. Som e masks, dom inated b y large, slanting scm i-sphcrical eycs vvith a border o f cxaggerated lashes, incised and vvhite-cncrusted, give an impression. o f ‘all-seeingness’. O thers, vvith apparently half-closed or closcd eycs and no indication o f eye-lashes exprcss a pensive or d ream y m ood. A t its culm ination Vinča art applied a pictorial m ethod to its sculpture, and masks acquircd an extravagant appearancc dne to the arbitrary im position o f an inorganic cxpression. D ccoration took the form o f incision and painting and the ornam entation o f masks becam e a pursuit vvith its ovvn artistic interest, independent o f the sculptural presentation o f the mask. This rcoriented interest in mask 61

0

3 cms

1 $ M iisk iuu! phtilIic Milini front A cl1Hici on, l :tirstilti, Thesstil)'. Scshlo ailturc. c. 6000 BC

•A

36 Black burnished V in ča head (m ask) w ith en orm ou s semicircular eyes, w h ite-fille d incisions and red painted bands at top corners and centre. M ed ve d n jak site. Sm ederevska P alan ka, southeast o f B elg ra d e . c. 5000 BC

33 Fem ale figu re vvearing a p en tagon al beaked m ask. From Vi u ča m ou n d. Cla.ssieal V in ča period. 5000 - 4 5 00 n<:

38 N e t and tw o -lin e o rn am en ted m ask from Predionica, near Priština, S o u th e rn Y u go slav ia. V in ča, 4500 - 4000 bc: 39 A m on u m en ta! head, striated triangles ab ove eyes, triple lines b e lo w . F rom P redio nica, near Priština. So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . V in ca, 4 5 0 0 - 4000 b c

(V) i g T ypology oj ccntral Balkan Starčevo and Vinča m a sk i: (i) roughly triangular ( Starčevo); (ii) triangular (E arly V in ča ); (iii) pentagonaI, undecorated ( M id -V in č a ); (iv ) decoratcd pentagonal u'ith semicircular eyes in rc licf (early Late V inča); (v ) pictorial with almondshaped eycs ( Late Vinča)

surfaces dictated the m odelled form , and masks consequently assumed the shapes o f v e ry broad triangles, or peaked ovals or lozenges. T his d evelopm ent is evident in masks found at the sites o f Valač and Predionica, located in K o so v o M etohije, Southern Y u g o sla v ia . A lm o n d - or egg-shaped slanted eyes ty p ify this series o f masks o f the Late Vinča cuiture, and the diam ond shape replaces the pentagonal. M a n y o f these picces have a strictly geom etric ornam entation, usually striations, diagonal incisions, w ith the mask divided into equal sections b y the centrally placed line o f the eyes. V ertically-striated triangles above the eyes and several deep w hiteinfilled incisions belo w the eyes replace the long lashes o f the other masks. T his m o tif p robably derived from an ideographic m arking. T h e m ost striking sculptures, sym b olizing the ultim atc developm ent o f Vinča art, are the m onum ental, alm ost life-size heads from Predionica, each w earin g a mask ornam ented w ith large, ellipticalshaped eyes. T h e ornam ental design and the peaked, striated triangles and incised diagonal lines above and below the eyes relate them closely to the type discussed above. B u t these faces are better proportion ed ; like the best o f m odern sculpture they give an im pression o f m onum ental solidity. T h e w id ening o f the mask follow s the slanting line o f the eyes, w h ile its projeetion at the eye corners is suggestive o f ears. Was it the scu lptor’s intention to p ortray on the mask an animai or half-anim al, half-hum an creature? T h o u g h w e cannot k n o w for certain, w e feel that the creature is endow ed with an aw e-inspiring p ow er, the ve ry essence o f the significance o f the mask - a proposition w hich w ill be discussed in later ehapters. It w ill bc seen, then, that the Vinča masks can be subdivided into five main d evelopm ental stages: i. R o u g h ly triangular, belonging to the Starčevo and earliest Vinča periods (appearing from a depth o f 9 .3-8 .3 m . in the Vinča m ound). ii. T rian gu lar, belon ging to the E arly V inča period (as high as 7.3 m. in the Vinča m ound). iii. U n decorated pentagonal, typical o f the m iddle phase o f Vinča d evelop ­ m ent (from c. 7 - 5 m . deep at Vinča). iv. D evelop ed pentagonal, w ith large, raised sem icircular eyes; ornam ented (5-3 m . deep at V inča). v. Pictorial w ith alm ond-shaped eyes (sce Fig. 19).

D

e c o r a t io n

an d

p e r f o r a t io n s

fo r

attach m en t

Frequently occu rring perforations o f the mask and a flattencd crow n o f the head im ply that the figurines carried som e sort o f organic attachm ent which has not survived. Plum es, fruits, flow ers, w o vcn bands and other m aterials couid have been em ployed in this w ay, and w c m ay legitim ately try to im agine these sculptures co lo u rfu lly adorned w ith elaborate crovvns. In fact, on a few figurines there is a suggestion o f a crovvn or halo. Since a m ajori ty o fth e Vinča masks 64

20 Terracotta head oj a fig u rin e from the Vinča mound toearing a broad, triangular stylized mask. It has seven pairs o j perforations fo r attachments u/lticli have not survived. Late Vinča

appear to im itate bird-like features, the em p loym en t o f p lum age as decoration w o u ld not be unnatural. Ethnographic data from the Balkan Peninsula lend to this assum ption, fo r even today masks used for annual festivals are decorated w ith plum es. In contem porary western B ulgaria, for instance, bird masks have ve ry elaborate crovvns o f colourful plum age, w hile other masks bear rams’ or bulls’ horns. M inoan figurine masks are cro w n ed vvith birds, horns, poppies, pom egranates, or even snakes w ith their heads projeeting above the crovvn (ej. bell-shaped idols from G azi, K arfi and G o rty n a : A lexio u 1958, Pl. E -H ). T h e decoration o f masks must have varied considerably depending on vvhat kind o f divinities, devotees, or animals vvere represented. It is possible that som e masks served m ultiple purposes, the transform ations being effected by varying decoration. A head-dress could easily be fashioned for the mask, to be renevved annually, perhaps w ithin the context o f the farming co m m u n ity’s seasonal ritual festivals. The pierced arm stumps w hich frequently occur on standing figurines o f the B ird Goddess type could have served for the attachm ent o f w in g plum es; but generally, perforations through the shoulders, arms and hips vvere p robably intended to perm it the figures to be hung up in the home, in shrines or trees, perhaps also to bc used in ritual svvinging. Sw inging is kn ow n from ancient Greece in the festival o f Aiora (Nilsson 19 5 0 : 3 3 1- 3 2 ) . A relevant scene is depieted on an A ttic red-figure skyphos vvhere a satyr w earing a cerem onial head-dress is sw inging a yo u n g girl. A sw inging figurine attached to pillars p ortrayed in clay has been found in H agia Triadha, Crete, n o w in the Heraklion m useum . Indced, a num ber o f N eo lithic-C h alcolith ic figurines are shovvn in a half-seated, half-standing position believed to be conncctcd w ith sw in gin g, in the spring, as a fertility rite (Marinatos 19 68 : 7-9).

65

Parallels

in

C

rete

and

A

n c ie n t

G

reece

,

an d

T H E T H E A T R IC A L

EMPHASIS

2 4 ,2 5

M asked figures appear on M inoan sculptures, vases, signet rings and seals. A goddess and w orshippers in the ritual dance scene on the ring from Isopata near Knossos, Crete, w ear insect masks. The G o rgo n M edusa head becam e a terror m ask, although the C o rfu pedim ent o f about 600 b c proves that M edusa was o rigin ally a Great Goddess (Bieber 19 3 9 : 35). A satyr-like masked man w ith padded knickers and fat belly, a w e ll-k n o w n figure from G reek com edy, is encountered on a Late M ycenaean seal from C y p ru s and on the M inoan steatite vase from H agia T riadha (W ebster 19 59 : 10). His costum e closely resem blcs that o f the masked and padded figure from the Vinča site o f Fafos. A nim al-headed dem ons w a lk in g upright, as depieted on M ycenaean frescoes and gem s (M ylonas 1966: 126), must be hum ans w earin g masks. O n a M inoan ring from Phaistos (W ebster 19 59 : 8, fig. 4) a hum an mask is shovvn between tw o goats. Portrayal o f the mask alone vvas as im portant as portrayal o f masked creatures, for it vvas the rectaclc o f invisible divine forces. O n the m any vases used during the D ionysian festival o f Lenaia a mask 011 a post decorated vvith dresses represented the god him self. T h e priests or priestesses and the vvorshippers o f ancient Greece and Italy vvore m asks; the satyrs and the maenads vvho danced in frenzy at D ionysian festivals, w ere m asked; e vcryo n c vvho danced for the god and m ade m usic vvas masked. Each different m ythical persona vvas represented by a different mask. M asks o f centaurs are knovvn from the sixth ccntury b c (Kenner 19 54 : 12). A liturgical use o f masked participants, the thiasotcs or tragoi, led ultim ately to their appearance upon the stage and to the birth o f tragedy. M asked figures survive in Greek com ed y o f the fifth century b c . In their dram a the com ic poets used ehoruses o f animals, birds, fish and insects, and hybrid creatures or sirens (Sifakis 19 6 7; 19 7 1) , vvhich w ere not an invention o f the sixth and fifth centurics b c but trače their origins to the M ycenaean and M inoan era and to O ld Europe. Players danced vvith vvooden masks in h onour o f A rtem is C o ryth alia in Italy, and in the tem ple o f A rtem is O rthia in Sparta w ere found clay masks o f the seventh and early sixth century b c . T h e y vvere m ade in im itation o f vvooden masks used in the perform ances and dances and songs dedicated to A rtem is. T h is a n alo gy, and the shape and decoration o f Vinča masks, stron gly suggest that the mask representations on đ a y figurines are replicas in m iniaturc o f vvooden masks. Masks and masked figures, life-size or in m iniature, o f Ancient Greece, M inoan C rete and O ld Europe, im p lv litu rgy and drama vvhose emphasis is theatrical. It is quite conceivable that ali three belong to the same tradition. M asked figurines are m im etic repre­ sentations o f rituals and m yth olo gical scenes.

66

5

Shrines and the Role of Figurines

The abundance o f clay statuettes p o rtrayin g costum ed, masked wom en and men im plies that the O ld European peoples re-enacted rituals, but it is necessary to look elsevvhere in the archaeological record fo r the cerem onial accoutrem ents o f the cult, in order to reconstruct its practice m ore precisely.

C l a y m o d e l s o f s h r in e s

The m iniature clay house-m odels produced through out the N eo li­ thic-Chalcolithic period are particularly imp'ortant, presenting details o f arehiteeture, decoration and furnishing that are othervvise unavailable to the prehistoric archaeologist. Som e o f these m odels, diseovered under the corners o f excavated house-floors or b y the centra! post ing the roof, must have been used in a sacrificial cerem ony to celebrate the ereeđon o fth e strueture. Several exam ples were diseovered in such a context at the Starčevo settlem ent o f R o szk e-L u d var near Szeged in H un gary (T ro g m a y er 1966) and at Branč, a L en gyel site in Slovakia (Vladar 1969: 506). A d ivin ity vvas modelled in re lie f on the gable. In the N eolithic m ound o f Porodili near Bitola in Southern Y ugoslavia several house-m odels o f a uniquc typc vvere excavated : each has a cylindrical ‘ch im n ey’ upon vvhich are m odelled the masked features o fa beaked and large-eyed goddess vvith a necklaceencircling her neck and spreading o ver the roof. T h e m odels have elaborate doors, either o f an invertcd T shape or vvith angular cut-outs, and probably represent tem ples dedicated to a particular goddess. A house-model vvith a b ird ’s head and incised plum age found at the Early V inča site o f Turda? in T ransylvania, must sign ify the same concept. T h e m odel o f a sanctuary from Vadastra in vvestern R o m a nia has divine proteetors in the form s o f a rani and a buli. T h e tvvo temples have pitehed roofs and štand upon a high podium decorated vvith a spiral and lattice pattern.

^7

0 1 1 3 4 3 em j i C,lay model o fa Dird C oddcss’ s«nctiiary. 1'urdas, Rom ani«. I:«rly Vinča, c. end fi.xtli milleiiniinn 1«:

A m o d e l diseovered in 1966 on a r i v e r - i s l a n d settlem ent o f the Gum elni(a c u l t u r e , at Cascioarele in S o u th e rn R o m a n ia , has caused the interpretative confines o f the prehistorian’s understanding o f N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic struetures a n d cult practices to be readjusted (Hortensia D um itrcscu 1968). T h e red-baked, polished clay m odel vvas found ly in g close to a large house (10 X 7 m.) divided by partition w alls into tw o corridors. T he w o od cn construction o f the house was not preserved; but traces o f its peculiar strueture, the presence o f a sacrificial place w ith a ‘b e n c h ’ (altar) tw o metres a w ay, and num erous cult vases o f unusual shape, including askoi, suggest that it was a sanctuary. It is im possible to say, h o w e vcr, w hether or not the m odel had b e e n vvithin, or should be associated w ith, the house strueture near vvhich it was found. T h e m odel is 24.2 cm . high and 5 1 cm . lo n g at the base. It consists o f a large s u b s t r u c t u r e , like the stereobate o f a classical G reek tem ple, w hich s four individual temples, each o f vvhich has a w ide-arched portal and is crovvned vvith horns on the gable and above the four corners. T h e entrance to each tem ple has a narrovv border in relief, suggcsting a d oor-fram e, from vvhich tw o ribs project o b liqu ely upvvards bctvveen the lintel and the roof, perhaps indicating the vvooden s o f an arcade leading to the tem ple. T h ere is no further arehiteetural detail vvithin the temples. T h e front surfacc o f th e substructure is decorated with irregular horizontal incised lines and ten round holes. T h e m odel tem ples presum ably illustrate real struetures at least three metres in h eigh t; add to that a substructure corresponding to that o f the m odel, and vve have a tem ple com p lex ten or m ore metres high. T h e hori­ zontal lines m ight depict flig h ts o f sta irs or a terrace-like strueture, but the presence o f holes, vvhich should represent entrances, remains inexplicable. M rs D um itrescu interprets the incised lines as an indication o f vvood construction, in vvhich casc the holes could represent entrances into the podium , vvhere staircases vvould lead up to the level o f t h e tem ples. In addition, there vvas p robably a stairw a y access on the outside o f the podium , and on top there must have been a terrace to accom m odate a vvorshipping congregation. Tem ples cd on terraced substructures are knovvn from Sum erian arehiteeture at the end o f the fourth m illcnnium B C . As the closest parallel to the Cascioarele m odel M rs D um itrescu cites the tem ple from Susa, depieted in a stylized en gravin g on a cylinder seal o f the proto-urban period, c. 3300 b c . It has a large substructure vvith entrances and apertures. O n top there is a rectangular tem ple vvhich has tvvo gates and is decorated vvith three bull-horns on each side (H. D um itrescu 19 6 8 : Fig. 7). R ad io carb o n tests gave the dates 3668 x 120 and 3535 J~ 12 0 b c ; calibratcd, they take us back to the second h a l f o f the fifth m illennium n e. So the Cascioarele edificc m ay ante-datc the Sum erian tem ples b y on e m illennium . 68

The m odel from Cascioarele is not unique. W ith in the area o f distribution o fth e East Balkan civilization m any fragm ents o fsim ila r models, usually sm aller, have been knovvn for a lon g time. A ‘tvvostorey house’ diseovered in the site o f R u se , on the lovver D anube in B u lgaria, possesses arehiteetural similarities to the Cascioarele model (G e o rg ie v -A n g e lo v , R use: 58, Fig. 20). T h e surface o f the loWer part is incised vvith ro u gh ly parallel lines and pierced b y round apertures; vvhile the second storey, the main tem ple, has a strueture 0f vertical posts and horizontal beams. This m odel vvas fragm en tary, particularly its upper part, and the reconstruction m ay not be entirely correct. Struetures vvith vvide-arched portals standing on ' terraced stereobates are depieted by other clay m odels excavated from the same settlem ent o f R u se during 1948-49 (id.: Fig. 90) and from Izvoarele in R o m a n ia . T h e detail on these m odels suggests that the tem ple’s foundation need not in variably have been o f vvood, but m ight consist o f steeply terraced earth. A quadrangular clay m odel o f a tem ple vvith vvide-arched portals on ali four sides vvas recently diseovered in a Late N eolithic context in the site o f K ran n on -D u rak i in Thessaly (M ichaud 1970). Arehiteetural remains encountered during excavations at V a rvarovka, a C u cu ten i-T rip o lye settlement near K ishenev, Soviet M oldavia, vvere considered to represent the collapse o f tw o-storey rather than single-storey struetures. A clay m odel o f a tw o -sto rey sanctuary, the second floor com prising the tem ple, vvas diseovered in 1969 near K ie v in the R o s river valley. (The m odel is housed in the A rchaeological Institute o f the A cadem y o f Sciences in K iev.) There are entrances on both floors, and in front o f the large portal or gate o f the m ain tem ple is a platform adorned vvith bulls’ horns. Vertical vvall-posts are indicated in re lie f and the arehed r o o f is ed by horizontal beams. M iniature clay m odels o f shrines from the B u g V alley in the vvestern U krain e h ave been knovvn since the beginning o f the tvventieth century. T h e m odel from Popudnia, a Late C ucuteni (in Russian ‘T rip o ly e C ’) settlement north o f U m an , vvas diseovered by H im ner in 19 12 (H im ner 1933). It is usually interpreted as a building resting on piles because the m odel stands on cylindrical clay legs. B y an alogy vvith other m odels o f shrines, som e o f vvhich are illustrated in this volum e, it m ay be assumed that the presence o f these s is mcant to stress the im portance o f the sanctuary’s elevation above the ground. Hundreds o f Cucuteni houses have since been excavated, none o f vvhich vvas built on piles. T h e Popudnia model consists o f the main room and a vestib u leo ren đ o sed platform . Betvveen them there is a rectangular entrance vvith a threshold. O n the right side stands a large rectangular oven, raised on a platform , and benehes. O n the bench to the right o f the oven, a fem ale figurine

69

2 2 C la y model o f a temple on a stereobate. Izvoarele, southeastem Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. Copper A g e , c. 4500 b c

r e m a in s

2 j C la y model o f a slitine fro m Popudnia, ivestem Ukraine. Late Cucuteni. c. midfourth millennium b c

w ith hands on her breasts w as foun d ; by the other w all, again on a raised level, a sculpture o f a w o m an grinding grain. N ear the quernstone is a small depression to accom m odate the ground grain. B y the same w all štand three large pear-shaped vases. A raised platform in the shape o f a cross decoratcd vvith grooves around the edges lies near the centre o f the shrinc. Such cross-shaped platform s also occur in the actual houses o f the C ucuteni settlements and are k n ow n to bc placcs for vo tivc offerings (docum ented in the settlem ent o f V la d im iro vk a: ck 1949, 85, 89). Interior vvalls aredecorated vvith bands o f black-painted geom etric designs consisting o f lozenges flanked' vvith chevrons. T he m odel, o f reddish clay, vvas constructed in parts vvhich vvere then glued together and baked. It has no roof, allovving the ob servcr to vievv the interior arrangcm ent o f the sanctuary. M an y other m odels o f C ucuteni shrincs from V lad im i­ rovka and S h u v k o vk a are roofless (ck 19 49 : 100, 125). T he m odel found in the classical Cucuteni site o f V lad im iro vk a has cxterio r and interior vvalls. T h e floor o f the main hali and o f the vestibule is painted in red, vvliite and dark brovvn concentric circles and sem icirclcs, and there are zigzag bands around the entrance, the round vvindovv and along the top o f the vvalls.

70

o f s a n c tu a r ie s a n d s a c r if ic ia l p la ce s

One o f the m ost excitin g discoveries in R o m an ia vvas the tem ple unearthed in the village o f Cascioarele in a layer im m ediately below the Gumelni^a stratum in vvhich the large clay m odel o f the edifice was found. T h e carbonized w o o d revealed radiocarbon dates in the region o f 4000 b c (Berlin Lab. dates: 5980 ± 100 B P , 5860 ± 100 B P and 5570 ± 100 B P ). C alibrated, they equate vvith the early part o f the fifth m illennium b c . Vases found standing on the hardened clay floor are o f late B oian style o f the East Balkan civilization. The sanctuary is rectangular in plan, 16 X 10 m ., divided into two room s b y a ro w o f six posts. O n ly one room has a painted interior, its vvalls being cream on a red background, in the fo rm o f curvilinear and angular designs o f thin ribbons and larger bands. A terracotta m edallion, nearly circular in shape, decorates the vvestern wall. It is painted vvith a band o f red spirals bordered vvith a thin line o f cream paint on a brovvnish-green background. T w o pillars vvere found in this room . T h e larger one is about 2 m. high. It has a hollovv interior and vvas p rob ab ly m odelled around a tree trunk vvhich vvas then rem oved after the clay hardened, because no traces o f vvood remain. T h e pillar, like the vvalls, vvas painted three times and each set o f the painted geom etric designs is different. T h e pillar vvas encircled b y posts, but does not seem to have had any arehiteetural 40

24

31

funetion. N earb y, a skeleton o f an adult in a crouched position vvas diseovered. A nother, thinner pillar (only 10 cm . in diameter), but o f the same height and also hollovv inside, vvas found close to the interior vvall. It is painted vvith cream ribbons, 8 - 1 2 m m . vvide, on a reddish-brovvn background. N ex t to it vvas a terracotta beneh, c. 40 cm. high and painted vvith curvilinear ribbons of cream paint. M an y fragm ents o f large pitlioi decoratcd vvith excised m otifs, and vases, painted 111 vvhite on a lustrous brovvn b ackgroun d, vvere found above the floor (V. D um itrescu 1970). In the C ucuteni (T ripolye) civilization, rcm ains o f a tem ple vvere found in the site o f Sabatinovka II in the valley o ft h e Southern Bug (M akarevich 1 9 6 0 M ovsha 19 7 1). It dates from the Proto-Cu'cuteni period (‘ Early T rip o ly e ’ 111 Russian term in o logy). T h e rectangular building occupied about 70 sq. m. A narrovv entrance vvas located on the long side. T h e entrance area vvas paved vvith flat stones and the rest o f the floor vvas plastered vvith clay. A bone figurine vvas found at the entrance. Each part o f the building served a different cult purpose. A b o ut halfvvav in, tovvards the right, there was a large oven, at the base o f vvhich a fem ale figurine vvas found. B eyo n d and to the right o f the oven vvas a group o f vessels, ineluding a dish filled vvith burnt bones o f a buli and a channel-dccorated pot vvith a small cup inside; to the left o f these stood a brazier (an incense burner?), a grou p o f five saddle querns and a rovv o f five terracotta figurines. Ali o f the figurines vvere o f the same tvpe, seated, vvith bodies leaning 25 Tlu' slitine of Sabatinovka in the Southern ttug I \illey, Soviet M oh iaria. lia rly (Cucuteni. T h e shrine Oiiupies 70 stfuare metre* and its tvalls are hnilt o f ivattle-and-daub. 1 . Stone p a vem em : 2. i'lay oven : dais (altar) o f c la y : 4, (lay throne: clay figurin es: 0. group of vases ineluding a dish filled 1vitli burni bones o fa buli

26 C la y figurines fo u n d on the altar o fth e Sabatinovka shrine, ali originally seated on horned thrones (several ■ o f these are illustrated in top ro w ); they are ali characterized by massive buttocks ~ to aid the sitting position - and snake-shaped heads. O ne fig u rin e (bottom centre) holds a baby snake or a phallus

backwards. Farther inside and opposice the entrance, was a large altar m easuring 2.75 X 6 m ., covered with four or five Iayers o f clay plaster. Sixteen fem ale figurines w ere found at its Southern side, ali seated on h om -backed stools. In the corner, behind the altar, vvas a clay throne or chair. Its seat, one metre w id e, vvas o rigin ally covered vvith split planks. The total num ber o f the figurines found in this sanctuary was th irty-tw o . A li o f them are schernatically rendered vvith fat thighs and a snake-shaped head. A few vvere perforated through the shoulders, but have no arms except one w h o holds a baby snake o r phallus (Fig. 26, bottom ro w , centre). T h e association o f quern and grindstones vvith figurines portrayed in a seated position suggests m agical grinding o f grain and then perhaps baking o f sacred bread. There vvas an overseer in control o f the proceedings, p robably a priestess or priest, seated on the full-size chair near the altar. In the Classical Cucuteni settlem ent o f K olom ijshchina 1 in the middle D nieper region a raised red-painted altar, 70 cm. in diam eter, was diseovered in the centre o f one o f the houses (N o . 6), near the

73

26

m

27 Coiitents o fth e shrine at G ournia, a Late M inoan tou'n in eastem Crete. 1 , earthen tripod; 2, tubeshaped clay vessels decorated with snakes and horns; j , terracotta fig u rin es (mliole and fragm enti o f the heads) one entwincd by a snahe

oven. T w e n ty -o n e figurines, ali in seated position, w ere diseovered in the altar and oven areas; eighteen w cre fem ale and three male. A ltars in the shape o f a dais, built o f clay and covered with w o od en planks, or in the form o f w ooden tables, occur in ali parts o f O ld Europe, in association vvith beehive-shaped or dom ed ovens. T h e y are not alw ays accom panied by figurines or ritual vases; o w in g to bad preservation excavators w ere in m any cases able to iden tify only the burnt remains o f som e struetures and groups o f figurines, or an accum ulation o f assorted vases (exam ples: Vinča sites at M ed ved njak, D ivostin , C rnokalačka B ara, Anza). H um an sacrifice accom panied b y anim al sacrifice and offerings o f other objeets vvas p erform ed in open-air sanctuaries. In a Late C u cu­ teni site at T svik lo v tsi, Podolia in the vvestern U kraine, the cremated bones o f a youth aged about tw en ty w ere found, together vvith those o f a buli, m arten and sheep near an offering pit vvhich contained eighteen vessels, grindstones, vvhorls, net sinkers, and an antler pick. A b o v e another pit filled vvith charcoal and ashes stood a rectangular altar. T h ere vvas one m ore pit plastered vvith clay, in vvhich, together vvith layers o f ash, stood a large storage ja r vvith remains o f vvheat grains. A t the base o f the pit, a stone polisher, an aw l, and fragm ents o f dishes and cups v/ere diseovered. T his sacrificial area vvas adjacent to the excavated village (M oshva 1 971). Sacrificial pits filled vvith anim al bones or skulls, charcoal, ashes and pots have also been found vvithin the settlement area. In the L en gycl settlement o f B ranč near N itra in Slovakia, dcep conical pits vvith vvalls and bottom s lined vvith clay vvere locatcd at one end o f large, tvvo-room houses. In one pit, nearly 2 m. deep, there vvas a bu ll’s skull vvith horns. M any layers are to be seeri in the sacrificial pits: offerings vvere solidly covered vvith clay and then vvith loess. T h e sterile layers in betvveen the rem ains o f sacrifices perhaps sign ify annual intervals (Vladar 19 6 9 : 507). W orship vvith offerings or m ysteries took place in natural caves as ritual pottery and graffiti testify. N eolithic paintings vvere dis­ eovered in 1970 in a cave at Porto Badisco. south o f O tranto in A pu lia (Graziosi 19 7 1). These inciude spirals, snakes. stylized iialfsnake, half-hum an creatures, qu ad riform designs and lozenges, horned anim als, men holding bovvs. and geom etric svm bols executed in black o ro e h re -re d . Pottery found at the site iso t A driatic Serra d ’ A lto stylc, follovved by a fevv ceram ic articles o f later Piano C o n te style. This suggests the cave vvas in tise during the latter part o ft h e fifth and during the fourth m illennium ne.

P a r a i .l e l s v v i t h M i n o a n - M y c ; e n a e a n s h r i n e s

T h e O ld European and M inoan shrines shovv a striking sim ilarity.

74

’^ jja lo g o u s shrine equipm ent and vo tive offerings cover a vvide period fro m C h alcolithic or even N eolithic O ld Europe to Classical Greece. I shall m ention here a fevv closely related exam ples. The Late M in oan I shrine o f the provincial tovvn o f G ournia in eastern C rete is situated at som e distance from the palače on the suinrnit o f the tovvn hill and had a road leading to it. T h e shrine vvas 5niall, o n ly 4 X 3 m ., vvith rudely constructed vvalls. A raised dais ran along the Southern vvall to the right o f the entrance. In the centre stood a lo w plastered earthen table vvith three legs, and around it three curious tube-shaped vessels and part o f a fourth. T h e y have a vertical ro w o f three or four snake-like loops on either side, a big ger handle on the back, and above this a pair o f horns o f consecration; one o f these vessels is entvvined b y tw o snakes. T h e other objeets inciude a bell-shaped fem ale idol vvith raised hands and a snake around the b o d y, tvvo heads o f other Snake Goddesses, three arm s, hands and bases o f other figurines, tvvo snake heads, fou r small birds, and a fragm ent o f a clay pithos (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 80-82). C le a rly the Snake Goddess vvas invoked and vvorshipped in this small shrine. Its equipment has m uch in com m on vvith the snake-decorated vases and Snake Goddess figurines o f O ld Europe. The snake cult is evident also in the palače at Knossos. A t the entrance to a little room in a private house in the southvvestern part o f the palače dating from the Late M inoan I and II period stood a large ja r. It contained a num ber o f clay vessels, including tubular ones o f terracotta provided vvith tw o pairs o f cups, a terracotta štand, the upper part o f vvhich is divided into four com partm ents, tvvo small jugs and vessels o f unusual form o ver vvhich snakes are coiled. The last-named are perforated like strainers and p robably served for invoking rain b y allovving vvater to run through the holes. In ali areas o f C h alcolithic O ld Europe vessels vvith perforations frequently occur; gen erally they are made o fa thick clay vvith rough and uneven holes. Som e are zoom orphic or ornithom orph ic and others have perforations in the snake coils. A t M ycen ae recent excavations revealcd a little room filled vvith terracotta sculptures o f vvhich nineteen vvere hum an idols o f both sexes up to 50-60 cm . high, and seventeen vvere coiled snakes (T aylo u r 1970: 274). A small shrine, on ly 1.5 m. square, vvas found by S ir A rth u r Evans in the palače at Knossos and dated to the Late M inoan III period. O11 the stam ped clay floor vvere m any bovvls and vases. Inserted into the pebbly surface o f a raised dais vvas a plaster tripod on vvhich stood some cups and ju g s. O n a highcr platform vvith a pebbled floor and plastered front, tvvo pairs o f horns o f consecration m ade o f vvhitc stucco vvith a clay ćore vvere set up. Lcaning against one o f them vvas a d oub le-axc o f steatite vvith duplicated blades. Each o f the horns

75

2 8 Perforated vessels covered ivith coiled snakes from a private house of Late M inoan / - / / periods, in the Palače o f Knossos

2g H orned štand ivith perforations from T itrda f, Transylvania. Bariy Vinca. C. 5 2 0 0 BC

4 0 ( ?j . i\ - r m n k ‘ ] o t ,i '..U K 'c u .u y consisK o f tvvo te m p le s s u p p o n e d o n a ^ > u b > ir iK u iu .uh! to p p e d h y .1 ram ’s

and .1 h u ll’ s head paim ed 111 red. Vadastra Ii. so u th u estern Romania Ka\t B alkan đ v iliz a iio m C-li;*Icolithic 4 >00 » c

43 Stylized r lica o f a san ctu ary, p ro b a b ly used as an altar d ecoration , fro m T r u je jti, n ortheastern R o m a n ia . C lassical C u cu ten i. En d o f fifth m illen n iu m b c 44 A ltarp iece in the shape o f a bird vvith p lu m age indicatcd. T r u je jt i. C lassical C u c u ten i. End o f fifth m illen n iu m b c 4 1 C !ia y m o d e l o f a s.m e ru a rv \vitha h o le o n to p fo r in se rtio n o f goddess1 im a g e (vee P i. 3 4 ). 1 le r n ee k lac o is s lio u ri in r e l i e f a r o u n d th e hole. In v e r te d T -s h a p e d e n tra n e e s o n ali sidev. P o r o d im so u th e r n Y u i'o sla v ia . h a r lv s i s t li u iille n n iu m iu

4 : ( "3-i\ model 1>! .111 i/d liu e lr*«H) ( 'an'ioardi Ii»\\er I ).inubc ivi* u »n. portraym-j: .t l.ir^ e subs ir u e u ir e M ipportim j; tour l e m p le v l'.ast H ajka 11 eiviliza1ro.11. (. h alco In Ih , , I .ili'

fifth

1111 1U n ni um 11C

45 A ltarp iec e in the shape o f t h e goddess w ith upraised arm s. T r u je jt i. C lassical C u cu ten i

j i D esign on the painted larger pillar at the entrance to the Cascioarele shrine. I:arly fifth ntillenninni b c

had a ccntral socket w hich was m eant to receive the shaft o f the d oub lc-axc. O n either side o f the horns stood terracotta figurines com prising three bell-shaped idols, and tw o v o ta ry figures, one male and one fem ale. T h e fem ale figurine p robably portrays the main goddess o fth e shrine (N ilsson 19 50 : 80). T he doub le-axe m ost likely represents the epiphany o f the G reat Goddess since she assumed the shape o f a buttorfly rising from the horns o f a buli (sce ehapter 8). O b v io u slv the G reat Goddess w as \vorshipped in this little shrine. T h e tw o-pillared sanctuary o f Cascioarele has m an y parallels in C retan towns and palaces as w ell as in M ycenaean Greece. A pillar or tw o in a shrine vvas the m ost frequent attribute o f a M inoan sanctuary. A t Koum asa, for instance, the sanctuary was com posed o f several room s, one o f which had a w ooden colum n in the m iddle; a cylindrical idol and a table for offerings stood iu.situ (A rch. Anzeiger 1 9 0 7 : 1 0 8 ; N ilsson 1 9 5 0 : 1 0 2 ) . Pillar room s are kn ow n from virtually ali C retan palaces. A t Knossos they are present in ali phases o f the site. T h e oldest pillar room was found in the building w hich belongs to the initial stage o f M iddle M inoan I. In it tw o rectangular pillars w ere found, each about tvvo metres high, and carvcd from a single slab o f lim estone. N ear the Southern w all opposite the space between the tw o pillars was a circular pit. I11 the hillside west o f the palače at Knossos is situated the ‘ little palače’, the foundation o f w hich belongs to the beginning o f Late M inoan. It has three pillar room s. The vvestern room has tw o pillars, one o f vvhich is com plctely preserved and consists o f a base and tvvo gypsum blocks. Bctvvcen the pillars a shallovv stone vat vvith a smaller sunken square in the m iddle had been let into the ground. At the ‘ royal villa ’ o f Knossos. in a building o f Late M inoan II date, north o f the main room there is a pillar room , 4 .15 • 4 ni., paved vvith gyp su m slabs. I11 the centre stands a pillar com posed o f tvvo gvpsum blocks. A sunken channel form s a rcc-

tangle around the central pillar, about m id w a y betvveen it and the vvalls. T h e house near the southeastern angle o f the palače at Knossos contains a m ost interesting pillar room from M id d le M inoan III. In the m iddle o f the rectangular room stands a pillar, consisting o f six blocks vvith a doub le-axe engraved on one o f the upper blocks. A truncated pyram idal gyp sum block vvas found close to the foo t o fth e pillar vvhich p rob ab ly served as the base fo r a double axe. F ro m this side o f the pillar to the vvall runs a foundation vvith m an y flat stone bases vvhich m ay have served as stands fo r vessels. O n the other side o f this vvall an iv o ry knot vvas found, and in the an te-roo m stood a six-legged o fferin g table (Evans, Palače o f M inos, I, I46ff., 4 4 1 ; II, 396, 407, 5 1 5 ; N ilsson 19 5 0 : 237-40). Pillar room s vvere revealed in the palaces at Phaistos, H agia Triadha, M allia and Z a k ro . In the palače at H agia T riadh a a square pillar stood in the m iddle o f a rectangular room . A quadrangular channel surrounded the pillar as in the ‘royal v illa ’ at Knossos. In the peighbouring ro om m an y v o tive figures vvere found. T o the northvv^st o f the palače tvvo pillars stood in one o f the room s used for burials in the Late M in o an III period. An ou tdoor C retan pillar shrine is reported from P h ylako p i on the island o f M elos, a M iddle M inoan III tovvn. (N ilsson 19 50 : 241, 242.) O n the m ainland, an interesting pillar ro om čam e to light at Asine, in a room com plex knovvn as the ‘ M ycenaean palače’ . Standing in the centre o f a fairly large room , 7 X 5 m ., tvvo colum n bases vvere found. In one corner there vvas a bench or ledge m ade o f undressed stone slabs. O n this ledge a quantity o f m ale and fem ale figurines, vessels and a stone axc oncc stood, som e o f vvhich had fallen to the floor, (Persson and Frodin, A sin e : 298, 30 8 ; N ilsson 1950: 1 1 1 , 112 ) . The vvorship ofstalagm ites in caves from the N eo lith ic period to M inoan C rete and A ncient Greece vvas ve ry likely related to that o f pillars. In G rotta Scaloria, in the G argano Peninsula o f Southern Italy, a beautiful painted pot dating from about 6000 b c vvas standing by a stalagm ite (A rchaeological M useum o f Fo ggia). A cave east o f H eraklion dedicated to Eileithyia, goddess o f childbirth, contained a stalagmite and a relatively smaller one next to it. In m an y other caves on C rete, at Psychro, Kam ares, A rk alo k h o ri and elsevvhere, the artifacts and sym bols attest the vvorship o f the G reat Goddess (Alexiou 19 69: 79). From the large n u m b e ro f pillar shrines, the engravings o f doubleaxes on lim estone pillars in M inoan palaces, and the presence o f stepped or conical s vvith holes for inserting the shaft o f a double-axe, an em blem o f the Great Goddess, it is apparent that the pillar cult vvas associatcd vvith the vvorship o f this d ivin ity. Pictorial representations on ■M inoan-M yccnacan gold rings, in which a trec grovvs out o f the shrine enclosing a pillar, indicate that

79

3 2 G o ld ring from M ycende. O n the right: a small shrine with an cncloscd pillar from ii'hich grotvs a plant. O n the h ft : a plant grotvs out from the hody o fa w ild goat

>39

pillar and plant are sym b olically interrelated, both sym bolizing the p o w e r o f life or the povver o f the goddess. This sym b olic notion is strengthened b y other representations on M in oan -M ycenaean gold rings in w hich the colum n is flanked by m ale anim als, usually lions or griffms (replacing the dogs that flank the tree in C h alcolithic O ld Europe). T h e same anim als flank the goddess in her epiphany as a butterfly, i.e., a w o m an vvith a head o f a butterfly associated w ith bu ll’s horns and a double-axe sym b ol. A pillar shrine p o rtrayin g a sim ilar grou p o f sym bols can be recognized in a fresco in the palače at K nossos; here the raised central colum n is fitted into a Socket o f bu ll’s horns, b elo w w hich is the ideogram o f the G reat G oddess: the ‘split e g g ’, tw o sem icircular rosettes d ivided in the m iddle (A lexiou 1969: 82, Fig. 30). O ther colum ns o f the same fresco also had bullhorn sockets. T he M inoan and O ld European pillar was not an axis o f the ’universe, not the axis mundi o f the A ltaic and northern E u ro­ pean cosm ologies, but an incarnation o f the G reat Goddess in her aspect as the source o f life-po w er. M ost students o f M inoan cuiture are bevvildered b y the abundance o f cult practices. Shrines o f one kind or another are so num erous that there is reason to believe that not on ly every palače but every private house vvas put to som e such tise. Characteristic o f these dom estic cults are the horns o f consecration and the tables for offerings vvhich occu r alm ost everyvvhere (N ilsson 19 50 : 110 ). T o ju d g e b y the frequency o f shrines, horns o f consecration and the sym b ol o f the dou ble-axe, the vvhole palače o f Knossos must have resem bled a sanctuary. W h erever you turn, pillars and sym bols rem ind one o f the presence o f the Great Goddess or the Snake G o d ­ dess. T his situation is related to that found in N eolithic and C h alco ­ lithic E u ro p e : in houses there vvere sacred corners vvith ovens, altars (benches) and offering places, and there vvere separate shrines dedicatcd to certain goddesses.

S

■) M iniature terracotta hrones jro m Ruse. East ’ ilkan civilization. 'aranovo V I). M id-fifth llennium b c

h r in e

e q u ip m e n t

an d

o b je c t s

related

to

cu lt

p r a c t ic e s

E xcavations in O ld Europe are continually brin gin g to light altarpieces, bucrania, libation vases, partitioned bovvls, ladles, peculiar zoom orphic or ornithom orp h ic vases, and other elaborate artifacts that could have found useful Service on ly in tem ples or dom estic shrines. Life-size bucrania, real or m odelled in clay, vvere raised high on w ooden posts and m ounted on altars or attached to the gable o f a house or tem ple. A t Vinča itself and at Ja k o v o -K o rm a d in vvest o f B elgrade, life-size and h igh ly stylized bucrania have been unearthed. I11 C ucuteni settlements a series o f life-size altars or altar ‘screens’ have been found. O ne o f the m ost spectacular, from the settlement o f Tru$c§ti in M o ld avia, appears to bc a stylizcd rlica o f the fasade o f

Sd

34 Reconstructioti o fa cult talile iug a series o f vases; fo u n d at tlie classical Petrcjti settlement at P ianul de Jo s , Transylt’ dnia. M id fifth inillennium 11 c

a sanctuary, vvith a vvide-arched central entrance and side entrances indicated b y oval holes. A b o v e are tvvo sym bols shaped like an M , differing in siže but each capped vvith a basin-shaped lid vvhich m ay represent sacrificial vessels. O ther large altarpieces from Tru§e§ti take the shape o f a B ird Goddess or a goddess vvith upraised arms. N u m erou s m iniature tables, thrones, ehairs and stools vvere m odelled in clay. T h e y seem to have been m anufactured in conjunction vvith figurines, to provide dom estic com forts for divinities. In exceptional circumstances the remains o f full-sized furniture have been diseovered. In the Petre$ti settlement o f Pianul de Jo s at Hunedoara, a fire, vvhich possibly occurred vvithin a strueture housing a shrine, preserved parts o f a rough ly triangular table vvhich vvas plastered vvith clay and displayed a decoratcd pancl in relief. C areful excavation shovved that richly decorated pedestalled vases, dishes, a ja r and several lids must have been standing on this table and a large storage ja r under it, before the fire broke out. A t M ed vednjak, a Vinča settlement in central Y u go slavia, in a rectangular shrine 5 m. long, tvvo large groups o f ritual vases vvere uncovered next to the burnt remains o f a vvooden strueture, probably an altar table (1970 excavation by R . G alovic, unpublished). O n c o f the large pots vvas packed vvith smaller vases o f various sizcs and shapes and was covered vvith a lid. A nother house o f the same settlement yieldcd 81

43

44 45

jj

14

239

2 4 0 - 2 4 2 ; 17 0

a ritual grou p consisting o f three bull-legged vessels and a figurine. Beside the w all, about i m. from this grou p, vvas a bieonical pot filled w ith grains. T o w a rd s the m iddle o f the ro om , near the oven, lay a heap o f 15 0 clay balls w ith a bull-legged vessel and a pot on to p ; another pot, full o f grain, stood close by. A particular type o f vessel seems to have been used in sacrificial cerem onies. It consists o f a shallovv b o w l sunk into a flat slab w hich m ay be triangular, standing on three legs, or rectangular and fou rlegged. Such vessels are decorated by incision, encrustation and p ain tin g; they som etim es have anim al-head protom es projecting fro m the corners and legs, and m ay take a hum an shape. Som e o f the m ost im pressive are ed by m assive bull-legs or rest on stand­ ing or crouching anim als. T h e buli or deer m odels from the East B alkan civilization are outstanding illustrations o f this type o f vessel. Libation vases m ake up another series o f cult vessels; these m ay be ju g-sh ap ed , spouted, zoom orphic, bird-shaped or anthropom orphic, and are o f fine fabric. T h e y are variously ornam ented, according to local styles, being either incised or decorated w ith red, graphite, or p olych rom e painting in com plex curvilinear and m eandroid designs. C la y ladles, exquisitely shaped and decorated, occur in great num bers in ali parts o f O ld Europe. Those found at the Classical Cucuteni sites are beautifully painted. In the East Balkans som e have anthropo­ m orp h ic handles p o rtrayin g m asked faces. T h e abundant production o f small zoom orphic containers or lam ps w ith projecting anim al heads usually o f rams, snakes or bulls and vvith various engraved ideogram s suggests that they served as v o tive offerings to particular deities, ju st as sim ilar objeets vvere sacrificed during the M inoan and H elladic B ron ze A g e and in the later Eleusinian M ysteries. Literary records m ention incense burners and oil lamps am o n g the objeets sacrificed to D em eter o f Despoina in Lykosu ra (Nilsson 19 57). T rad itio n ally, incense burners and lamps vvere used as far back as pottery in E u ro pe: on close observation the painted N eolithic ring-based and footed vessels exhibit loss o f slip on the interior surfaces o w in g to som e unusual use to vvhich these vessels vvere put, possibly burning (cf. study o f ceram ic tech n ology o f Anza pottery o f c. 6000 b c b y Elizabcth Gardner). In C ucuteni and East Balkan ceram ic art sophisticated anthropo­ m orph ic vase s are found. T h c y take the form o f either a single hum an figure (headless, or clse vvith one o r tvvo faces) or a gro u p o f interconnected bo w ed figures. T h e hum an body, particularly the shoulders and arm s, provided an appropriate sculptural m o tif for m onum ental stand-s m odelled b y Cucutcni artists. A notable ex:amplc from Frum u$ica ineorporates five vvell-proportioned hum an figures standing erect on a single base, the upper part o f their bodies connectcd b y their em bracing arms. T h e raising o f a

vessel is a com m on practice in ritual celebrations, usually associated vvith fertility m agic and pleas for future prosperity. T h e Bulgarians have retained a N evv Y e a r ’s custom in vvhich the three eldest w o m en o f the fam ily thrice raise the trough containing the sacred Nevv Y e a r’s bread-dou gh ( R y bako v 1965). T h ere are statuettes p o rtrayin g vvomen seated on a stool and holding conical containers fo r vvater. A rem arkably w ell-preserved exam ple from B o rd još in the lovver Tisza valley shows a naked vvoman sitting stiffly, both hands firm ly holding a dish on her lap. A n o th er exam ple, a seated figu re holding a bow l and a dish w ith a ladle, comes from a Cucuteni site at N ezv isk o in the vvestern U k rain e (R y b a k o v 19 6 5: Fig. 3). T h e E arly V inča settlement o f Fafos yieldeđ a sculpture o f a seated, m asked vvoman perform ing a m agical rite o v er the vessel vvhich she is holding. A v e ry distinctive sculpture o f a male figure vvas diseovered during the excavation o f the Tisza settlement at Szegvar in southeastern H u n gary. H e vvears a flat mask and in his right hand holds a sickle extending o ver his shoulder. O n both arms brac^lets are indicated in relief, five on the right and one on the left. A broad, decorated belt is incised round the vvaist o fh is stout body. T his figure has attracted m uch attention, and recently K alicz (1970) term ed the period o f the Tisza culture ‘L ’e'poque du Dieu a la faucille’ , the epoch o fth e Sickle G od, a dom inant m ale deity. M a k k a y (1964) considers this figure an ancestor o f the G reek god Kronos. His dignified posture, and his mask, sickle and festive attire, proelaim his im portant status; his authoritative possession o f the sickle im plies that he, as central figure o f the cult, is presiding over its rites. In ancient G reek festivals devoted to A rtem is and D em eter the sickle vvas still displayed, sym b olizing victo ry (N ilsson 1957). A curved stick o f copper or gold knovvn from the third m illennium in the N ear East and the Caucasus vvas an insignia o f povver, a sym bolic value inherited from an early agricultural era, vvhen the sickle vvas regarded as a sacred cult instrument. T h ere is archaeological evidence o f com posite sickles, flint blades set in vvood or bone, and o f their utilization for reaping from earliest N eo lith ic tim e s.T h a t they vvere used as cult or orna­ menta! objeets in ritual festivities is revealed b y sickle im itations vvhich vvere produced in copper in east central Europe about 5000 b c . T h e Szegvžr figure vvould seem to be e x em p lifyin g the novel and valuable produets o f a copper technology still in its infancy. Bracelets m ade o f round copper vvire are knovvn from both the Tisza and Vinča cultural com plexes, and an enorm ous copper sickle, 54 cm. long, has been diseovered in H u n gary at Zaerszentm ihaly. The sickle vvas an isolated find but its shape is v e ry m uch the same as that b elonging to the statuette, suggesting that thcy are contem poraneous. T he S ze g v ar male sculpture is unique, the other Tisza figurines being fem ale.

Flutes and triton shells appear in N eolithic and C h alcolithic

47

settlem en ts; on ly in exceptional circumstances are other m usical Instrum ents such as citherns or lyres preserved. Fragm ents o f bone

46, Seated m asked m an h o ld in g a sickle. A r m -r in g s 011 bo th arm s. S z e g v a r-T iiz k o v e s , T isza cuiture. c. 5000

flutes or pipes w ere diseovered in the auth or’s o w n excavation at Anza, M acedonia, belonging to the period p rior to 6000 b c (Gimbutas, 1972). T riton shells were found in L en gyel settlements. The above exam ples are but rem inders o f the use o f musical instruments in cult cerem onies as in M inoan C rete and in the C yclad es (Zervos, C rete: 39 1, 445, 704). A priestess holding a triton shell is depieted on a M inoan seal from the Idaean C a v e standing at an altar topped vvith the horns o f consecration vvith the tree o flife representing the goddess’ epiphany in the m iddle. Flute-playin g is constantly mentioned or pictorially depieted in m ythical scenes o f A ncient Greece. T h e tradition must stem from a very early period. T h e role o f music and dance in the religious cerem onies o f O ld Europe cannot be fu lly assessed until marble sculptures like C yclad ic lyre- or fluteplayers, vvooden frames o f lyres or citherns or their portrayais on frescoes or elsevvhere are diseovered.

b c ; detail o f the u p per part o f the sculpture (46)

3 5 M inoan seal from the Idaean C a ve. Priestess . (? ) holding a triton shell. On the right, an altar topped with horns o f consecration and a tree in the middle

V O T IV E O F F E R IN G S: IN SC R IB ED FIG U R IN E S, V E SSE L S, SP IN D LF.-W H O R LS A N D O TH ER O B JE C T S

.(N { u p p e r M ckle Ir o n i / . . k t a 'H ! m i haly, u r s u iti i I m i g . i r v K u l . i n - d tm d. prr'.tum 'd m l v ol v.im r iui .t* lipurin* 'slioun im l ’ K. ,|fi. .(•;

M an had to persuade the divinity he vvorshipped to be propitious to him. H oards o f vo tive figurines, m iniature vessels and other objeets are constantly being recovered in N eolithic, Chalcolithic, M inoan, M ycenaean and Greek caves and sanctuaries, as vvell as those o f O ld Europe. T h e m aker’s name, the name o f the goddess, or a sort o f contract or prom ise, vvas sometimes inscribed on a figurine, plaque, spindle-vvhorl or m iniature vessel. A pp ro xim ately one out o f every hundred figurines vvas incised vvith the signs o f the Lincar O ld European script (not religious sym bols and not ideogram s). Since other objeets, such as spindle-vvhorls, m iniature vessels, plaques and dishes or bovvls, vvere sim ilarly inscribed, they too must have been votive offerings. V ariou s signs are found 011 the front, back and sides o f O ld European figurines. M inoan figurines vvere sinnlarly inscribed, and an idol from the M iddle M inoan palače o f Tylissos bearing Linear A signs is reproduced herc for com parison. Som e characters o f the script, notably a triangular sign in conjunction vvith vertical lin.es, are repeated quite often 011 figurines and other objeets. O n the Vinča figurine herc illustratcd, other signs - a m eander and chevrons - are also en graved ; these are not script signs, but ideogram s o fth e Snake and B ird Goddess, as w c shall sec from the discussion in the ehapters that follovv. Inscribed spindle-vvhorls are know n from m any Vinča and East Balkan sites. spindles having been am ong the vo tive offer-

3 6 Late Vinca figurin e with inscription on one side. c. late fifth millennium b c

57 (top lift) M iddle M inoan fig u rin e fro m Tylissos, eastern C rete, bearing inscriptions in Linear A . E arly second m illennium b c S (above) Schematic fig urin e incised u/ith a meander or snake over fro n t and chevrons over upper part oj back. O n low er part o f back, a triangle with vertical lines. Vinča mound. c. 4500 - 4000 ne: .

j

3 9 (U ft) Schematic fig u rin e inscribcd on the back u/ith signs composed o f a V or triangle and a roir oj vertical lines. Vinča mound. Late sixth millennium b c

f

ings in C h a lc o lith ic .O id Europe as they vvere in later periods. In G reek times their association vvith the cult o f A rtem is is evident and the notion o f ‘spinning the thread o f life’ is very lik ely to have originated when spinning vvas still in its infancy and was regarded as im bued vvith a m agic povver. Inscribed m iniature vessels are abund an t; in the Vinča m ound no less than 368 vvere found and m an y bore inscriptions o f various kinds. Such vessels bear the same type o f linear sign as do the spindle-vvhorls and figurines. T h e y are not decorative m otifs and not sym b ols. T h e m iniature vessels, usually ve ry small and cru d elv m ade, vvere m eant to im itate large vases and vvere dedicated as gifts to goddcsses. O n the rims and vvalls o f larger bovvls and dishes inscriptions also occur. T h e y cannot bc interpreted as p o ttcr’s m arks, since. they are not single geom etric signs, but a sequence o f linear signs. O ne o f the best exam ples o f O ld European script com es from the C h alcolith ic site o f Gradešnica near Vratsa in vvestern B u lgaria, vvhich is contcm poran cous vvith the E arly Vinča period o f the same culture in R om an ia. O n a shallovv dish from this site, signs o f vvriting appear on 40 M iniature vessels bearing inscriptions (dedications?), from the Vinča mound, found 7 -6 .5 111. deep. Early fifth millcnnium BC

both sides. O n the inner surface there are four ro w s d ivided b y horizontal lines, and on the outside is a schematized anthropom orphic figure, around vvhich the fam iliar script signs are grouped. A nalogous grouping o f signs is knovvn on an object from an Early Vinča site o f Sukoro at Szekesfehervar in vvestern H ungary. O n a round plaque f r o m K aran o vo V I in central B ulgaria, signs consisting ofstraigh t lines were incised betvveen the cross arm s o f the quartered disc (V . I. Georgiev, 1969). A lth ough script signs on figurines, spindle-vvhorls and m iniature vessels vvere knovvn and collected from the beginning o f the tvventieth 4 1 Inscribed spirtdle-u/horl century (Schm idt 19 0 3 ; Vasić 19 10 , 19 36 ; R o sk a 19 4 1), discussions from D ikilitash near P h ilip i, northeastern Greece, East concerning the possible existence o f a N eolithic-C h alcolith ic script Balkan civilization. c. only began after the three Tartaria plaques or pendants had been 4500 - 4000 BC diseovered in the Mure§ rive r valley o f vvestern R o m an ia and vvere published by Vlassa in 1963. These plaques, o f vvhich tvvo are perforated, vvere found in association vvith seorehed human bones, tw enty-six schem atic E arly Vinča clay figurines, tvvo alabaster figurines, a clay ‘anehor’ (possibly a fragm ent o f a figurine o r horns o f consecration vvith a figure in the m iddle), and a Spondylus-shell bracelet in an ash-filled, sacrificial pit located in the lovvest layer o f the site. The pit vvas covered by tvvo occupation horizons: im m ed iately above vvas a lcvel o f the Petre?ti group and above this vvas a Cojofeni habitation level o f the fourth m illcnnium b c . B y an alogy vvith calibrated radiocarbon dates fo r Early Vinča layers at other sites, the d a te 'o f the lovvest occupation level cannot be later than the early fifth m illennium . T h e Tartaria inscribed objeets are genuine Vinča artifacts, produced tvvo thousand years earlier than the development o f Sum erian civilization and about three thousand years before the appearance o f M inoan Palače culture. O ne o f the Tartaria tablets shovvs the outlincs o f tvvo anim als and a tree. O ne o f the animals in this sy m bolic scene is clearly a goat. T h e association o f goat and tree suggcsts that the Tartaria ritual burial may have been perform ed as part o f the rite o f annual dcath and resurrection. I11 M inoan C rete and in the N ear East, the goat vvas 42 Shallou> vessel from prominent as a sacrificial victim in the festival and the tree sym bolized Gradešnica near Vraća, a nevv life. T h is also im plies the fact that O ld European vvriting vvas u’cstern Bulgaria, bearing associatcd vvith religious funetions. inscriptions on both sides. (a ), outer side with signs Inscribcd vo tive objeets clcarlv prove the existence o f O ld around the symbolic fig u r e ; European Linear signs and, in general, the very early incidence o f (b ), inner side u'itli fo u r vvriting. From the available m atcrial at the present tim e it is seen lines o f signs. c. 5000 b c Vinča culture that the bcginnings lic in the period o f transition from the N eolithic to Chalcolithic (Late S ta rč c v o -E a rly Vinča in central Balkans), c. 5500-5000 b c :. M ore vvork on the script still avvaits the dedicated seholar (but sce M ilton W inn. Dissertation, U C L A 1973 for analysis o f signs; to appear in book form 111 19S2).

4 J Objeets fo u n d in a sacrificial burial pit at Tdrtaria, ivestern Rom ania. a, inscribed plaques, the upper one shoiving two animals (goats?) and a tree, suggesting a sacrifice in celebration o f the return o f new life ; b, alabaster figurin es, a p illa r (phallic sym lwl or fragm ent oj a clay fig urin e) and a Spotidylus hracelet. c. end oj sixlli m illennium to c. 5 3 0 0 -5 0 0 0

6

BC

44 Inscribed clay objeets, perhaps tveights, from Su kori-T o radiili) east o f Szekesfehervar, 1vestern Hungary. 5000 li c

SUMMING UP

C la y m odels o f temples, kn ow n from ali parts o f O ld Europe, p rob ab ly represent com m unal sanctuaries, dedicated to certain goddesses. These inelude rectangular struetures vvith portals and vvide entrances and fou r interconnected temples raised high on a stereobate or an earthen terrace. Shrines vvhose actual remains have bccn found take the fo rm o f rectangular houses divided into tvvo room s one o f vvhich vvas furnished vvith an oven, an altar (dais), and som etim es a separate sacrificial area. These seem to be dom estic shrines. T h e pillar shrine at Cascioarele, located in the m iddle o f the village, vvas probably a com m unal sanctuary. T he cerem onial accoutrem ents ineluded lifesize bucrania, altar screens, large askoi, pithoi and other beautifully decorated vases. Figurines are found on altars, sim ple platform s like benehes, usually built o f clay and covered vvith planks, arrangcd at the end or corner o f the dom estic shrine, not far from the oven. This fmds close an alogy vvith the M inoan dom estic shrines in vvhich figurines are found standing on a dais. Figurines, ostensibly p erfo rm in g some ritual, are cncountered also in other placcs, near the oven, b y the entrance, beside grindstones and elsevvhere. Figurines also served as vo tive offerings; thcy are found in sacrificial burials and, vvhere used as gifts to certain divinities, vvere inscribed.

88

Cosm ogonical apd Cosm ological Images

H A striking developm ent in art at the inception o f the agricultural era vvas its persistent representation o f a num ber o f conventionalized I graphic designs sym bolizing abstract ideas. These ideogram s, recurring on figurines, stamp seals, dishes, cult vessels, and as part o f pictorial decoration o f vases and house vvalls, vvere used for thcuisands ofyears throughout O ld European civilization, and help to expand our understanding o f its cosm ogo n y and co sm o lo gy, and o f the funetions o f the deities it sustained. The sym bols fali into tvvo basic categories: those related to vvater or rain, the snake and the bird ; and those associated vvith the m oon, the vegetal life-cycle, the rotation o f seasons, the birth and grovvth essential to the perpetuation o f life. The first category consists o f symbols vvith sim ple parallel lines, V ’s, zigzags, chevrons and meanders, and spirals. T h e second group ineludes the cross, the encircled cross and m ore com plex derivations o f this basic m o tif vvhich sym b olically connects the four corners o f the vvorld, the crescent, horn, Caterpillar, egg and fish.

T h e fo u r c o r n e r s o f t h e vvo r ld , t h e m o o n a n d t h e b u l l

The cross, vvith its arms direeted to the four corners o ft h e eosm os, is a universa] sym bol created or adopted by farm ing com m unitics in the N eolithic and extending into present day folk art. It is based on the b e lie f that the year is a jo u rn e y em bracing the four C a rd in a l direetions. Its purpose is to prom ote and assure the contm uance o f the cosm ic cycle, to help the vvorld through ali phases o f the m oon and the ehanging seasons. Graphite-painted East Balkan dishes have cross and cosm ic snake designs vvhich recurrently present identical com positions o f ‘ the universc’ . The hooks or branehing lines attached to the four arm s o f the cross reinforce its d ynam icexp ression. These vital signs are cncountered on the bases, the insides o f dishes, on figurines and stam p seals.

47 Schem atizedfigurine having crou/n engraved u/ith quartered design, fo u n d in a clay silo fille d with wheat grain. M edvedn jak, Vinča site near Smederevska P alanka, Central Yugoslavia. c. 5000 b c. Note chevrons above eyes

•'.V

45 Craphite-painted dishes with cross and snake motifs in the centre o f the cosmos. Tangira mound, Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. M id-Jifth millennium b c

The cross and its various derivative sym bols are frequently Jičountered in the incised or painted ceram ic decorations o f each *f§)lithic and C h alcolithic grou p . T h eir consistent appearance on $ishes, bow ls, vases, stamp seals and the crow ns o f figurines strongly ||g ests that they are ideogram s necessary to prom ote the recurrent irthand g ro w th o f plant, anim al, and hum an life. T h e y are sym bols ilt h e continuum o f life w hich had to be ensured. Painted or engraved ! h the bases or insides o f dishes they must have served as go od -lu ck sjm bols as they still do in the European peasant culture. Life is 'resent on ly w here there is no stagnation and the regularity o f nature not obstructed b y the forces o f death. In E gyp tian hieroglyphics the cross stands for life or liv in g and form s part o f such w ords as fp!health’ and ‘happiness’ . A related concept could have dom inated S lh e minds o f early European farmers. A sm ooth transition from one ||)hase to another spelled happiness. T h e fourfold com positions, K | ir c h e t y p a l o f perpetual renewal or wholeness and the m oon in the Ms' symbolism o f O ld Europe, are associated vvith the Great Goddess o f Life and Death, and the Goddess o f V egetation, m oon goddesses Par excellence. The sym bols o f ‘b ecom in g’ - crescents, caterpillars and horns ■ P lc c o m p a n y fou rfold designs. T h e y do not depict the end result o f s m rwholeness but rather the continuous strivin g tovvards it, the active a p .p r o c e s s o f creation. A painting on a Cucuteni dish from Valea f* Lupului shovvs stylized horns o f four bulls, each quartered b y crossed om lines, with a crescent o r a Caterpillar in each section, a sym bol related S ' to the idea o f periodic regeneration. There is a m orphological relationship betvveen the buli, on. o f its fast-grow in g horns, and the w a x in g aspect o f the m oon, vvhich is further evidence o f the bull’s sym b olic funetion as invigorator. T h e w orship o f the m oon and horns is the w o r s h i p o f the C re a tiv e and fecund p o v v e rs o f nature. In W estern Asia o f the fourth to second m illennia, the cross was usually associated vvith the lunar crescent and was an alternative symbol o f the m oon (Briffault 1 9 6 3 : 3 4 3 , Figs. 8 - 1 2 ) . Painted on a Classical C u cuten i vase from Tru$e§ti are quartered d is c d e s ig n s having a cross inside vvith knobbed extrem ities, p robably sym bolizing four phases o f the m oon, hooked to a horn. A portrayal o f the head o f a buli vvith the lunar disc betvveen its horns occurs in relief on a vase from a Late Cucuteni site o f Podei. T h e disc is quartcred by Crossing lines possibly indicating the four phases o f the m oon. In the low er section o f the vase, the bu ll’s horns are shovvn upside dovvn, perhaps to sym b olize the dcad buli. In this and m any sim ilar portrayals w e m ay recognize the sacrificial aspect o f the act o f creation. The G reat G oddess, as w e shall s c e later, em erges from the dead buli in the shape o f a bee o r a butterfly. T h e life process o f creation and destruetion is the basis fo r im m ortality.

6 F-ourjold signs inciscd on ■titra! European Linear ottery dishes. B ylany and her sur.' in Bohemia. Umi xth—early fifth millenniuni

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1

1

f

2 3 CM

<-

4S Pottery stamp bearing a quartered design. M ultiple chevrons in each section. Ruse, lou'er Danube. East Balkan civilization. (Karanovo V I). M id-fifth millennium BC

5'

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m

49 Q u atrefo il design painted on the inside o f a Late C u cu ten i d ish : fo u r b u ll’s horn s e n v e lo p in g a qu artcrcd disc w ith a crescent o r a Caterpillar in each section. V alea L u p u lu i, M o ld a v ia , n orthcastern R o m a n ia . M id -fo u rth m illen n iu m b c 50 Q u artered discs e m e rg in g fro m b u ll’s horn s (o n ly one h o rn is visible.) P o ly c h ro m e painted C lassical C u c u ten i v ise . T ru se jti, northcastern R o m a n ia . Late fifth m illen n iu m BC 5 1 P ainted Late C u cu ten i vase vvith b u ll’s head in relief. T h e b u ll’s outsize horns en circle a q u artered disc. D a rk b ro w n on w h ite. P od ei at T a r g u -O c n a , n ortheastcrn R o m a n ia . M id -fo u rth m illenn iu m b c 52 H orn ed terracotta štand (one h o rn bro kcn ) vvith fem ale breasts. It has a hole on top betvveen the horn s. M e d v e d n ja k , V in ča site at S m ed erev sk a P alan ka, southeast o f B elg rad e. c. 5000 BC 53 T erraco tta fig u r in e o f a b u li vvith e x a g g e r a t c d ly large h o r n s (b o th b r o k e n off). V in ča cuiture. Fafos, S o u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia . Fifth m ille n n iu m bc

i! i f ■

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I

I

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T he sacredness o f the buli is expressed in particular through the emphasis on horns. T h e y are sometimes as large as the w h ole animai figurine. R e p le te w ith a m ysterious p o w e r o f g ro w th , the horns have becom e a lunar sym b ol, vvhich is presum ed to have com e into being in the U p p e r Palaeolithic A u rig n a đ an vvhen reliefs o f naked wom en holding a horn begin to appear (cf. the re lie f from the cave o f Laussel in Southern ). In the m ythical im agery o f O ld Europe the buli vvas as dom inant as elsevvhere in the M editerranean vvorld. T erracotta figurines o f bulls in the C ucuteni civilization usually have conical bosses on the forehead or a piece o f copper set betvveen the horns (a figurine vvith copper on the forehead vvas unearthed at B o lb o ch , a classical Cucuteni settlem ent near Kishenev). The heads o f bulls vvith rosettes on the foreheads knovvn from M inoan and M ycenaean art inherited this O ld European tradition. H orns o f consecration, so frequent in M inoan art, vvere already present in the Vinča and East B alkan civilizations. H undreds o f horned stands vvith a central hole for the insertion o f som e divine im age m ade o f perishable m aterial are found in V inča sites. In one case the breasts o f the go d dess are indicated on the štand. The abundance o f these stands vvould . suggest their association vvith some sort o f m yth -enacting cerem ony, and the beginning o f this sym bol probably goes back to the prim ordial sacrifice vvith the underlying concept that out o f the sacrificed bull’s b o d y a new life em erges. The schematized buli horn represents one o f the basic philosophical ideas o f O ld European religion ; per­ haps this is w h y they are so num erous - as num erous as horns o f consecration in the Palače o f Knossos. T h e tradition o f expressing the same idea in shorthand continued in the Proto-palatial period o f Crete. T h e so-called ‘sheep-beH’ figurines vvith a suspension ring, tvvo horn-like projeetions and eyes or a m asked face depieted on the body, found at Knossos, Poros, Tylissos and V o ro u (Platon 1 9 4 9 : 833f.) p robably represent a divinity in com bination vvith the horns sym bolical o f a sacrificed buli. In N eo-palatial C rete, the horns o f consecration are alvvays associated vvith the epiphany o f the Goddess in the shape o f a d oublc-axe (a butterfly), a tree or a pillar. T he sn ake

».

The snake and its abstracted derivative, the spiral, are the dom inant motifs o f the art o f O ld Europe, and their im agin ativc use in spiraliform design throughout the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods remaincd unsurcd by any subsequent decorativc stylc until the Minoan civilization, the sole inheritor o f O ld European lavishness. The Chalcolithic B u tm ir, Cucuteni, and East Balkan peoples created large bulbous vessels, adopting the snake-spiral as the basis o f the entire ornam ental com position. This art rcachcd its peak o f unified sym bolic and aesthetic cxpression c. 5000 b c .

93

49 M iniature terracotta horns o j consecration from 1, 2 , Ruse, C um elnija com p lex; 3 , Vinča. Fifth m illennium b c

54

55. 5<> 57

5«. 59 60

5 »

5 1

5». 52 5.1

‘Sym p honies o f snakes’ appear in colours and in graphite or vvhiteencrusted incisions on cult vases, lamps, altar tables, hearth s and house vvalls. C o n cu rren tly, almost naturalistic m odels o f snakes were produced b y ali the cultural groups o f O ld Europe in bone, w o o d or clay. A coiled pottery snake, decorated vvith incised zigzag and punctate designs, vvas found at the E arly Vinča settlement o f Predio­ nica. T h e entire inner surface o f a ritual dish vvith holes fro m K u ko va M og ila in B ulgaria is covered b y a snake coil. T he zigzaggin g outer coil contrasts witf\th,e inner spiral and suggests the radiating sun. A form idable horned snake m odelled in re lie f vvinds around a N eo li­ thic pot from the site' o f S u vo d o l-D ib el in Pelagonia. Snakes, their bodies m arked by dots or com b-like stamps, h ave been found in­ cised on a n u m b e ro f vases from the Vinča m ound. T he V inča settle­ m ent o f Potporanj at V ršac yieldcd curling snakes carved out o f bone, vvith triangular heads and cye-holes. Snake ornam entation dominates the ceramics o f the N eo lith ic Linear P ottery culture in central Europe and that o f the B iik k group in the Carpathian foothills, rangin g in expression from naturalistic portrayals to elegantly cu rvin g geom etric designs. Snakes m odelled in relief, som etim es vvith fine naturalistic detail, m eander across the inner surface o f dishes dis­ eovered in gravcs at the D v o ry and Ž ita v o u cem etery o fŽ e le z o v c e , a variant o f the Linear Pottery culture in vvestern S lo vak ia. Sim ilar snakes, but painted in black or brovvn on orange piriform vases, are frequ en tly encountercd du ring the Late C ucuteni period. T h e snake coil also appears 011 C ucuteni stam p seals. T h e m ysterious dynam ism o f the snake, its extraordinary vitality and periodic rejuvenation, must have provoked a povverful em otional response in the N eolithic agriculturists, and the snake vvas consequently m yth o!ogized , attributed w ith a povver that can m ove the entire cosmos. C om p osition s 011 the shoulders o f cult vases reveal pairs o f snakes vvith opposed heads, ‘ m aking the vvorld ro ll’ vvith the cn ergy o f their spiralling bodies. Tension betvvcen the tvvo is em phasized, since it is not ju st one snake that begins the m ovem ent. This m o tif occurs in various degrees o f sehematization du ring the N eolithic and C h alcolithic eras. T he m ore naturalistic tendency is to distinguish the heads and bodies o f snakes and their tails, vvhich end in vvidespread triangles, a contrivance to fill the space betvveen the discs or ovals. The organization o ft h e m otifs dem onstrates that the im agery is gcnuinely co sm o go n ic: the disc and snake com positions appear in bands occu p yin g the m iddle o ft h e vases, associated vvith belts o f the upper skies containing rain clouds, divine dogs and favvns. T h e b ek o f earth is characterized b y plant motifs. O n som e vases snake coils in the upper bands have diagonal stripes, p robably to indicatc torrents o f rain. In som e cases the snake is portrayed vvinding across the cosm ic d ou b le-egg.

94

The involved ornam entation o f Cucuteni and East B alkan cerafflic painting is a sym b olic glorification o f nature’s d ynam ism . Its graphic expression is organized around the sym b ol o f the snake, whose presence vvas a guarantee that nature’s enigm atic cycle w o u ld be maintained and its life-g iv in g povvers not dim inish. T h e snake vvas the vehicle o f im m ortality. Som e vases flaunt a gigan tic snake vvinding or stretehing o ver ‘the vvholc universe’ , o v er the sun or moon, stars and rain torrents; elsevvhere the snake vvinds ab ove or belovv a grovving plant or coils above the pregnant m oth er’s belly. Snakes coil in concentric circles coverin g e very protuberance, the buttocks as w ell as the fem ale abdom en. The sanctity o f protuberance is indicated b y the special attention given e ve ry co n vcx roundness o f the fem ale b o d y - even a knee is encircled. S im ilarly, the snake is usually present on a bu ll’s rum p or shoulders. The phallus, as vvell as ithyphallic vases and lids, is also accom panied by snake coils. T h e snake vvas stim ulator and guardian o f the spontancous life energy, and this anatom ical association, so frequent that its sym b o lic m eaning cannot be doubted, dem onstrates the povver that vvas attributed to bodily protuberances as its source. In the N eolithic m ound o f Poroditi in M acedonia num erous ceramic snakes vvere diseovered. O rigin ally they vvere attached to vessels, perhaps vvater containers, used in ritual cerem onies. A reconstruction o f such a vessel is here reproduced. S im ilar snake- or phallus-shaped ‘elongated heads’ h ave been diseovered in R a m a d , Level III, a sixth-m illennium villagc in Syria (Contenson 1 9 7 1 : 285). The phallus, horns, snake, vvater bird, and vvater are closeIy interrelated in m yth and cult. T h e m ystery o f life lies in vvater, in oceans, deep seas, lakes o r rivers. G ods are born from vvater. D io n y sus com es from vvater, as do the B ird Goddess, Athcna, o r A ph rodite. On pictorial Cucuteni vases and Tisza altars vvc sce bird-đavved or horned goddesses borne in the vvomb o f m ythical vvaters. T h e universal snake vvinds around the universal egg like a continuous flovv o f vvater. T o the pocts and philosophers o fa n cie n t Greece vvater vvas the prim ordial elem ent, able to produce life, stimulate its grovvth and nurture it vvith dam p vvarmth. This concept o f the genesis o f the universe from an elem ental aqua-substance surely extends back in time to the N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic era.

54

196

55

110, 92 5 6

j o Snahe and disc motifs as ornamentaI belts 011 the shoulders o fa Classical Cucuteni vase from the sile o f H ib S fi'fti, M otdavia, northeastern Romania. a, va se; b , ornament around tlte shoulders.

58, 59 Sn ake in a dish fro m the cem etery o f D v o r y nad Ž ita v o u , w estern S lo v ak ia (detail). E a rly fifth m illenn iu m b c

54 Potcery snake fro m P red io n ica at Priština, Y u g o s la v ia . E a rly V in ča. En d o f sixth m illen n iu m

bc

55, 56 P o ttery b o w l wich holes and a snake coil inside sh o w n in relief. P ro b a b ly used in Cerem onies of rain in vo catio n . K u k o v a M o g ila . centra! B u lg a ria . K a ra n o v o Hl c o m p le x , East B alk an civilization . End o f sixth m illen n iu m b c

57 A h o rn ed snake w ith la rg e c y c s fro m D ib el, a Late N e o lith ic settlem ent near B ito la , vvestern M accd o n ia. P o ttc ry re lie f on the sh ou ld er o f a vaše

t;6o Painted snake o n a Late gCucuteni vase from Bilcze Z lo te ;tail). First h a lf o f fourth nillennium b c

6 1 , 62 Sn ak e heads as decoration o f cult vessels. T errac o tta. P o ro d in , S o u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia . N e o lith ic S ta rče v o c o m p le x . c. 6 0 0 0 BC

63, 64 H o rn ed head in association vvith snakes (head o f a S n ak e Goddess) shovvn in re lie f 011 a vase from T e li A zm ak , central B u lgaria. East Balkan (K a ra n o v o I) civilization . c. 6000 BC

6$

A n th ro p o m o rp h ic terracotta figu rin e o f a crovvned S n a k e G od d ess from K a to lerapctra, N eolithic C re te . T h e legs are fo rm ed like snakes. D isconnectcd lines c o v e r the breasts and shoulders and ex tcn d o v e r the lo w c r back

66 V inča lid vvith punetated sn ake-m ean d er, and ehevrons on to p . c. sooo-carly fifth m illc n n iu m Bc

R u tm k ig sn a k e-sp ira l k , rain c'louds, d iv in e dogs p la titi on p ain ted Late •Meni vases fro m oin tsi, mestern U k ra in e. mid-fourtk m lk n n iu m BC

T h e m vthical w ater snake and the vvater bird are vehicles o f an energy w hich has its source in water. In O ld European sym bolism these im ages are intim ately related, as w ili be seen from the next chapter. The snake w inds on the w ings o f a bird and is depieted on the beaked Vinča lid, F ro m the E arly N eo lith ic to ancient Greece the snake appears in an anthropom orphic shape as a Snake Goddess. H er b o d y is usuallv decorated w ith stripes or snake spirals, while her arms and legs are portrayed as snakes, or she is entwined by one or m ore snakes. H er anthropom orphized im age occurs on vases enveloped b y a snake. O n a vase from the N eolithic stratum o f the m ound o f A zm ak in B u l­ garia, her face is hum an but her eyebrow s resem ble horns. M o n strous horned heads w ith anthropom orphic features and birdclaw ed or snake-like hands reappear in Pre-palatial C rete (c f. A lexio u 19 5 8 : Pl. IA , 10). Snake spirals, agglom erations o f snakes or hybrids, half-snake and half-hum an, vvith spiralling extrem ities are painted in black on the cave vvalls o fP o rto Badisco in A pulia (Graziosi 19 7 1).

5 2 C u lt vessel with two snahe heads attached to j'ro'nt corners. Poroditi, Southern Yugoslavia. c. 6000 15c

T h e p r im o r d ia l egg

Stories o f creation knovvn to European and non-European peoples represent stages o f a lon g process o f developm ent. Because o f their ‘p rim ev al’ character they are considered to be ve ry old. T h e actual record o f this ‘prim ordial stage’ o f creation m yths is lim ited, since not everyw h ere in prehistoric cultures vvere they expressed in im ages. Ethnological parallels from fishing and hunting societies indirectly prove the Palaeolithic origir. o f the cosm ogonical ideas centring around vvater, vvater bird, egg, doe, and vvoman. D uring the N eolithic and C halcolithic the stories o f creation vvere quite com plex, as can be seen from vase paintings and frescoes. T h e prim al elem ent o f the universe vvas conceived as vvater. The abstract paintings on Cucuteni vases further reveal the form ation o f the vvorld and the beginning o f life from an egg in the midst o f vvhich a germ resided. T h e egg is enveloped 111 vvater, represented

5 j Snakes coiling across ‘ rain torrents'. Painted abstract design on a Classical Cucuteni vase from Vladim irouka, Southern Bug V alley, u'estern Ukraine. Iind o f fifth niillenniuni b c

101

4 Snake ivinding across juble-eggs enveloped in oiving ivater: painted nnpositions on Late 'ucuteni dishes from "omashevka, ivestern Jkraine. c. mid-fourth ii l leti ni um k c

15 Stiake 'adagio' on a
by parallel lines. T h e sym b ol o f life energy - the snake - winds across or around the cosm ic egg. T h e beginning o f life w ithin an egg is eaused b y the orbitin g o f tw o snakes or fav/ns. T he animals are alw ays in opposition, w hich creates a tension. It w o u ld appear that a cross o r an X vvithin an o v a l con veys the same idea. T h e germ is show n as a dot or a le-ns. A lens vvithin the enfolding egg layers is som etim es show n flanked b y spirals, a probable association with floral m otifs; this sym bolizes the rudim ent o f a livin g organism taking its form from fio w cr buds or grains. A germ vvithin an egg or a vu lva m ay sprout into a plant w ith buds or vvith bean-like projections. T h e idea o f a prim ordial eg g or vulva is likew ise expressed by sculpture. T h e Lepenski V ir sandstone sculptures dating from around 6000 b c are alm ost ali egg-shaped and one has a vu lva en graved in the centre. A ncient m yth ologies - E gyp tian , B abylon ian , H indu, G reek have preserved m yths o f the universe as a cosm ic egg from vvhich gods ariše and vvhich was created b y a cosm ic snake or bird. Ancient G reek m yths o b vio u sly enlarge on elements that are closely allied to cosm ological representations on Balkan N eolithic and Chalcolithic ccram ics. A thenagoras in the second century A D recordcd the follo w ing m y th : First ali was vvater. From the w ater em erged a snake with the head o f both a lion and a buli, and between these vvas the face o f a giant, H crakles or K h ronos. T h e G iant created an e gg, and the egg split in tw o . From the upper part čame the sky and from the low er part, the earth (Lukas 18 9 4 : 230). Som e 5000 years before Athena­ goras the m yth could h ave gone like this: First, ali vvas water. From the vvater em erged a cosm ic snake with a horned head. T h e snake (or the buli, or the giant) created the cosm ic egg. Then the eg g split in tw o. A cosm ic egg m ay also bc laid by a m ythical w ater b ird : this m yth is alm ost u niversally knovvn betwcen A frica and the Arctic zone; it is recorded in ancient civilizations and was kn ow n am ong hunting and fishing tribes. In an A ncient E gyptian m yth , the cosm ic eg g vvas laid b y a N.il.e goose which vvas vvorshipped as the ‘ great chatterer’, the creator o f the w o rld . A ccord in g to the O rp h ic story, unereated N y x (N ight) existed first and was regarded as a great black-vvingcd bird h o verin g o ver a vast darkness. T h ou gh unmated, she laid an egg from vvhich flevv go ld -w in ged Eros, vvhile from the tvvo parts o f the shell O uranos and Gaia (H eaven and Earth) were created. T h e beginning o f the m yth must lic in the Palaeolithic era. En graved and sculpted im ages vvith silhouetted egg-shaped buttocks are frequcnt in vvestern and central Europe from the early A u rig nacian and on into the M agdalenian period. T he m ore rcalistically rendered figures have b ird ’s heads and long breasts (M arshack 19 72:

5 6 Cosmic snake and cosmic egg compositions painted on Late Cucuteni vases from Sipintsi, vvestern Ukraine. c. mid-fourth millennium b c

5 7 Quartered egg and disc motifs on black-oti-redpainted Late Cucuteni vases from Sipin tsi, western Ukraine. M id-fourth millennium BC

58 Design over the hody o f Cucuteni vaše, shou'ing eg%s with a germ (lens) in the centre flanked with spirals. Dtm hul M o rii at Cucuteni, northcastern Rom ania. c. 4000 b c

3 0 5 rt'.). ■

102

103

67 A plant vvithin an e g g o r v u lv a . Late C u c u ten i pain ted vase fro m B ilc z e Z lo t e , -western U k ra in e

<5o, 70 B ird -sh ap ed vase w ith the head o f a d oe (?) T h e V in ča site. c. 4000 bc

7 1 B n d -slu p e d v.tse \vuh \vings. T h e h o d v is rounded like .m egg C ascio arele site, Southern R o m .im .1. (iu in clim .i I.iver. c. 4000 n<

Large Vinca askos from \za, Macedonia. constructed. c. j j o o - j i o o

69, 70

61

T h e idea o f a w ater bird, or a fo rm ofan th ro p o m o rp h ized bird, as a creator o f the cosm ic egg is clearly represented in N eolithic figurine art. It must have been a dom inating them e am ong the cosm ogo n ic m yths. Vessels taking the fo rm o f a bird are an early tradition in the Balkans. A skoi, vases o f w ater-bird shape, occur at N ea N ikom ed eia, a site w h ich dates from no later than 6000 b c . T h e same tradition vvas follovved th rou gh out the Balkan Peninsula and the D anube region during the sixth m illen nium and later. The m ost peculiar aspect o f these representations is that the ja r is shaped not sim ply in the form o f a bird, but that o f a bird carryin g an eg g w ithin its body. Such a vessel is usually rounded like an egg. W ith the askos, the N eolithic artist expressed a fem ale d ivin ity in the form o f a bird-shaped vvater ja r containing an egg as a fluid substance. She represented the universal Creative force. A n o th er im age having a sim ilar kind o f potentiality is the doe. Vases in the shape o fa deer have an egg-sha ped b o d y . Som e bird-shaped vases rounded to resem ble an egg have teriom orph ic heads. Such a peculiar com bination can be seen 011 a vessel from V in ča: the b o d y is shaped like an egg, the neck belongs to a crane or grebe, and the head to a co w or a doe. T h e sym b olism o f a bird carryin g a cosm ic eg g recurs considerably later, in C yclad ic, M in oan and H elladic art: the bodies o ffly in g birds painted on E arly and M iddle M inoan vases are seen to contain a large egg. In the Palaeolithic period the m y th o f the genesis ofth e vvorld from a cosm ic eg g laid by a bird g ave rise to an im portant series o f so-called steatopygous figurines. T h e nam e is derived from ‘steatopygia’ , w h ich is defined as an excessive developm ent o f fat on the buttocks, especially o f fem ales. A rchaeologists erroneously adopted this name for the figurines, thinking that they represented a natural portrayal o f vvom en vvith ab n o rm ally large buttocks. This is a false interpretation. ‘ Steato p ygo u s’ im ages continued from the M agdalcnian och into the N eo lith ic and beyond.

62 Figurine u/ith an egg (Itollou’ ) inside the buttocks and a snake u/inding around them (shown in relief). Donja Braujevina near D eronj, nortliern Yugoslavia. Starčevo complex. Central Balkan N eolithic. E ar!y sixtli inillennium ne:

This large grou p o f standing or stooping figurines represents the sculptural realization o f the concept o f the B ird Goddess, abstracting and fusing elements o f hum an and bird form . Her body contains an egg, and even the most schem atic representation must be a con ven tionalized expression o f this idea. From the seventh to the fifth m illennium b c these figurines conservatively display the same fea­ tures. T h e y are not truly obese; above the vvaist they are univcrsally slender, their breasts o f norm a! or even much reduced siže. Except in v e ry small figurines, the buttocks are usually hollovv and shaped like an e g g . T h e label ‘steatopygous’ is applied also to seated figurines vvhose buttocks are exaggerated and flattened fo r a practical reason : to balance them on a ehair o r dais. Interest in steatopygia inereased in the nineteenth century vvith the first descriptions o f steatopygous Hottentots and B ushm en, both vvomen and men. H ovvever, H ottentot ladies have no place in the art o f O ld E u rope and it is crroneous and m isleading to describe N eolithic and Chalcolithic figurines as steatopygous. T h e hybridization o f vvoman and bird cndovvs the figures vvith a grcatcr d ignity, the d ign ity o f the supernatural, and it is unfortunate that the term ever bccam c associated vvith Palaeolithic and N eolithic figurines.

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j e

6 j Figurine representing a bird-u'oman Iiybrid ii'ijti eg^-shaped buttocks. Cai'dar, east o f S o fia , Bulgaria. East Balkan Neolithic. E a iiy sixth millennium b c

V T

6 0 , 6 1 Designs o f birds with large eggs inside them. piiinled in hl,u h 011 a ii'liite ground 011 M inoan vases

f

he

fish

The usual sym bolism connected vvith the fish ranges from its being an em blem o f the vu lva, or the phallus, to a sym bol o fth e soul or the ‘m ystic ship o f life’ . B y m icroscopic analvsis o f engravings on Late M agdalcnian bone objeets M arshack has reccntly shovvn that fish (salmon) and snake typically appear in the context o f a seasonal m anifestation representative o f earlv spring and frequently in association vvith nevv shoots, yo u n g anim als and ibexcs (M arshack 19 7 2 : i6 yff.). T h e fish is also inseparable from the form o f a phallus since the phallus offers a visual and kinesthetic com parison vvith the fish and snake (cf. a baton head from the G o rg e d ’ Enfer in D o rd o g n e:

107

! 64 Schematic representations ofth e Bird ( toddess trith an ifl the buttocks. 1, Lepenski V ir (Starčevo com p lcx); 2, Neolithic, ('.rete; ?, Karanoro I, Bulgaria

74 F ragm en t o f a vessel in the fo n n o f a tish. V inča c ivilizatio n . M ala (ira b o v n ic a near L e sk o v ac. centra) Y u go slavia 75 A n th ro p o m o rp h iz ed I;isii G od d ess ol stone \vitli head. arm s and breasts chiselled out. M ou th and ev es are those o f .1 tish. the nose is hum an. Lepcnski V ir II, Harlv sixth m illen n iu m ih: {Opjiositv) Ston e sculpture o f .i tish-faccd \vater d iv in itv from l.ep em ki Vir. /.ii»/.ii»s. d iam on d s and ch cv ro n s represent stream s o f \vater. I’.u lv sixth m illenn ium ih

14 1

72,73,75.7(>

• 76

id .: 330). A n en gravin g in the M agdalenian cave o f Lortet shovvs fish nuzzling a reindeer’s gehitals (Hentze 19 3 2 : 1 1 3 ) . M a n y thousands o f years later, in G reek G eom etric art, the fish continued to be portrayed hanging on the genitals o fh o rse s; the fish is also placed vvithin the w o m b o f the B ee G oddess painted on a Boeotian vase around 700 b c . Its role there m ust have been related to the idea o f cyclic regeneration, since the goddess is shovvn in the shape o f a bee and is associated vvith the head o f a sacrificial buli. In N eo lith ic art the fish assumes the shape o f an eg g and is anthropom orphized. T his is exem plified b y the sculptures recently diseovered at Lepenski V ir near the Iron Gates in northern Y u g o sla v ia (S rejo vič 1969). T h ere, in the late seventh and early sixth m illennia b c , fishing and hunting peoples had dug their houses into the bank o f the D anube, houses vvhich had trapezoidal floor plans and con­ tained rectangular hearths sunk belovv the floor level, lined vvith stones, and outlined vvith thin slabs o f stone set vertically in a pattern o f continuous triangles. L arge stone sculptures vvere placed in the lim e-plaster floors in fro n t o f the hearths. F ifty-fo u r o f these m onum ental sculptures, m ost o f them tvvice as large as a hum an head, vvere found, and fifteen o f them reveal half-hum an, half-fish features. G eom etric ornam ent is pecked on m an y o f them, vvhile others are plain. A li appear to possess aspeets o f either the hum an figure, the fish, or the egg, and vvere p rob ab ly seleeted for this reason. The shape o f the river bou lder had a significance o fits ovvn; the artist did not alter this, but on ly ga v e it the features o f the m ythical being he venerated. He addcd the m outh and large round eyes o f a fish and the nose and e ycb ro w s o f a man. T h e m outh vvith dovvnvvardd ro op in g corners m akes the facial features stern, even dram atically tense. B u t it is d oub tful vvhether this painful grim ace vvas really vvhat the Lepenski V ir artist sought to p o rtray; the sternness results from a peculiar com bination o f fish and hum an features and does not necessarily reflect the artist’s conscious intent. In his book 011 Lepenski V ir, D. S rejo vič calls one o f the egg-shaped and fish-faced sculptures ‘ D anubiu s’ . T h e nam e im plies a m ale river d ivin ity, but does the sculpture really represent a m ale and avve-inspiring god? G eom etric m otifs en graved on stone sculptures, such as zigzags, interconnected lozenges each vvith a dot in it, chevrons and labyrinthinc designs on round stones vvith depressions (probably used for sacrifice) are related to the sym bolism vvhich appcars on aquatic divinitics associated vvith cosm ogonical im agery. T h e Lepenski V ir statuary seems to represent a d ivin ity o f a fem inine gender - one o f the sculptures rroduced here has fem ale brcasts - vvhich ineorporates aspeets o f an egg, a fish and a vvoman and vvhich could have been a p rim eval creator or a m ythical ancestress. Standing at the hearth she vvas p robably a guardian o f the house.

110

O n ly here, in this D anube go rge in the region o f the Iron Gates, have these rem arkable m onum ental sculptures so far been found, and they m ay vvell be specifically connected vvith the cult practices o f a people vvhose main concern and subsistence vvas fishing. Fish effigies, hovvever, have been found elsevvhere in the N eo lith ic sites vvhere farm in g activities vvere evident. E ven in the flourishing civilization o f Vinča the fish must have played a part in m ythical im agery, since som e cult vessels vvere form ed in the shape o f a fish.

74

66 Pictorial representations o fth e Bird Goddess1 fa ce in association with wafer streams on Late Cucuteni vases. Tomashevka and Staraja Buda sites, u/estern U kraine. First h a lf o fth e fourth millennium B C

7 Mistresses of VVaters: the Bird and Snake Goddess

65 66 67

68

T h e presence o f the B ird and Snake Goddess is felt every w here - on earth, in the skies and beyond the clouds, w here prim ordial waters lie. H er abode is beyon d the upper vvaters, i.e., beyond m eandrous labyrinths. She rules over the life-g iv in g force o f w ater, and her im age is consequently associated w ith w ater containers. O n Cucuteni vases, the goddess’ eyes, or her eyes and beak, appear above representations o f vvater or falling rain. T h e eyes o f the B ird or Snake Goddess even stare from the v e ry centre o f the w o rld - a sphere vvith a m y thical vvater stream in the centre. H er cosm ic character is emphasized b y a series o f abstract com positions painted on Cucuteni vases. T h e Snake Goddess and the B ird Goddess appear as separate figures and as a single d ivin ity. T h eir functions are so intim ately related that their separate treatm ent is im possible. She is one and she is tw o , som etim es snake, som etim es bird. She is the goddess o f vvaters and air, assum ing the shape o f a snake, a crane, a goose, a duck, a d ivin g bird. T he com bination o f a w ater snake and a w ater bird is a peculiarity o f the O ld European sym bolism representing divine am bivalence.

Part o f vessel with a Hcsentation o fa ntasked st Balkan Bird Goddess. ,f.ana at O ltenifa, tiania. G um elnifa plex. c. 4000 BC

112

T

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B

ird

in v o c a tio n

G

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,

the

bear

and

the

id e o g r a m s

of

the

oddess

Parallel lines, V ’s, chevrons, belts o f zigzags, and groups o f parallel lines are frequently found on figurines, stamp seals, cult vases and vase lids. Their consistent appearance 011 figurine masks and bodies, anthropom orphic vases, m iniature cult vessels and zoom orphic containers suggests the existence o f a coherent system o f sym bolic expression: the relationship betvveen the depietion o f rain torrents, the m ythical bear and the B ird Goddess is obvious. T h e desiccation o f the elimate during the sixth m illennium b c shovvn by palaeobotanical and geological research (clearly rcvcalcd by results o f the auth or’s ow n recent excavation at Anza, M acedonia) is also refleeted in sym b olic com m unication. The centuries-long lack o f w ater resulted in the creation o fsym b o lic images related to streams and m ythical creatures considered to be the source o f water. The M istress o f W aters, the B ird Goddess, and the bcar, vvho seems to have been also connected vvith water, are very frequent im ages ali over the Balkan Pcninsula, particularly in its driest regions, Greece,

u

3

6 7 (šomposite pictorial representation oj a B in i or Snake C oddess' eyes and u'ttlet streams. Staraja Buda, u'csteni Ukraine. Late Cucuteni

Abstract compositions o f Bird Goddess' eyes and ( or only her benk) in cialion m th a cosmic Painted on Late uteni vases. Sipintsi, tem Ukraine. Early ’th millennium bc

B ird Goddess' eyes and : above groups o f g lit painted lines (falling ?) as fo u n d on ritual :d vessels ’p ainted in darh i'u on orange-red. A n za Macedonia. Central um N eolithic III. c.

7 1 Painted black-oti-red ornamental motifs, probably sym bolizing rain, on Late Starčevo vases from northern Yugoslavia. c. 5 5 0 0 bc 72 C la y seals engraved ivith zigza g and parallel lines from Starčevo and Karanovo / sjtes: 1 , Grabovac, Yugoslavia; 2 , 3 , 5 , C a vda r, ivestern B u lga ria ; 4, Rug B a ir, Macedonia. c. 5500 bc 73 Zoom orphic pottery lid ivith clusters o f diagonal incisions (streaming rain?). Early Vinča. Par\a, Tim ifoara district ivestern Romania. c. 5000 bc 74 Pottery lid in half-hum an, half-anim al form ivith beaked nose, depression fo r mouth (source o f w ater?), and incised m arkings.from Malča near N iš, Southern Yugoslavia. E arly Vinča, late sixth millennium bc

Beoiter tt'itli hlacktcd design o feyes ciated irith hair rayed lik e snakt'S or ng rain. I'iangli, ssaly. Late Neolithic, sixth millennium lu:

M acedon ia, Southern Y u g o sla v ia and the A driatic seaboard. Even the p ottery decoration refleets an ‘obsession’ w ith rain and w ater sym b olism . Floral and spiral m otifs o f the earlier N eolithic w cre replaced in Sesklo, D anilo, late Starčevo and Vinča com plexes by rig id ly geom etric d eco ra tio n : bands or groups o f vertical or diagonal parallel lines, striated and punetated bands and chevrons. T h e go d dess’ eyes em erge in association w ith rain torrents o r lines representing w ater. Stam p seals o f this period reveal the same tendency: alm ost ali o f the knovvn seals are engraved vvith either straight lines, w a v y lines or zigzags. T orrents o f vvater show n as vertical zigzaggin g lines in separate s depieted 011 an early Vinča funnel-shaped vase

114

0

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2

3

ACM

m ay be related to the ritual o f rain invocation. O n masked Vinča heads or zoom orp hic lids the incised parallel lines m ergin g on the nose ridge and the forehead g ive an im pression o f torrents o f w ater

5 Torsos with inverted / $ ) and crosses (76) 'e breasts, triple verticle ■and chevrons. Sitagroi đacedonia. c. 4000 BC

. iead o f a Bird Goddess 1 pointed beak and ’tige-shaped eycs. R u g Maccdonia. E arly

,

1 C.

5500~5100 B C

Bird-headed fig u re ( a ■cl protome) with an ram on the body osed o f chest bands and . ons. The Vinča site.

running d o w n the m ask. T h e ‘cat-headed’ V inča lids have puzzled archaeologists since the d iscovery o f the V inča site. T h e y certainly do not p ortray cats, since the cat was not knovvn in prehistoric Europe. A re they bears? Birds? The puzzle can be solved o n ly b y studying ali the accum ulated sym bols. T h e y have large incised, usually sem icircular, hum an eyes, ears, b ird ’s beak and a V or ch evron engraved ab ove the beak. Bands o f striations, punctuated bands, or parallel lines clearly show their connection vvith vvater. T h e y are not given m ouths, but som e­ times h ave a round depression belovv the beak, as on m any other bird masks from vvhich ‘ vvater flo w s in ali fou r directions’ . T h e relationship betvveen vvater and the bear is further indicated b y bear-shaped cult vases, abundantly represented in the D anilo, Sesklo, B u tm ir and L e n gy e l cultures. T h e D anilo bear-shaped vases are solid ly covered vvith belts o f zigzags, chevrons and striated diam onds, sym b olic o f flovving vvater. Large pavvs o f bears from the B u tm ir settlem ent at O b re, p robably once part o f a vvater Container, are also decorated vvith incised parallel lines. T h e presence th rou gh o u t the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods in Europe and A natolia o f V ’s, chevrons or cross signs on fem ale breasts o r im m ed iately belovv them , o r on arms ing breasts, suggests an identification o f rain vvith m ilk, an old and vvidespread b elief vvhich induced people to see vvom en’s breasts o r covv udders in the clouds. T his b e lie f still extant am on g the A rctic hunters points to its origin in Palaeolithic times. V ’s are m arked on the breasts o f a painted clay figu re o f a goddess from shrine V I in C atal H i\yiik (M ellaart 19 6 7 : 18 2 , Fig. 50, Plate 79), and m an y o f the P roto-Sesklo goddesses o f T hessaly have red-painted V ’s on their breasts or chevrons incised on their hands. T h ere appears to have been an association betvveen a fem ale d ivin ity and divine m oisture from the skies. A beaked figu rin e from Porodin has, in addition to her norm al breasts, breast-like protuberances on the ncck, perhaps to invigorate the influence o f her m agical breasts. T h e double-headed B ird Goddess from V inča has breasts m arked vvith V ’s and her body is covered vvith a m eandrous design. A m o n g C ucuteni vessels, breasts sprout from basins held b y a fem ale figure and from ja rs; they are usually depieted in the centre o f bands or parallel lines sym bolizin g rain torrents. T vvo o f the m an y figurines found in the Chalcolithic levels o f the Sitagroi teli in northeastern G reece illustrate the arrangem ent o f these rain- or m ilk -in v o k in g sym bols. U n fortu nateIy, they are headless but other East Balkan figurines bearing the same signs have bird heads. N o te that there are three parallel lines betvveen

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7

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the breasts and chevrons on these figurines; an identical sign o f three lines connected on top b y a horizontal line recurs on the figures in E arly Vinča reliefs. O n the neck o f an anthropom orphic vessel from the B iik k site o f Kenezlo in northeastern H u n gary, there is a mask ■vvith three lines incised betvveen the eyes and three m ore belovv the m outh. T h e body is incised vvith zigzagging and m eandering lines, sim ulating ‘torrents o f vvater’ : tiny arm stumps s.uggest the goddess’ vvings. Signs o f three interconnected lines engraved on hum an figures are present in the M agdalenian era o f the U p p er Palaeolithic. R ectan gles consisting o f three lines connected at the ends appear en graved on a hum an figure on the bone point from the A b ri M ege at T e y ja t (D ordogne). T h e hum an im age, p robably an abstract rendering o f a goddess, has a tiny head, double ovalo id vu lv a vvith tvvo lines belovv it, a serpentine decoration along the sides and strokes dovvn the legs (M arshack 19 7 2 : 3 15 ). T h e serpentine stroked design along each side seems to be a snake or vvater im age. T h e sym bolic connection vvith the abstract Snake or B ird Goddess im ages o f the N eo lith ic is apparent. C h evro n s (m ultiple V ’s), tvvo, three or m ore parallel lines and a crossed chest band characterize the bird-headed or bird-m asked figurines. These signs are either incised or painted on their masks, heads, arm s o r b o d y. A crossed band vvith chevrons appears incised on the chest o f a bird-shaped figurine from V inča, and a sim ilar chest-band sign, associated vvith sym bols o f three connected lines, occurs on the b o d y o f a double-headed B ird Goddess. T h e chestband sign is also found incised on double-headed stands and consistently occurs in com bination vvith chevrons on bird-headed or bird-m asked figurines, clay stamps and flat plaques. A n E arly Vinča anth ropom orph ic lid from Par^a bears, belovv the goddess’ eyes and nose, an X , p robably sign ifyin g chest bands, and a chevron appears in the upper segm ent. A Tisza pot vvith a spout, p robably used as a libation vase in ritual cerem onies, has the same ideogram incised on one p an e l; a second pauci contains four groups o f three parallel lines and a third large meanders. A n altar table from V inča, sup­ p ortin g a fem ale figure seated in front o f a vessel, p robably portraying a vvater-invocation scene, vvas also decorated vvith V ’s, a chest band and m eander m otifs. U nfortunately, the upper part o f the seated figure is lost. A nother altar table from Fafos portrays a bearor bull-legged altar table. T h e vvoman holding the vessel seems to be vvearing a mask representing a bear or a bird. The altar is decorated vvith chevrons. A rain-invocation or vvater-divination scene can be recognized in the sculpture from B ord još in northern Y u go slavia, representing a nude vvoman seated on a stool vvith a large basin on her lap. T h e stool is decorated vvith a m eander design. From vvhat follovvs vve shall scc that the m eander sym bolizes vvater. 117

79 D ouble-headed Vinča štand with hole in the middle incised with crossed chest bands and chevrons. Crnokalačka Bara, southeastem Yugoslavia. c. 5000 BC

So C la y seal bearing an ideogram o f a Bird Goddess: crossed chest bands and chevrons. Predionica, E arly Vinča site near Priština, Southern Yugoslavia. E n d o f sixth millennium BC

8 1 Lid, bearing symbols o f Bird G oddess: chevrons and incised chest bands. Early Vinča. Parja site, uiestern Rom ania, end o f sixth millennium BC

7 7 Late V in ča vase w ith s still sh o w in g the ‘ rain -to rre n t’ m o tif. M ean d er pan el on the other side. T h e V in ča site

80. 81 B ear-sh ap ed vase, incised vvith bands o f z ig z a g g iu g lines and striated triangles. S m ilčić site near Z a d a r. D an ilo culture. Se co n d h n lfo fs ix t h m illen n iu m ik :

78 , 79 Z o o m o r p h ic V in ča lids w ith a b ird ’s beak and inciscd bands o f ’ stream in g rain ’ . V in ča site: E a rly V in ča (78), Late V in ča (79)

N j B e a r ' < p .ivv d e c o r a t e d vv it h b a n d s o t p a r a l l e l li n e s . O b r e II. l i .i r l v B u t m i r . l i. t r l v f i f t h m i l l e t m i u m 11c

83, 84 B u st o f a bird -h ead ed goddess w ith lo n g cy lin d ric al neck, cap o r h air bun , la rg e breasts and incised chevron s o v e r lo w e r arm s. T h essaly. A y c a A n n a (M eg. V ry si) at T irn av o s, Sesk lo . c. 6000 b c

86 D ou b le-h ead cd goddess. E arly Vinča. Rastu, w cstern R om an ia. End sixth m illennium BC 87 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic pot su ggestin g a bird-sh aped vvater d ivin ity. T h e god d ess’ m ask is m arked vvith chevrons and triple lines. K en ezlo, B iik k gro u p , northcastern H u n g ary. End sixth m illennium BC

85 U p p e r torso o f a fig u rin e w ith cy lin d rical head and b ird ’s beak. P o ro d in , Southern Y u g o s la v ia . C en tra l B alk an N e o lith ic , S ta rč e vo c o m p lc x . E a rly sixth m illen n iu m b c

88 Ja r featuring breasts set in ‘rain to rren t' bands. Early C u cu ten i, N cgresti, northeastem R o m a n ia . Late fifth m illennium b c

yo D ou b le-h ea d ed B ird G od d ess m arked vvith chest-band sign, chevrons and signs con sisting o f three con n ected lines. The V in ča site. £ a r ly fifth m illenn ium B<:

<;l A ltar table vvith figure o f a vvom an h o ld in g a vessel. B oth d am aged . I’ ossib lv a r.iin-in vocation scene. B ird G o d d ess’ svm b o l 011 front tace o f altar. T h e V inča site.

,92 A ltar table in fo rm o f an an im ai-m ask ed ;woman h o ld in g a vessel d ecorated vvith meandering bands. L egs are b e ar- or bull-shaped. E a rly V in č a. Fafos !, Southern Yugoslavia

94 Seated n u d e vvom an h o ld in g a la rg e basin. P ossib ly a rain -in v o c atio n sccnc. Elab orate d iam on d -sh ap ed design incised 011 the side o f stool. T isza culture. B o rd jo š, northern Y u g o s la v ia

82 Terracotta head ivith Bird Goddess* mask decorated ivith meanders over the top and parallel lines (rain torrents?) round the eyes. Potporanj, northeastern Yugoslavia. Classical Vinča. Fifth millennium b c T he m ean d er s ym bo l o f co sm ic w aters

? U ppcr torso o f an Early tea figurine ivith a large tnđer incised over the '«y and face (mask). otporanj at Vrsac, ,rtheastern Yugoslavia

T h e m eander vvas incised on figurines vvith bird-m asks or birdheads, snake-arm s or snake-legs, and on masks, cult vessels and altars in ali cultural groups o f O ld Europe. Vinča statues representing dignified personages, som e seated and som e standing, vvear a discshaped pendant and h ave the m eander sym b ol m arked either on the abdom en or on the back or front o f the skirt. T h e same type o f incised pattern occurs on the forehead o f m ore elaborate masks, at the upper right corner o f the mask, or betvveen the eyes and extending dovvn the bridge o f the nose. T he front and the back o f the tvvoheaded Vinča goddess from G o m o lava is decorated vvith a large m eander, vvhile a m eander incised on the back o f a vvater bird from V inča refleets its association vvith a bird d ivin ity and vvith vvater. T h e enlarged or double m eander m o tif must have originated as tvvo opposing lines - like tvvo snakcs vvith their heads m ceting but not touching - subsequently elaborated into an enorm ous meander design vvhich appears incised on body, pedim ent and throne. D ouble m eanders and double snakcs vvere also incised upon dises. Frequently the m eander is associated vvith striated triangles, chevrons, bands o f parallel lines and sem icircles; zoom orphic lids from Vinča sites and an o v a l plaque from the Vinča settlem ent o f Banjica servc as cxam plcs. T h e double m eander, incised vvith vvhitc-cncrusted lines at the centre o f the latter must have been a sign ofessential im portance in the cult o f the goddesses.

_ Figure o f ivater-bird ciscd ivith mcanders on ick and ivings, V ’s iti it. Perforations piercc the y at neck and tail. The iča site, Classical Vinča

124

A Linear B tablet (G g 702) from Knossos, deciphered b y Palm er 1- (1965), inform s us that the labyrinth must have been a sym b ol o f the | abode or ‘palače’ o f the ‘ M istress o f the L ab yrin th ’ (da-pu-ri-to-jo; p 0-ti-ni-ja). This palače o r cult place, i.e. the labyrinth, is thought to be depieted on a tablet from Pylos. T h e Pylian ‘labyrin th ’ is m ore com ple* than the meanders o f the Vinča, Gumelni^a, Tisza, Lengyel, B iikk and Cucuteni civilizations, and dates from 2000-3000 years later, but the link betvveen them is nevcrtheless apparent. T h e role o f the labyrinth in gam es and dances vvas still strong in R o m a n , Hellemstic and even later times. Com parison o f the interlaced m o vcments o f an Ancient Greek dance know n as the Ceranos (‘erane’) to the labyrinth strueture (H arrison 1894: C X X V II I) leads to an understandm g o f the connection betvveen the labynnth and its Mistress, the prehistoric B ird Goddess. The erane m ay have been one o f the incarnations o f a vvater d ivinity, and the N eolithic figurines vvith flattened posteriors, stiff legs and long neeks p robably represent eranes o r vvater birds o f a sim ilar kind. W ater birds vvith long legs and neeks are depieted on C ucuteni vases and sim ilar bird-form s have been found m odelled in clay. Indeed, ali the evidence seems to indicate that the d ivin ity associated vvith the m eander had the attributes o f a vvater bird. s o f labyrinthinc design associated vvith gate and vvaterstream sym bols appear on anthropom orphic vases and figurines o f enthroned goddesses from Szegvar, a settlement o f the Tisza cuiture located near Szentes in H u n gary. There is a system atically repeated arrangem ent o f the incised m otifs on these artifacts. T h e b o d y and throne o f the seated Szegvar goddess is covered vvith meanders organized in vertical and horizonta] s, interspersed vvith parallel vertical lines and narrovv s o f zigzags. A lth ough the led design is suggestive o f a garm ent made up o f m any pieces o f cloth sevvn together, it is unlikely that the entire decorative com position vvas m erely a copy o f an em broidered costume. T h e design appears to sym bolize several levels o f m ythical vvaters. C orresponding sym bolism is encountered on vessels from the Tisza sites o f S zegvar and K o k en y d o m b , cult vases vvhich vvere apparently used in ritual or festivals dedicated to the vvater d ivinity. T h e Szegvar footed vessel is divided by vertical lines into four alternating broad and narrovv s containing diffcrent patterns o f incised labyrinthine meanders. S ix holes at the top and bottom o f the narrovv front must have had some spccial significance associated vvith the funetions o f the goddess. Incised patterns on the cylindrical body o f the vase from K o k en yd o m b scem to shovv meanders superim posed upon gates. O n the uppcr part o f the cylinder is a sign com posed o f scven horizonta! lines vvith six dots belovv and a vertical line above branehing into three dots 011 top.

8,5 Schem atizedfigurine (a štand) with meanders and chevrons in fron t and at the back o f the neck. M asked head with peaked hat. E arly Vinča. T u rda fsite, Transylvania

86 Low er part o f standing Vinča figurin e bearing meander sign in front. A gino Brdo site near Belgrade

87 Low cr part oj Itroken terracotta portraying an enthroned goddess. Meanders incised on the sides o f the throne. The Vinča site. Classical Vinča

95 V in ča m ask w ith v crtica l lines and a m eander fram ed vvith V ’s incised a b o v e the rig h t eyc. C rn o k a la ć k a B ara, sou theastem Y u g o s la v ia 96 Pen tagon al V inča mask vvith m eanders ab o ve eyes and snakes belovv. M e d v e d n ja k , central Y u g o sla v ia c. 5000 bc 97 B ird G od d ess fro m V in ča vvith a m ed allion in the centre o f the chest bands, an o th er at the nape o f the n cck, and a m ean d er on fro n t an d 'b a c k o f skirt and on top o f m ask, c. 4500 - 4000 bc

98 F rag m en t o f a clay disc inciscd vvith meanders and spirals. T h e V in ča site. c. 4500 BC 99 U p p e r torso o f a V in ča fig u rin e w e m ng a p en tagon al m ask. A m ean d er s y m b o l i: added a b o v e the n ose. M e d v e d n ja k , central Yugoslavia 100 , 10 1 D ou b le-h ea d ed god d ess fro m Gom olava, n orthern Y u g o s la v ia . M ean d ers inciscd at front and b ack. P erfo ratio n s p ro b a b ly fo r attachm ent of pcrishablc m aterials (vvings, plu m es?). Vinca, m id -fifth m illcnnium ec

10 2 , 10 3 T h e S z e g v a r en th ron ed goddess. T isza culture. S z e g v a r-T u z k o v e s at Szentes, southeastem H u n g a ry . c. 5000 b c

10 4 F o o tcd vase d ecorated w ith m eander s and six dots at top o f p anel. T isza cu lture. S z e g v a r-T u z k o v e s, southeastem H u n g a ry

10 5 - 1 0 7 L a rg e vase in shape o f an en thron ed god d ess.d ecoratcd \vith m ean ders, gate sym b o l and z ig z ag s; a co m b sign featurin g three dots o n -top , six ai b o tto m , is incised in the upp er p art. T isza culture. K d k e n y d o m b at H o d m cso vasarh ely, southeastem H u n g ary. End sixth m illenn ium BC

io 8 , 10 9 A lta r d ep ictin g several spheres o f the u n iverse. It p ro b a b ly p o rtray s a cosm o gon ical m yth (birth o f w a te r d iv in ity h o rn ed snake?). T isza culture. K o k e n y d o m b , southeastem H u n g a ry

1 10 V ase w ith large m ean d er pattcrn on u p p er part and figurine o f goddess b e tw cen snake spirals in the m id d le band. P ainted in d ark brovvn and w h itc. Late C lassical C u cu ten i. T raian , northeastern R o m a n ia . c. 4000 bc

The rich ly incised decoration on the Tisza altar from K o k e n y donib m ay relatc to cosm ogonical myths. Its triangular front is covered by meanders and divided into tw o levcls by a horizontal band o f m eandering lines. In the centre o f the lo w er tvvo eyes and a nose are set in a triangle. T w o vertical lines above the nose m ay sym bolize horns (a horned Snake Goddess?). G roups o f parallel lines arranged in threcs form s along each side o f the altar. The decorativc organization suggests several levels o f cosm ic vvaters with the goddess’ abodc or birthplace at the lovvest level. Furtherm ore the triangle m ay represent a schematic rendering o f a fem ale goddess. Sim ilar and sym bolically idcntical designs are found on vvhiteenerusted East Balkan Boian and V.idastra vases and m odels o f shrines, and on the Cucuteni polych rom e painted w ares from M o ldavia. A n outstanding m odel o f a shrine, 40 cm. high, ve ry p robably dedicated to either the B ird or the Snake Goddess vvas unearthed in the settlement o f Vadastra. in the lovver Danube region. Its fasade, solidly covered vvith zigzagging labvrinthine m eanders in relief, has a gate in the centre. Several necklaces in relief adom the goddess’ neck. T h e head, as the illustration shows,. is reconstructed. The model is hollovv inside. The vvhole com plicated sym b olic design, resem bling that on the Szegvar ceramics and identical vvith finds from sites vvhich are separated by the Carpathian M ountains and a distance o f about 600 km ., must have been reinforced and m aintained b y com m on m ythical beliefs and im agery.

88 E arly Vinča zoomorphic lid (broken at the bottom) incised with meanders, chevrons and parallel lines. A iu d , central Romania

89 O v a l clay plaque u/ith a meander incised in the centre, surrottnded by chevrons and semicircles. Early Vinča. Banjica site near Belgrade

90 ’l'ahlct front Pylos marked ii'itlt labyrinlh pat tem. c. 120 0 bc;

g i M o d e le :i temple decorated witn excised meanders filled witlt ivhite paste. I adastra, sontliu'esfern Romania. First h a lf o f fifth millettnitnn b c

U*

92 Vase decoration comprising a belt o f large meanders (meandcring snakes) intcrrupted by closed bracket signs, containiug human figures centrally situated above the vessel's handles. Painted in dark broivn and white. Late Classical Cucuteni vase from T raian, northcastern Rom ania. c. 4000 lic

110

T h e C ucu teni painted vases represent etiological m yths, perhaps depieting the birth or abode o f a vvater d ivinity. T his d ivin ity has an anthropom orphic form enclosed in a bracket-shaped design which in turn is contained w ithin a belt o f large rhom bic meanders. This type o f narrative m o tif vvas encountered on several vases from the T raian settlement in northern M old avia. T h e reconstructed part o f such a vase shows four large snake meanders and a standing goddess consisting o f tvvo opposed triangles, her figure fram ed b y a closed brackct-like sym bol. T h e fu lly reconstructed vase from Traian illustrates the organization o f the cosm os: meanders occu p yin g the upper levels and b elow theni the goddess’ abode vvith her im age fram ed by spiralling snakes. H um an figures consisting o f tvvo triangles and vvith bird -claw ed hands are fam iliar to M inoan art (A lexiou 19 58 : Pl. IA ). These and other com positions conncct the labyrinthine m otifs vvith the m ythical vvater sphere bcyond or belovv vvhich the goddess resides. M any cult vessels are decorated vvith the m eander pattern and m ust have served the vvater cult either as containers for h o ly vvater or w h cn in v o k in g the vvater deity. T hi- o rig in

of

the

B ir d G o d d e s s

and

her

im a g e

d u r in g

thf.

N eo lit h ic

T h e m eander and chevron vvere not invented by the early agriculturists. S ym m etric and rh yth m ic meanders and bands o f chevrons are cncountered on M agdalenian bone and iv o ry objeets. T h e m otifs appear in association vvith each other and vvith bands o f parallel lines. Even infm itc, ‘cndless’ interconnccted meanders are already present 011 U p p er Palaeolithic sculptures and ornam ents. Best exam ples com c from M ezin, an early M agdalenian or ‘ Kostenki I V ’ site 011 the bank o f the Desna in the U kraine, excavatcd in 1908/9. T h e iv o ry figurines bearing chevrons and m eanders appear to p ortray vvater

1 1 2 M arb le sculpture w ith lo n g p h allic neck and pron ou n ceđ b uttocks. S lig h tly sto o p in g position rcm in iscent o f a bird. A ttica, G reece. T y p o lo g ic a ily P ro to -S e sk lo

a

the vvell-being o f the people depended to a great extent on its regular return from the south in the sprmg. T h e d ivim ty sym bolized by a I water bird must have been a giver o f nourishm ent. Portrayals o f II St vvater birds in stone and bone are knovvn from U p p er Palaeolithic I 11 sites in E u ro pe and Siberia. It is the notion o f hybridization o f bird | f IfJ and vvoman vvhich led to the creation o f a rig id ly schem atized type 1 : ■' found in M ezin and Pctersfels. T h e geom etric signs vvere necessary 1 to invigorate the effectivencss o f these amulets. C h evro n s emphasize P f the avian character, and the meander, the m ythical vvaters or the 1 energy o f vvaters and their mistress, the snake. C h ik alen k o regards the M ezin meanders as a nevv artistic design, hitherto unknovvn to the art o f mankind, vvhich shovvs in graphic form the understanding or feeling o f rhythm and sym m etry. He | further calls this art ‘rh yth m ograph ic’, akin to m usic and dance. ‘In fact, in the beginn ing it is the dance o f a hand upon a sm ooth surface - a hand arm ed vvith a ch ise l-in order to eliminate unvvanted sm oothness. T h en , subsequently, there arises a play, an am usem ent, a spo rt’ (Chikalenko 1953 : 534). H ese e sh e re th e b e g in n in g o fp u re a rt, vvhere rhythm and sym m etry existed in a most naked form vvith 110 concealed acccssories. ‘T his art’, he says, ‘does not im itate anyth in g in its designs, nor does it express any idea.’ In view o f the consistent and persistent association o f the m eander and the vvater bird and the vvater snake, it is difficult to see mere amusement or sport in the chiselling o f endlcss meanders by the Palaeolithic artist and to concede a com pletely independent discovery, divorced from religious belief, fo r this m otif. I fcel there vvas an inspiration - the ripp lin g o f vvater, the sinuous m ovem ent o f a snake, or a dance im itating vvater birds - and a linking o f the d ivin ity vvith its o w n aquatic sphere. T h e ‘bisexualism ’ o f the vvater-bird d ivin ity is apparent in the emphasis on the long neck o f the bird sym bolicaIly linked vvith the phallus or the snake from U pper Palaeolithic times and onvvards throughout m an y m illennia. This ‘bisexualism ’ m ay derive from the fusion o f tvvo aspeets o f the divinity, that o f a bird and that o f a snake, and not from fem ale and male principles. The im age o fa phallic B ird Goddess dom inates during the seventh and sixth m illennia in the Acgcan area and the Balkans. Som etim es she is a life-like erect phallus vvith small vvings and a posterior o fa vvoman, vvhich, ifseen in profile, is readily identifiable as a b ird ’s body and tail. O r she m ay take the form o f a nude fem ale figurine vvith a disproportionatcly long and m assive neck vvhich ob vio u sly represents a phallus, as in a m arble figurine from Attica. ‘ Bisexualism ’ is refleeted in bird-shaped vases vvith cylindrical necks and in containers shaped like a b ird ’s body attachcd to a fem ale human figurine having a cylindrical head. The concept o f the fusion o f the sexes occasionally rcappears in repre­ sentations o fh erm a p h ro d itic figurines o ft h e Vinča culture having

1 <" V

a pper Palaeolithic ivory ties decorated with d meanders, chevrons larallel lines. a, back; nt (exploded design) ; M e . Bottom r o w : loiver unthout necks. M ez in , •rn Ukraine. c. 14 ,0 0 0 :hronology not y established)

3 CM

birds w ith long nccks. T h c y unqucstionably have characteristics o f a bird and must be grou p ed together vvith the schematized fem ale figurines or fem ale hum an and bird h vbrids o f the M agdalcnian Petersfcls type (M arshack 19 7 2 : 284, 306-308) and vvith the N eolithic ‘steato pygo u s’ figurines dcscribcd in the previous ehapter. W ater birds, such as the erane, heron, w ild goose, vvild duck or grebe, vvere sacred to the northern hunting tribes. T o geth er with the bear and the elk thcy vvere venerated th roughout the prehistory o f northern Eurasia, and in m yth have not lo.st their im portancc to this day. For the northern hunters the vvater bird vvas the m ajor food supply, and

135

94 Proto-Scsklo terracotta figurine lt'ith neck in the form o f a phallus and ii'ith bird’s u'ings and tail. Tsa n gli, Thcssal}'. c. 6000

BC

male genital organs and fem ale breasts. Such figures have beaked heads and sharply protruding posteriors, notably in the E arly Vinča com plex. Bird-vvom an h ybrids vary in the degree o f their sehematization. O ne m ay be a bird vvith the breasts o f a w o m a n ; another m ay have vvings and the b o d y o f a bird, but the head o f a w o m an . In an o v erw h elm in g m ajority o f cases, she is a hybrid h avin g fem ale buttocks outlined in the shape o f a b ird ’s b o d y , fem ale breasts, a b ird ’s beak, a lon g neck and either w in gs or arm stumps. Her erect posture, vvith the upper part o f the b o d y bent forw ard , is that o f a bird. A figurine from Anza dem onstrates typical h ybridized features o f the B ird G oddess: the torso takes the form o fa b ird ’s b o d y and even the vvings are indicated; yet the figure has naturalistically rendered fem ale buttocks. T h e ‘L a d y B ir d ’ a n d t h e ‘L a d y S n a k e ’ o f t h e C h a l c o l i t h i c era

•rly Vinča Bird •$s from A n z a in the o /a large rase. A n z a Macedonia. c. 5 3 0 0 -

3c

116 , 117

W hen the O ld European civilization reached its cultural peak around 5000 BC there em erged a sophisticated im age o f the B ird and Snake Goddess. She is n o w either an exquisitely shaped vase vvearing a mask or a lady w earing an elaborate dress and a m ask. T h e E arly Vinča settlem ent at Anza in M acedonia yielded a num ber o f vases vvith the goddess’ eyes m oulded in re lie f on a cylindrical neck. A li w ere grouped together on the floor o f a house. Associated w ith another house was a vase, 92 cm. high, vvith a goddess’ face engraved and painted on the neck. B e lo w it, a pendant necklace is indicated in relief. T h e body o f the vase was solidly painted in red and cream bands m eeting in the centre. A n overvvhelm ing m ajority o f ali the figurines found in this settlem ent belonged to the standing o r enthroned B ird Goddess. She seems to be the m ost im portant goddess o f the Vinča people since her im age dom inates in ali k n o w n settlements. O fa ll the articulate sculptures fro m the Vinča site, m ore than fo rty per cent had ornithom orph ic features. T h e goddess’ iphany cxprcsscd in bird form fmds its most evocative m anifestation in the fam ous Vinča ‘H yd e vase’ , a gracefully floating duck, vvhich has tvvo rounded protuberances on the top o f its head and wcars a m ask. This askos, about 40 cm. long, is hollovv inside, and its yellow ish -o ran ge vvalls are surprisingly thin. The surface is channelled throughout, apparently im itative o f rippling vvater. W ings and plum age are indicated by raised arehes and black painted bands. A noth er vase representing the goddess from the same site and phase and h aving a sim ilar rippled surface o f oran gy colour, takes the form o f a standing fem ale vvith b ird ’s posterior and vvearing a large pentagonal mask. Knovvn as the ‘ Venus o f V in ča’, she has hum an breasts, abdom en and legs. Each o f the arm stumps has tvvo 1 3f>

perforations, p robably for the attachm ent o f vvings. A n outstanding ornithom orphic vase unearthed in G rivac in central Y u g o sla v ia , has nearly life-like characteristics o f a bird vvith p lum age indicated b y engraved parallel lines along the w h ole length o f the b o d y, but the stout legs are shaped like those o f a vvoman (K ragu jevac M useum ). T he m issing lid p robably bore the masked head o f the goddess. T h e eyes and arehed b ro w -rid ges o f the goddess persistently recur on neeks and lids o f East Balkan and Cucuteni vases. T h e num inous nature o f the dom inating eyes, vvhich together vvith the arch o f the eyebrow s and beak o r nose (usually connected vvith the brovv-ridges in the shape o f an anehor o r letter T) contribute to the bird-like character, persist throughout several millennia in the archaeological record. T h e y are fam iliar th roughout the fourth and third m illennia b c and are vvell knovvn from the early settlements o f T ro y . The ow lish features m ay stem origin ally from the representation o f the horned head o f a snake. A type o f late Vinča figurine o f the B ird Goddess depiets a vvoman vvearing an elaborate dress and a bird ’s mask. W here the mask represents the head o fd u c k or other vvater bird, these becam e masterpieces o f detail during this period. The chic coiffure o f one East Balkan B ird Goddess consists o f a pony-tail or a peaked cap, others vvear a double spiral or snake coil. A spiralling snake rnay also be engraved on the neck or the upper part o f the b o d y o f a figurine, as fo r exam ple on the m asterful little sculpture o f a masked goddess from Vadastra in R o m an ia. A m eander vvas excised on the back o f her neck and filled vvith vvhite paste. Snake spirals, meanders, dotted bands or parallel horizonta! painted bands often decorate the costum e o f the standing or seated L ad y Snake. A t ali periods and in ali regions o f O ld Europe one, three or six holes or notehes vvere frequently cut into the throat o f the Snake or Bird Goddess. O ne, three or six holes or notehes (and som etim es seven, perhaps by mistake) also occur on vases decorated vvith meanders or parallel lines sym b olizin g vvater (sce Pls. 77, 10 4 - 10 7 ; Fig. 84). T h ree lines or a vertical line in the m iddle o f the V sign are associated vvith the figurines o f the B ird Goddess on ly (see Pls. 9 3 ,9 5 , 10 5 - 10 7 , 1 2 1 ; Figs. 7 5 -7 7 . 82, 88). T h e Snake and B ird Goddess usually vvcars three or six necklaces (see Pls. 124 , 1 3 1 ; Figs. 85, 9 1) and three arm rings (see Pl. 12 1) . S ix chevrons cover the upper part o f the gracile Lady o f C ucuteni. The num ber ‘three’ and its duplication apparently possessed a certain sym bolic significancc vvhere the goddess vvas concerned. The M inoan bell-shapeđ idols vvith snake hands on breasts are decorated vvith painted horizonta] bands in groups o f three (Evans, Palače o f Minos, IV , 1, Fig. 12 0 : 7) and, in M inoan and Greek art, three colum ns are associated vvith birds, and vvith Athena. T h ree figures, three lines and three dots

119

12 0 , 12 1

124 12 7

126, 128

129,130

f .

-• ii' ••

6, 1 1 7 C u lt vase in fo rm o f a d u c k , w ith a hum an askcd head and vvearing a c ro w n . C h an n cl-d eco rate d id painted in black bands. T h e V in č a site. M id -V in č a , ■st h a lf o f fifth m ille n n iu m bc

>

5

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i i s Stan d in g B ird G oddess in the fo rm o f a vessel. C h an n el led surface. o ran gc c o lo u r. T h e V in ca site. M id -V in ć a . first h a l f o f fifch m illenn iu in bc

120 ‘L a d y B ir d ’ fro m V in ča. Late V in ča

i 2 i Late V in ca B ird G od d ess vvearing d u c k ’s m ask. V sign vvith a vertical line on the ehest. Su p ska at Ć u p rija , central Y u g o s la v u

12 2 , 12 3 B ird Goddess* mask in the fo rm o f a d u e k ’s head. Late V in ča. V in ća m ound

i i<; l.ves and beak o f B ird G od d ess fro m ihc neck of .i vase. R u g in o a sa . C u cu toin A site. northeastern R o m a n u . <. late fifth m illeu niiu n iu

12 9 , 13 0 01as$ic.t! C u cu ten i B ir d o r Sn ak e G o d d ess: the fig u rin e has no arm s, an a n o n y m o u s head. and leans forvvard. C h e v ro n design on fro n t and back. striped legs. N o rth ern M o ld a via . c. end of fifth m illenn ium bc

12 4 M in iatu re head o f a B ird G od d ess w ith a tu ft o r crest and channels fo r n ccklaces. S itag ro i m ou n d (P erio d III), northeastern G reece. East B alk an civilizatio n . c. 4000 b c

l- S I he B ird o r Sn ak e (»oddess fro m Vadastra, lovver D an ube. Rom ania-. R e lie f design ine ludeš Mlake c o ik in fron t. m eander at the back

12 6 , 12 7 H eads vvith snake-spiral coiffu re. S itag ro i m oun d (Period

1 3 1 Sn ak e o r B ird G od d ess o f L e n g y e l typ e, vvearing six necklaces, fro m Strelice, Z n o jm o district. M o ra v ia . M id -fifth m illen n iu m bc

consistently appear on C orinth ian and B oeotian sculptures and vase paintings. A sculptural masterpiece o f the seventh century b c was diseovered in the tem ple o f Poseidon on Isthm ia. It is com posed o f three fem inine figures standing 011 a round base and ing a large vase encircled b y a snake. In each com partm ent betvveen the figures, heads o fra m s vvith large vvinding horns appear (M useum o f C o rin th ). P ro to -C o rin th ian vases frequen tly display w ater-bird figures in association w ith three vertical lines, undulating lines and a net pattern. A B oeotian Snake Goddess dated to 5 7 5 -5 5 0 b c is depieted w ith hair falling on her shoulders in three clusters. H er arms are snakes, her dress and tiara are decorated vvith dotted lines (H iggins 1963 : 3). A snake-headed figurine holdin g a baby snake (or a l o a f o f bread) fro m the H ellenistic period in C o rin th has a headdress decorated w ith three dises. Each cultural area o f O ld Europe had its ow n m ethod o f p ortraying the Snake and B ird Goddess, but the sym b olic signs and the general conception o f the im age w ere the same throughout. (For classical representations o f the V inča civilization, seePls. 9 7 ,1 2 0 ,1 2 2 , 1 2 3 ; for those o f the East Balkan civilization, see Pls. 1 2 5 - 1 2 7 ; for those fro m the C ucuteni and L e n gy e l cultures, see Pls. 12 8 - 1 3 0 respectively). These exam ples are from contexts w id e ly separated in tim e and space, refleeting the pervasive sym b olic im portance o f the ‘L a d y B ir d ’ or ‘L ady Snake’ m o tif in the m ythical im agery o f O ld Europe.

T h e S n a k e a n d B ir d G o d d e s s as n u r s e

In contrast to the Indo-Europeans, to w h o m Earth vvas the G reat M oth er, the O ld Europeans created maternal im ages out o f vvater and air divinities, the Snake and B ird Goddess. A d ivin ity vvho nurtures the w o rld vvith m oisture, g iv in g rain, the divine food vvhich m etaph orically vvas also understood as m other’s m ilk, naturally becam c a nurse or m other. Indeed, the terracotta figurines o f an anth ropom orp h ic snake or bird holding a baby are encountered at various periods and in m an y regions o f O ld Europe, and in M inoan, C y p rio te , and M ycenaean cultures as vvell. This is exem plified by the D im in i seated N u rse or M other, striped like a snake and vvith a spiralling snake o ver the abdom en, from the site o f Scsklo, as vvell as by an an th ropom orphic figure vvearing a bird mask and holding a baby sim ilarly m asked, from V inča. B ird-h eaded figurines frequently have hum ps on their backs, and m ay v e ry vvell be stylized renderings o f sacks fo r babies.

1 3 2 B ir d -n u s k c d u o i n . m h o ld in g .1 bird-m .tsked b.ihv. PI.imu- d iv o r.u ion o f .1 l.irgo v.isc. M id-ViiK \». Tlu* V iiu'm site

this d ivin ity could also be a separate Snake Goddess or B ird Goddess. She is the fem inine principle. . H er status is shovvn by crossed chest bands and a m edallion hung round the neck, as w ell as by an elaborate dress and head-gear. H er avian characteristics are stressed b y a fo rv va rd -le a n in g o r stooping posture, arm stumps vvith perforations fo r the attachm ent o f feathers, letter V signs and m ultiple chevrons o ver her b o d y or m ask. V ’s, chevrons, and crossed chest bands becam e the ideogram s o f the B ird Goddess and appear on figurines, stands, stamp seals, plaques, cult vessels, altar tables, and other cult objeets. T h e snake characteristics vvere emphasized b y parallel or zigzag .lines, dotted bands, and m ost frequently, by snakes spiralling o ver the body and b y a ‘snake-spiral’ coiffure. T h e upper and lovver vvaters vvhich she controlled vvere. repre­ sented b y labyrinthine meanders and snake spirals. As a source o f rain she vvas invoked as docum ented b y the sculptures o f nude rain -in vok in g w o m cn holding large basins, altar tables in the shape o f anim al-m asked vvomen holding vessels, bear-shaped cult vessels, and a persistently rccurring decorative m o tif m ade up o f rain-torrent parallel lines, zigzags, and dotted bands. The bear must have been connected also vvith the m ythical source o f vvater, a m o tif p robably inherited from the Palaeolithic era. R ain -b earin g and m iik -g ivin g m otifs ■vvere intervvoven. R a in torrents and breasts appear on jars and basins used for rain invocation, and the goddess appears as a snake-m asked and bird-m asked nurse holding a snake- or birdmasked baby. H er abode or birthplace is beyond the upper vvaters. T he epiphany o f this goddess m ainly took the form o f a snake, a vvater bird, a duck, goosc, erane, diver bird, or perhaps an ow l. In sculptural representations she is shovvn as an ornithom orphic vessel vvearing a mask vvith human cyes and a bird ’s beak. H er num inous eyes and a triangular beak, or the snake, appear in cosm ological representations vvhich shovvs that she vvas a Mistress o f life-generating cosm ic forces. As the E gyptian Great Goddess N ut, she vvas the flovving unity o f celestial pnm ordial vvaters. As an ovvlshe vvas also connected vvith the aspect o f death.

•throned Goddess a ehild. Striped and ainted, she may t a Snake Goddess. .ite, Thcssaly. Late

T h e B ir d G o d d e s s a n d S n a k e G o d d e s s in M i n o a n C r e t e a n d in

iiic

A n c ien t G reece

The Snake and B ird Goddess vvas a predom inant im age in the pantheon o f O ld Europe. As a com bined snake and vvater bird vvith a lon g phallic neck she vvas inherited from the M agdalenian cuiture o f the U p p cr Palaeolithic. T h o u g h usually portrayed as a hybrid,

H4

T h e Indo-European infiltration into the vvestern U kraine, M oldavia, and »early the vvhole Dam ibe region in the fourth m illennium b c resulted in the enthronem ent o f im portant local goddesses and gods and m ost conspicuously, the universal vvater d ivinity in the shape o f a snake or bird. The great tradition o f sculpting ‘ Lady B ird ' figurines 145

ceased in east central Europe. O n ly occasionally does her im age reem erge at the end o f the fourth m illennium and the early third m illennium , notably in T r o y and in the Baden com plex in eastem H u n gary. T h e situation was different in M inoan C rete, the Aegean Islands and in ali areas w here M inoan influence was strong, including the Greek m ainland. M inoan and M in o an -M ycen aean art generally abounds in birds, snakes, and w o m e n vvith vvings o r w ith snakes craw lin g up their arms o r on top o f their heads, the epiphanies and the anthropom orphic im ages o f the goddess inherited from the O ld European pantheon. In the Proto-p alatial period (20 0 0 -170 0 b c ) the Snake and B ird Goddess is a fam iliar representation on cult vases, dishes, and altar tables. She is a beaked lady vvith snake curls or crest on her head and o i 2 i cm has snake arm s as depieted on a stem o f a round altar table and a dish in Phaistos. Peculiar Pre-palatial (Early M inoan) anthropom orphic !noan Snake Goddess devotee ifith a bird’s vases vvith hollovv breasts, o w l-lik e eyes, and m any necklaces, tainted ori leg o f an decorated vvith bands o f zigzags and meanders, as found at M allia r.ble. Phaistos, Proto(Z ervos 19 5 6 : Fig. 116 ) o r M ochlos in eastern C rete (id .: Fig. 187), i! period, early second considered to be ‘divinities o f the sea’ , p rob ab ly originate in the muni b c C h alcolith ic O ld European vvater d iv in ity . D u rin g the Palatial period in Crete, the M istress o f vvaters appears as a sophisticated lady, best knovvn from the iv o ry and faience statuettes called ‘ Snake Goddesses’, one holdin g snakes. in her hands, another w ith snakes intertw ined around the abdom en and breasts, and both h avin g exposed breasts. T h e snake, like the bird, was a form in vvhich the goddess becam e m anifest. N ilsson in M inoan-Mycenaean Religion provides evidence o f the presence o f idols vvith bird-like attitudes and terra­ cotta birds in 'M in o an shrines (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 3 3 o ff.). T h e large bellshaped idol from the Shrine o f the D ouble A xes at Knossos has a bird perehed upon its head, vvhich p rob ab ly is an im age o f the B ird Goddess. In the shrine o f Gazi, three idols carry birds on their heads. A bird perehes on an earlier Proto-palatial altar from the sanctuary o f the D o ve Goddess o f Knossos. A noth er expression o f the same idea is the small gold m odel o f a shrine from sh aft-gravc IV at M ycenae, vvhere birds perch on the horns o f consecration. T h ere are tvvo pieccs o f gold le a f from shaft-grave III at M ycenae representing a nude vvoman w ith her arms held in front o f her breast. O ne figure has a bird apparently in flight upon her head, the other has birds attached to her elbovvs by their tails. In the shrine o f G ournia in eastern C rete three terracotta birds w erc found togcthei w ith the anth ropom orp h ic im ages o f Snake Goddesses. T h ree terracotta birds vvere also diseovered in the southvvest w in g o f the palače o f H agia T riadh a. A room at Palaikastro yielded three fem ale figures and a lyre p layer in a grou p w ith six terracotta birds, and on an iv o ry plaque from the same Late M inoan I palače, a beautiful vvinged

146

Wf£f: water bird is portrayed vvith a crest o f three feathers (Z ervos 19 56 : | pig, 528). Three small terracotta birds vvere found in the cave at Patso am o n g other vo tive anim al figurines. T h e num ber three, it vvould seem vvas not accidental and vvas indeed connected vvith the m ythical num ber o f three vvhich in the N eolithic and C h alcolithic era is evidenced b y the continuous recurrcnce o f three or six holes on the m outh or neck o f the goddess, or three parallel lines or three chevrons. B ird s portrayed on vases are exclu sively w atcr fovvl, seagulls, ducks, eranes, or diver birds. T heir bodies, vvings or necks are decorated vvith striations and chevrons or snake zigzags (cf. Z e rv o s 19 56: Figs. 734 and 7 3 8 ; Z e rv o s 19 5 7 : Fig. 336). Ju g s o f the N e o palatial period o f C rete are shaped like vvater birds and the painted decoration on them is conspicuously sym bolic o f flovving water, including chevrons, striations, bands o f dots and groups o f three vertical lines (cf. Z e rv o s 19 56 : 5 7 1, 727, 729, 7 3 1). M ycenaean art abounds 111 vvinged bird -w o m an im ages and snake-headed figures with round eyes, standing or seated on a throne and frequently vvearing a c ro w n ; during Late M ycenaean (Late H elladic III) times, small terracotta figurines vvith cylindrical bodies and w in gs becom e v e ry com m on (M ylonas 1956). T h e posture o f the standing figures, leaning forvvard, their buttocks naturally upraised or o f the h a lf seated and seated figures, is surprisingly sim ilar to that o f the N eo lith ic-C h alcolith ic figurines. Som e o f these M ycenaean figures are m ultiple, double-headed or double-bodied, a fam iliar trait o f V inča art. Painted on the figurines are usually vertical, som e­ times undulating stripes, rem iniscent o f the sym bols o f rain vvater or the sinuous m ovem ent o f vvater snakes on N eolith ic-C h alcolith ic figurines, cult-vases or altars, and thrones vvhich accom m odate seated figures and are decorated vvith striations or undulating patterns. Since these form s and decorative m otifs have no direct antecedents in the earlier M ycenaean (Indo-European) period, their appearance can best be explained as a re-em ergence o f the enduring, local p re-In doEuropean tradition. It is feasible that these form s, vvhich during the in tervening period are absent from the archaeological record, vvere p roduced vvithout a brcak but in a pcrishablc m ate ria l; alternatively, the Snake Goddess and B ird Goddess m ay have been secretly w o rshipped fo r som e tim e after the advent o f the Indo-Europeans, before m anifesting them selves again in graphic and sculptural form at a later date. T h e B ird Goddess or m cm ories o f her original im age continued into the Iron A ge. M eanders and vvater birds re-em erge in the art o f the G eom etric period and the B ird Goddess h erself appears in the 'art o f A ncient Greece as A th e n a ; the b ird -form has been shed but A thena is occasionally vvinged and the bird is her attribute. She som etim es appears in the sem blancc o f a sea eagle, a guli, a sw a llo w , a vulture.

147

133-135

136 13 7

or a d ove, thereby perpetuating the M in oan-M ycenaean tradition. O n a C o rin th ian aryballos dating from about the beginning o f the sixth century b c , a bird w ith a w o m a n ’s head is shovvn perching behind A thena and at the side o f the goddess is clearly w ritten Fous, a variant fo rm o f a nam e given to the D iver-b ird , Aithuia. In M egara there is a c liff called the c liff o f A thena Aithuia, A thena the D iverbird (H arrison 1 9 6 1 : 303 ; N ilsson 19 5 0 : 492). In the earliest knovvn vase-painted representation o fth e rape o f Cassandra a large humanheaded bird stands behind the figure o f Athena (JH S 18 8 4 : Pl. X L ). In the tim e o f A ristophanes it vvas a popular b e lie f that Athena appeared as an o w l in the battle against the Persians. H e sa y s: ‘W e conquered tovvard evening, fo r an ovvl flevv through the ranks before the battle began’ (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 493). A small red -figu re ju g in the L o u v re shovvs the o w l arm ed vvith helm et and spear, vvhile on a blackfigu re vase at U ppsala a b ig o w l perches on the altar tow ards vvhich a ram is led to be sacrificed ( J H S X X X I I , 1 9 1 2 : 174 , Fig. 1). O n a b lack-figu re vase fro m the British M useum a buli is led to sacrifice, follovved b y a procession o f men tovvards the altar on which a bird, a sea-gull o r a d uck, perches. N e x t to the altar stands Athena, equipped vvith a shield and spear, and behind her is none other than the snake (Stengel 18 9 0 : Pl. I, 4). T h e ram and buli sacrifice to the B ird and Snake Goddess is o f great antiquity, since in the settlements o f the East B alk an and V inča civilizations, cult vases w ith the protom es in the shape o f a ra m ’s or bu ll’s head and figurines p ortrayin g a ram vvith three(!) horns or a neck decorated vvith groups o f three horizontal lines w ere found in association vvith the im ages o f the B ird and Snake Goddess. A sm all v o tiv e cult vase from Vinča was incised w ith V ’s and chevrons, the ideogram s o f the B ird Goddess, and so vvas the ram -headed vessel from Banjata in B ulgaria. T he anim al’s head vvas incised vvith chevrons and horns - vvith parallel lines. A noth er aspect o f the G reek ovvl vvhich m ay have its beginnings in the N eolithic era is her association vvith the craft o f spinning and hence vvith the sheep. A series o f terracotta plaques shovv an ovvl vvith hum an arms spinning w o o l (N ilsson 19 5 0 : 4 9 3 -4 ; an illustration in : B C H X X X I I , 1908: 5 4 1, Pl. V II, 3). A n askos fro m an E a rly H elladic II site at Z y g o u ries near C o rin th has a spout form ed in the shape o f a horned ram ’s head (M useum o f C orinth ). P ortrayals o f A thena on black- or red-figure vases o f A ncient G reece reveal her intim acy not on ly vvith birds but also vvith snakes. A snake craw ls on or is concealed undcr her shield, or appears b y her side, equal in height and m ajesty, as her double (H arrison 19 6 1 : 306). W h y are Athena and the snake related in this w a y ? Is this im agery not an inheritance fro m a deeper antiquity, from times vvhen the cosm ic B ird Goddess had as her counterpart a cosm ic snake? Her association vvith the snake is old and intim ate; the M inoan house 148

goddess also appeared as a snake and as a bird, and the same associations go at least three m illennia farther back. H o w did Athena becom e a goddess o f w ar, vvhile the M inoan and O ld European B ird Goddess vvas not? W h y , too, it m ay be asked, is the eh ief w a r deity o f the Greeks fem ale? T h e ansvver is: Athena, as a direct descendant o f the M inoan palače goddess and as the distant heir o f O ld Europe, becam c Indo-Europeanized and Orientalized during the course o f tvvo m illennia o f Indo-European and Oriental influence in Greece. T h e proteetress o f a city naturally becam e engaged in w ar. T h e nam e Athena is pre-G reek. T h e tovvn Athenai is named after the goddess (Nilsson 1 9 2 1 ; 19 50 : 4898".). ’ A ph rodite U rania, born from the sea, vvas p ortrayed as flying through the air standing or sitting on a goose or being accom panied by three geese in the G reek terracottas o f the sixth and fifth centuries b c ; like A thena, she m aintains certain O ld European features o f the B ird Goddess. H o m er regarded C yp ru s as her true hom e, but prePhoenician C yp ru s vvas vvithin the sphere o f M inoan cuiture. There is strong reason to believe that ‘A p h ro d ite’ vvas a goddess-nam e origin ally com m on to the language o f both islands. It is also believed that the Cretan nam e ‘ A riad ne’ , ‘the v e ry H o ly O n e ’ , w as an early H ellenic description fo r A phrodite h erself (Farnell 19 2 7 : 18). A n d vvho vvas H era, the ob viously un-H ellenic goddess o f the ancient Greeks? In m yths and legends she frequently appears to­ gether w ith A th ena; the tvvo are almost inseparable or are rivals. In Paestum, the temples o f Athena and H era štand next to one another. A lth o u gh Hera m arried Zeus (the Indo-European T h und er God) during the B ronze A g e (probably before the thirteenth century since in the Linear B tablets both names appear side by side), archaeological records reveal her as one o f the most revered and pre-em inent god­ desses. In sanctuaries and pictorial representations, H era is shown in the central position; she occupies the throne, not Zeus vvho stands at her side. T h e sanctuaries dedicated to Hera vvere built in valleys at the estuaries o friv e rs , near the sea, and surrounded by pastureland. Such locations o f Hera tem ples can be observed in Perachora at C orinth, A rgo s in the Peloponnese, 011 the islands o f Sam os and Lesbos, at Foče del Sele in vvestern Italy, Sybaris, and elsevvhere (Sim on 1969: 4of.). She vvas the guardian o f scamen and ruler over the pastureland. T h e vo tive offerings in her sanctuaries include terracotta snakes, horned anim ai figurines, calves, anthropom orphic idols vvith large eyes and decorated vvith spirals and m eanders, and shrine m odels im itating the plan o f a D oric tem ple or an apsidal house vvith vvalls or r o o f decorated vvith bands o f m eandering lines, striations or parallel vertical lines (exam plcs o f the latter from Perachora and A rg o s are reproduced b y Sim on 1969: 39). She, ‘ the N oble O n e ’ and ‘G iv e r o f AH’, vvas sculpted and described as tali and bcautiful Hera 149

or R o m a n Ju n o . M o re signiflcantly, H o m er called her fiocbnit,, ‘the c o w -e y e d ’ . H er hair curls like snakes in m any o f her portrayals, and a snake w inds or zigzags vertically in the m iddle o f her skirt (cf. a w ooden re lie f from the H eraion II in Sam os, c. 6 10 b c , Sim on 1969: 50; or the Boeotian bell-shaped idol o f c. 700 B c housed in the Louvre, portrayed w ith lon g snake curls and a in front in vvhich the snake as a band o f criss-cross lines is fram ed vvith zigzags and parallel lines and then flanked vvith vvater birds holding snakes in their beaks); or else her an th ropom orp h ic im age vvith cu rly hair, eyebrovvs in the shape o fh o rn s, and upraised hands is flanked b y a snake (as painted on a plaque from a p ro to -A ttic v o tive deposit in a house o f the G eom etric period in G reece: Hesperia 19 3 3 , 2 : 604). A cco rd in g to Herodotus, Hera vvas taken o v er b y the G reeks fro m the Pelasgians, the indigenous people in northern G reece. H er nam e, e-ra, as it appears in the Linear B tablet, is not o f In do-E u ropean origin. H o m er and Plato connected her nam e vvith the air. Ludvvig Preller in 18 54 in his book on Greek M ythology described H era as a fem inine aspect o f the sky, the air, vvhich encom es the aspect o f fem ale fertility. His defm itition does not run counter to the functions o f the prehistoric Snake Goddess, the ruler o f ali cosm ic or heavenly vvaters. A rch aic features to be found in portrayals o f H era betray m uch that links her vvith the O ld European Snake Goddess. B oth , Hera and A thena, are true heircsses o f the O ld European pantheon.

1 3 3 , 1 3 4 H ead o f a ram , p ro to m c fro m a ritual vessel. O rig in a lly painted in red and vvhite, it has three h orn s in the back o f the head. Foun d in 'association vvith o rn ith o m o rp h ic vases. A nza, M aced on ia. E a rly V in ča. c. 530 0 -5 0 0 0 b c 13 5 H ead o f a ram , part o f a ritual vessel. D istinguished b y tvvo grou p s o f three parallel lines (chevron s) on the neck. Sitagro i m oun d, M aced on ia, G reece. East B alk an civ iliza tio n . c. 4000 b c 13 6 C lassical V in ča ritual vessel vvith a ra m ’s head at one end. It is co vered vvith incised V ’s and ch evro n s. T h e V in ča site 1 3 7 R itu a l vessel vvith r a m ’s head at on e end. T h e re are incised chevron s on the an im a l’s head and p arallel lines on the horn s and b o d y . B an iata, central B u lg a ria , East B a lk a n civilization

8 The Great Goddess of Life, Death and Regeneration T h e ‘Fertility G oddess’ or ‘ M oth er G oddess’ is a m ore com plex im age than m ost people think. She was not on ly the M o th er Goddess w h o com m ands fertility, or the Lady o f the Beasts vvho govern s the fecu n d ity o f animals and ali w ild nature, o r the frightening M oth er T errib le, but a com posite im age vvith traits accum ulated from both the pre-agricultural and agricultural eras.. D u rin g the latter she becam e essentially a Goddess o f R egen eratio n , i.e. a M o o n Goddess, p roduet o f a sedentary, m atrilinear com m u n ity, encom ing the archetypal iinity and m ultiplicity o f fem inine nature. She was giver o f life and ali that prom otes fertility, and at the same tim e she vvas the vvielder o f the destruetive povvers o f nature. T h e fem inine nature, like the m o o n , is ligh t as vvell as dark. T h e a n d r o g y n o u s a n d c o r p u l e n t g oddess w it h fo ld ed arm s of the

N eo l it h ic period

T h e N eo lith ic ‘ v irg in ’ is alm ost as corpulent as the Palaeolithic ‘ V en u s’ , p articu larly in central A natolia and around the A egean. T y p ic a l seventh-m illennium sculptures from G^tal H u yiik in central A n ato lia take the form o f a m assively fat vvoman, either standing or seated, ed by leopards. She usually either holds her hands up to her large breasts o r rests them on the heads o f accom panying anim als (M ellaart 19 6 7 : 184, Figs. 52, 53). D u rin g the sixth m illen­ nium the goddess bccom es m ore vigorous and less obese vvith her shoulders, upper arms and breasts acccntuatcd. The forearm s are fold ed and the hands are placed on or belovv the breasts. These characteristics are not found on figurines portraying the B ird G o d ­ dess. Folded arm s are a characteristic feature o f goddess figurines from the H acilar, Sesklo and Starčevo com plexes o f central A natolia, the A egean area and the Balkan Peninsula. T h ro u gh o u t the N eolithic period her head is phallus-shaped suggesting her androgynous nature, and its derivation from Palaeolithic tim es (cf phallic fem ales: M arshack 19 7 2 : 29 2-9 3).

Five clay sculptures o f vigorous and fat, but not steatopygous, ladies vvith phallic heads and folded arm s vvere found in the largest early building at N ea N ikom edeia in northern Greece, a settlement dating fro m c. 6300 b c (Rodden 19 6 5 : 8 8 ) . T h e content, siže and central location o f the building im p ly its use as a shrine. T h e shrine also yielded three toads carved from green and blue serpentine, prob ab ly representing the shape o f the goddess manifest. O ne o f the best preserved figurines from N ea N ikom edeia is a povverful erect vvoman vvith broad shoulders, folded arms and hands on breasts. The head takes the form o f a sligh tly flattened cylinder vvith a prom inent pinehed-up nose and slit-eyes incised in applied clay eyeballs. T h e hips and buttocks are constru ted from tvvo stout, alm ost cylindrical pieces vvhich vvere m odelled ind ivid ually and pegged together before firing. O n top o fth e fig u re ’s head is a round protuberance suggesting a head-dress sim ilar to the round or conical caps found on Central Anatolian figurines. O ther phallus-shaped heads reveal a circum cision around the top and central hole suggesting that the cylind er head w as m eant to be a phallus and vvas set in a fem ale torso. This type o fh e a d vvas m odelled separately and pegged to the torso before the clay hardened. Som e o f these ‘p illar’ heads have obvious facial features -in c is e d eyes, pronounccd nose and brovv-ridge, but no m outh. In a num ber o f them the hair is shovvn. A nother category o f phallusshaped heads is characterized b y facial features o f animals. S om e phallic heads are no m ore than blank pillars. A lm o st ali the figurines o f the H am angia culture have cylindrical phallus-shaped heads vvithout any facial features. T h eir deploym ent in graves, and the fold ed -arm posture, suggest an association vvith death or regenera­ tion. S om e standing figures o f c. 5000 B C vvith huge torsos ed by strong stum p legs and breasts cushioned vvith the arehes o f massive arms are true sculptural masterpieces. The H am angian figurines are related to sixth-m illennium H acilar sculptures vvhich also have very strong!y built bodies, m uscular upper arms, huge abdom ens and thighs, and folded arms. Elaborate ones vvear a conical cap and full dress. O ne class o f figurines reveals the goddess dressed in a loin đ oth and cap, holding a leopard cub. M ainland Greek figurines, as vvell as the H am angian, are form ally related to those found at H acilar, em phasizing the analogies that exist betvveen the European and central Anatolian portrayals o f this go d ­ dess. A beautiful long-haired ‘v irg in ’ , her head perfectly preserved, and several fragm entary torsos vvith extrem ely massive shoulders and upper arms vvere found at Sesklo. M any N eolithic m arble figurines in a standing o r seated position from the Aegean area also have phallus-shaped heads vvith or vvithout a prom inent nose. O thers have m odelled heads vvith facial features and a cap and som e o f them m ay represent masked heads. H orizontal forearm s, m assive arms and '53

138

139

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143

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13 8 F igiirin c o f a goddess w ith phallus-shaped head arid hands on breasts. N ea N ik o m ed eia, northern G reece. c. 620 0 bc o r earlier 13 9 Phallus-shaped head o f a fig u rin e vvith a p in eh ed -u p nose, slit e y es, d eep in cision near the top, and a can al d o w n the m id d le. R u d n ik , sou th w estern Y u g o s la v ia . c. 600 0 b c

14 1 M a rb le fig u rin e vvith fold ed arm s and vvearing a cap. Sp arta, Peloponnese. c. 6000 bc 142 M a rb le fig u rin e o f a goddess vvith folded arm s, c o lu m n a r n eck and a large pubic trian gle. A eg ea n area, exact p roven ience not knovvn 143 U p p e r torso o f a goddess vvith m assive shoulders and arm s. H an d s in typ ical position on breasts. S e sk lo . T hessaly. c. 6000 bc :

■ 14 0 P illar-h ead ed god d ess vvith fo ld ed arm s. H er back is Hat. H a n ian g ia cu itu re, cem eterv o f C e r n a v o d a , eastern R o m a n ia . c. 5000 Itc

144 M a rb le fig u rin e vvith exaggerated p u b ic trian gle and schcm .iri/od arm s. IVII A zm ak . Central B ulgaria. Earlv sixth m illenn ium bc

shoulders, and the huge abdom en o f the m arble figurines are typical o f the G reat Goddess. T h e physical strength o f the fem ale b o d y was an ideal. T h e O ld Europeans never held in esteem the m eagre fem i­ nine appearance fashionable in our ow n day. T h e m arble idols w ith lon g cylindrical necks from the C yclad ic islands o f A m o rg o s and N a x o s are usually sitting or squatting vvith arms folded. T h e m ost rigid ly schematized ones resem ble a pear or a violin and have been dubbed ‘ fiddle-shaped idols’ . From the Aegean area num bers o f ve ry schem atic w hite m arble figurines are k n ow n some m ere cylinders or cones, and som e aded to a schem atically m odelled b o d y (Z ervos, 19 6 3 : 3 4 1, 346, 350). Schem atized white m arble figurines are also kn ow n from the N eo lith ic strata in central B u lgaria. T h e beautifully carved sculptures from the m ounds o f Kazanlik and A zm ak have schematized arms and heads and an accentuated supernatural pubic triangle.

T h e c h r y s a lid goddess w it h fo ld ed arms of t h e C h a lc o lit h ic period

g S t gg Tti'O Uroni;Iy built and youiljitlgoddesscs with folded tirnis, tovariti# a cap and loi'n-clotli, from Hacilar, ccntral Anatolia. O ne o f than 'holdf a leopard ctib. c. 6000 BC

T he im age o f the goddess vvith arms folded becam e increasingly stereotyped during the fifth and fourth m illennia BC . She is portrayed standing or seated, arm s tightly pressed to the body, breasts barely indicated and legs schematized and usually narrow at the end. T he m asked head has supernatural features. East Balkan sculptures have flattened oval masked heads vvith large sem icircular eyes, a nose, and from tvvo to ten im pressions or holes belovv the m outh. H oles on either side o f the head ear-rings o f copper or gold. C yp rio te clay figurines w ith large pubic triangles from the third m illennium also have enorm ous ears vvith holes for ear-rings. M arble seems to have been especially cherished in B ulgaria as a m aterial for fashioning Great Goddesses, and som e m arble figurines are o v er 30 cm . high. Sheet go ld was also used for figurines and a fine exam p!e com es from R u se in northern B ulgaria. Regardless o f the m aterial used, clay, bone, m arble, or gold, the G reat Goddess alw ays appeared in a rigid pose, the pose o f a chrysalis. O n ly in cxctional cases is her appear­ ance m ore anim ate; the superb figurine from N eolithic Lem a in the eastern Peloponncse reveals a headless nude body o f near!y naturalistic proportions. C y cla d ic m arble figurines o f the third m illennium b c ob viously represent the same divine im age. T h eir stiffhess betrays the same chrysalid character. Folded arm s, small breasts, tapering lifeless legs and supernatural heads continue ideological and stylistic traditions o f several m illennia. O val or triangular heads, probably representing masks, w ere som etim es painted red. C yclad ic figurines vvere placed in graves. It used to bc thought that th cy w ere connected vvith 157

100 IVhite marble figurira' with a massive phallus- i. shaped head and fo ld ed a ■ms. Cyclades. Typologically it can be dated to c. 6000 »c or earlier

1 45 - 1 4 7 , 1 52 101

I

, 102

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102

10 1 Fragment o fa seated marble figurine with folded arms from R use, northeni Bulgaria. liast Balkan civilization. c. 4500 - 4000

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anccstor w orship or w ere com panions or concubines leading a dead person to the other w o rld (H ogarth 1927), but it is n o w apparent that they m ust represent the G reat Goddess o f a deepiy rooted O ld European tradition. Analysis o f the reproduced illustrations o f this goddess reveals on ly a ve ry gradual stylistic change during the course o f n early fou r m illennia; the im age o f the G reat G oddess remains rem arkablv stable. T o the same ca tcgo rv belong Cucuteni, Vm ča and Gumelni^a figurines vvith schem atized arms and an accentuated, even enorm ous, pubic triangle. In the East B alkan civilization, particu larly in the G um elnita com plex, schem atized bone figurines w ith a pubic triangle, ear-ring holes, tw o dots or depressions on the back (trigonum tumbale) p rob ab ly representing eggs, and arm stum ps or ‘perforated arm stum ps’ w h ich are stylized renderings o f folded arm s, are found in both settlements and graves. G reat Goddess figurines vvere placed in graves sin gly, in pairs or even dozens. E xqu isitely decorated vases p o rtrayin g cosm ological scenes w ere also offered as gifts to the dead. T h e grave inventory from the cem etery o f V yk h vatin tsi in M oldavia yielded five vases, three clay figurines o f the same type, shell beads and a spin dlc-w h orl. T h e presence o f a spind le-w horl suggests the aspect o f a spinning goddess, i.c. the Goddess o f Fate. T h e spindle is an attribute o f the east M editerranean G reat Goddess and is also an aspect o f Artem is as portrayed on C orinthian vases (Tucker 19 6 3: 56, pl. 20 : 3).

M arble srame from tu'vo at R a~ yf(iđ, •aria. East Balkan U'ati on. e. 4500 - 4000

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t o j Schem atized bone figurines from Ruse, northern Bulgaria. c. 4500 - 4000 BC

5 C M

T h e large siže o f m any figurines (in the C yclades som e are nearly 150 cm . high) suggests that they are portrayals o f a goddess. T h e supernatural triangle and the nudity do not reveal her sexuality. Breasts and belly are not stressed. T h ro u gh the act o f e n gravin g an enorm ous triangle in the centre o f the sculpture the artist perhaps visualized the universai w o m b , the inexhaustible source o f life, to w hich the dead man returns in order to be born again. In this sense t!ie G reat Goddess is the m agician-m other. The folded and pressed arm position (the attitude o f the e m b rvo in the m atrix?) is tvpica! o f the dead buried in the ccm eteries o f O ld Europe. B abies and ehildren squeezed into egg-shaped pithoi for burial had arm s tigh tly pressed to the b.ody, a natural foetal position. A pithos vvas a vvomb as was the grave pit from which the ehild or adult could be born again. For this purposc m iniature vessels filled vvith red colour vvere laid in graves (G eorgiev and A n g e lo v , Ruse, 19 5 7 : 127). The colour o fb lo o d vvas as efteetive as the real blood necessarv for restoration o f life.

159

149 -150

; T o r so o f a terracotta fig u rin e vvith fo ld ed arm s fro m P ianu l de »s, T ran sy lv a n ia. c. m id -fifth m illen n iu m b c ') M arb le fig u rin e fro m the teli o f S u lica near Stara Z a g o r a , ltral B u lg a ria . East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 - 4000 b c 47 M arb le fig u rin e vvith fo ld ed arm s fro m B o rets near P lo v d iv , :ntral B u lgaria. East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 - 4000 BC i C y cla d ic m arble figu rin e. S y ro s. E a rly third m illen n iu m b c 19, 15 0 E lo n gated terracotta fig u rin e vvith large p u b ic trian gle o m the Late C u cu ten i cem etery o f V y k h v a tin ts i, S o v ie t M o ld a v ia . ■ly fourth m illenn iu m b c > 1 T ria n g le-cen tred flat bone fig u rin e fro m L o vc ts near Stara ago ra, B u lgaria. East B alkan civilizatio n . r. 4500 - 4000 bc 1 T erracotta figu rin e w ith fold ed arm s fro m N e o lith ic Lcrn a, tem Peloponnese 53 Fiat figu rin e vvith breasts and en o rm o u s trian gle as cen tre o f :us. T h ere is a hole on top fo r insertion o f a go d d ess’ head. F ro m nča 54 M arb le fig u rin e o f a goddess vvith a b a b y on top o f her head. :yc!adcs. E a r!y third m illcn n ium b c 14 7

T h e beginn ing o f the concept o f continuous life/death duality and o f d ivine am bivalence as expressed in ancient G reek m ythical im ages such as H ekate-A rtem is, D em eter-K o re or Persephone, goes back to the N eo lith ic-C h alco lith ic era. D o uble figurines in C ycla d ic art, in vvhich a baby stands on top o fa norm al-sized sculpture are connected w ith the idea o f rebirth (Th im m e 1965, 7 1). T h ere are m any sculp­ tures vvith double heads or m other-and-daughter figures in each category o f goddesses (cf. Pls. 86, 90, 100, 10 1).

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hands

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Liirc C.uciiteiti w lye) g r iv e invenw ry tiiig: otta Jig im n e s ; 4, sliell ; 5 , spin dlc-ii'horl; lili and hfack-on-red ■d vases (only one 1 in delail). Cem etery khvatiutsi, Soviet aviti

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A n anth ropom orph ic vase standing on stout legs from Sultana in Southern R o m a n ia is interesting because o f its painted sym bolic designs. It is 32.3 cm . high and has huge sem icircular eyes, beak-nose, large ears w ith holes fo r ear-rings and a m outh vvith ten round impressed holes, and rings indicatcd in vvhite paint. T h e holes, vvhich are o f various sizes w ith the largest near the m iddle, are ostensibly m eant to suggest panpipes, the rings being added for decoration. T h e arms are rendered ve ry schem atically but the three fm gers o f the left hand are held to the m usical instrum ent. T h e focal point is the abdom inal area vvhich depicts a vu lva vvith three rings on top, flanked by crescents, ali extravagan tly painted in w hite. O n the back are painted tw o enorm ous eggs. A negative design o f four-fm gered hands is depieted on the back o f the neck, and spirals decorate the back o f the head. T his arriazing accum ulation o f sym bols sheds m ore light on the nature o f the goddess than m any schem atized clay or bone figurines. From this vase, a representation o f the w o m b o f the Great M oth er, w e learn that the goddess vvas also a m usician holding panpipes adorned vvith rings. As the possessor ofth e secret o f life, her music or utteranccs must have had m agic and binding significance. A n oth er anthropom orphic vase from the G um elnifa settlement o f V idra is a bu lky Container, 42.5 cm. high, m ade in the im age o f the goddess vvith folded arms and hands belovv the breasts. T h e goddess’ head is not apparent but was p robably ineorporated in the lid, vvhich is m issing. Concentric circles or circles vvithin lozenges are inciscd and vvhite-encrusted in the area o f the navel, on both sides o f the pubic triangle, o ver the buttocks and hips and in the m iddle o f the neck. T h e hands and the incised circles and lozenges m ust have had sym b olic significance. G lobular vases vvith m agical hands on the belly are knovvn from H acilar (M ellaart 1970), from the ProtoSesklo com plex in Thessaly (Theocharis 19 6 7: 1 5 1 , Figs. 87 and 88), from the Starčevo com p lex in Y u go sIavia (the Anza site in M acedonia), and from Lepenski V ir 011 the Danube (Srejovič 19 69: Pl. X I).

163

10 5 Anthropomorphic vase ivith arms held belou/ breasts, concentric circles and lozenge m arks,from Vidra, northern Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. Chalcolithic

155 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic vase w ith sy m b o lic design painted in u hite on reddish-hrosvn h.n.kgroim d. T h e G re a t G o d d ess’ left h an d is h eld to the lovver lip o r to ;i p.m -pipe deeor.ited svidi r in g v Sultana, Southern R om an ia. East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 is< 15 6 , 15 7 M asked goddess p o rtray ed in a position th.it suggests g is’in g hirth. M cd v c d n ja k . southe.ist of B elgra d e . V in ča c iv iliza tio n . c. 5000 b c

15 8 Stran g e fo u r-fin g e re d hands on a vase from B an jata, a C h alco lith ic settlem ent in Central B u lgaria. East B alk an civilization , c. 4500 bc: 16 0 Late C u c u ten i ‘ b in o c u la r’ vase fro m B ilcze Z lo te , vvestern U krain e. E a rly fou rth m illenn iu m bc

i Sy A n th ro p o m o rp liie vase svith tlu- e g g thighs and p ubic trian gle characteri/in s; the (ire.it ( lo d d esv M tild av a. central B u lgaria.

Hast B a l k a n ( K a r a n o v o I). c i v i l i z a t i o n . , . C1000 fe

4 double-egg m otif •ss' buttoćks?) in ite painting on the o fa dish: Pietrele 'ucharest. East Balkan ation. c. 4000 BC

double-egg m otif with c u'inding across. Dish ■i black-on-rcd on Late Cucuteni. i, western Ukraitie. r millennium đ c

10 9 , 1 to

T h e persistence o f m agical hands either sculptured in re lie f or painted is a continuing tradition fo r several thousands o f years. In the East B alkan civilization in particular, the large four-fingered hands occur in re lie f or are painted on large vases h avin g a h ypn o tic quality. Superposed stylized figures vvith enorm ous arms and hands are show n on a C ucuten i vase fro m P e tren i; they o ccup y the entire height o f the frieze, alternating vvith quartered discs and rain torrents ( R y b a k o v 19 6 5 : Fig. 36). V inča and East B alkan figurines o f w o m en in squatting position vvith emphasized upraised egg-shaped thighs evid ently depict a natural b irth -givin g position. T h e masked vvoman in a contracted position from the V inča settlem ent o f M ed ved njak, southeast o f B elgrad e, has one hand lifted to the m outh, in the m anner o f the Goddess o f Sultana. Incised on the buttocks and thighs are spiral lines and circles vvith a dot in the m iddle. A small sculpture from Cascioarele in Southern R o m a n ia shovvs a vvoman in n early identical squatting position (D um itrescu, 19 66 : Pl. 88). A beautifully m oulded fem ale figurine sitting on a stool shaped like an exposed vu lv a vvas unearthed during the 19 7 1 excavation in D renovac, a V inča site at S vetozarevo in central Y u g o sla v ia . A Pre-palatial pot from M allia in C rete has incised on it a likeness o f the naked goddess vvith legs spread to shovv the pudenda (A lexiou 1969: 85). T h e exposure o fth e genital region m ust have been sym b olic o f b irth -givin g. T h e pregnant vvom b is conspicuously absent in representations o f the goddess in her b irth -givin g funetion. T h e tvvo large eggs or circles on the back o f the b o d y o f the G reat G oddess represent her potential. T h e y štand fo r the source o f subsequent developm ent and thus could be called sym bols o f ‘b eco m in g’ . T h e eg g is readily observable on vases that vvere p robably connected vvith the cult o f the Great Goddess. A n th rop om orp h ic vases have egg-shaped thighs and buttocks. Lids, dishes, bovvls and jars are incised o r painted vvith eg g m otifs, and pots frequently have a doubleeg g shape. T y p ic a lly Cucutenian are the so-called binocular vases. In ali p robability they served in rituals dedicated to the G reat G oddess; sym b olic figures depieted on them inciude dogs, deer and m oon crcscents, her constant com panions. T h e d ouble-egg sym b ol found on the back or the front o f the East Balkan and C ucuteni figurines is one o f the m ost frequently encountered. T h e tvvo dotsju st above the buttocks (knovvn to Science as trigonum lumbalc) m ay have originated the idea ofsh ovvin g the eggs in this particular place. I f such a figurine is scctioncd one actually finds a d ou b le-egg inside. T h c y štand herc fo r a universal life source, not fo r hum an foetuses. Countless anth ropom orp h ic vases carry the tw in egg sym b ol and it is found,. in abstract com positions, on large C u cu teni vases. This sym b ol is associated vvith or surrounded b y vvater

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10 9 , 1 1 0 D ouble-eggs u/ithin the bellies offigurines which have double-egg motifs incised on fron t and back. Classical Cucuteni. N o v y e Ruseshty, Soviet M oldavia. End o f fifth millennium B C 10 8 A double-egg (or buttockj-shaped bou’ l witli a handle, painted in concentric semicireles. Pietrele near Bucharest. East Balkan civilization

/ / / Vase in the shape o f buttocks. Sectiotied multiple m otif painted in white on red. Classical Cucuteni. Izvo are, M oldavia

1 1 2 Sectioned multiple egg design u'itli crcscents and ' rain torrents' painted in black-on-rcd interior o fa hon'1. Late Cucuteni. Koszylow ce, upper Dniester V aliey. U kraine. Fourth millennium hc:

1 1 1 Decorative motifs 011 shoulders o fla tc Cucuteni vases. ' Sonatas o f becoming’ : sectioned and splitting eggs, crcscents, full moons and snakes. Sipintsi, u'cstcrn ( lkraine. Fourth millennium

1 12

12 1

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u4

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snakes, crescents or schem atized does or faw ns. A true ‘fabric o f b eco m in g’ is expressed in painting on a Cucuteni b o w l from K o sz y lo w c e : the sectioned egg m o tif is surrounded b y smaller and larger m oon crescents amid the w ater bands. Sectioned or ruptured eg g m otifs, painted in three or m ore concentric and parallel lines, occur in the m ain zone o f the vase decoration. T h e y alternate vvith diagonal bands m ade up o f parallel lines (rainvvater torrents?), above vvhich runs the w h o le procession o f animals associated vvith the goddess. T h e sectioned egg m o tif is firm ly w o ve n into the ornam ental pattern o f vase decoration. In the fourth m illennium b c , the conju n ctio n o f the e gg, d ou b le-egg, lens, crescent, snake, and spiral m otifs on vases o f the Cucuteni civilization reached a rare level o f exquisite design. In the abstract and com posite designs, dictated by m ythical thinking, a harm onious com bination o f germ cell and cosm ic snakes and favvns is apparent. T h e sign o f a sectioned doubleeg g as an ideogram o f the G reat Goddess persisted into M inoanM ycen aean times. T h e m o tif reappears as a decoration on the festival attire o f the goddess in a procession holding a double axe in each hand, on one o f the frescoes o f the Late M inoan Palače o f Knossos, and painted on M id d le and Late M inoan vases. It can also be seen carved out o f lim estone as frieze decoration in the M iddle M inoan III Palače at Knossos, and at M ycen ae as part o f the decoration above the d o o rw a y o f the Treasu ry o f Atrcus.

1 14 Pattern painted in bine, red, yel!ow and black 011 the hem o f skirt ivom by goddess. From a fresco representing processional scenes in the ivestern w ing o f the palače o f Knossos. Late M inoan. The ruptured-egg m otif in the loiver band is signifeant

1 1 5 Egg-and-germ -splitting m otif painted in tivo rows on a Late Minoan ampliora from the R oyal Tomb o f Isopata at Knossos. Vertical lines may sym bolize a snake

1 1 6 Half-rosettes and triglyphs m otif on a limestone frie z e from the northu’cstern angle o f the palače o f Knossos. M iddle M inoan I II

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1 1 7 R itual vase in the shape o f a dog. The Vinča site, Early Vinča period

1 1 8 L id handle in the form o f a dog ivith human mask. C orn i Pasarel, central Bulgaria. East Balkan civilization. c. 4000 BC T

he

1 1 9 D og on the lid o f a steatite vase from early M inoan site o f Mochlos. Th ird millennium b c :

ep ip h a n ie s

The dog, a double o f the Moon Goddess D o g , the hovvlcr by night, vvas the goddess’ principa] anim ai. H o w im portant a role it p!ayed in the m y th o lo g y o f O ld Europe is cmphasized in figurines o f m arble, rock crystal and terracotta, p ortraying the anim ai as a vvhole or its head alone in the form o f cult vases shaped like a dog, or dog-figurines attached to vessels or fo rm ing the handles o f vases or cups. T h e handle o f a graphite-painted vase from G orni Pasarel in central B ulgaria shovvs a dog vvearing a human m ask. Its body is notehed on the back and front p rob ab ly to emphasize the d o g ’s aggressive characteristics. A large vase dis­ eovered at the Cucuteni site o f Podei has a handle o f a dog vvith forelegs stretehed out and the hind part o f the body raised up as i f about to attack. A close parallel, about one thousand years later in date, from the E arly M inoan II site o f M ochlos shovvs a sculptured d og on the lid o f a steatitc vase decorated in zones o f striated triangles. Four dogs are portrayed holding the neck o f a large black vase found in the Lengyel settlem ent o f Strelice in ccntral Czcchoslovakia (V ildom ec, 1940). Ferocious-lookin g dogs vvith three-clavved paws, fur bristling and tails raised, flying through cosm ic space, appear painted in black or chocolate bro w n on late Cucuteni oehre-red vases, n otably on large pear-shaped pithoi and on binocular pots. M asterfully schem a­ tized, they aptly portray the dynam ism and gracility o f the anim al’s body. i

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12 0 M ythical dog painted in black on a large pear-shaped vase from Varvarovka, a Late Cucuteni site near Kishenev, Soviet M oldavia. Fourth millennium B c

1 2 1 Anim ai ivith Caterpillar frie z e painted in black large vase fr o m Krutoborodintsi, tvesteri Ukraine. Late Cucuten

i 6 1 R eclin in g Pietrelc, Southern k a im n ia . Mast Balkan cuiture. ((.u m ieln ija-K aran o vo VI). M id -filth m illennium ih: K i ’ D o g im attackin g position, tlu - h rok cn -o lFh atu fle ot a vase. Late (!u cu ten i. I’ odci at T ;irguO cn a. nor(hea\tvr» Rom ania. I-.irlv fourth m illennium ne

T h e m enacing dogs ob vio u sly belonged to the M o o n Goddess w h o, like the nightm arish H ekate o f early historic times, w as w o rshipped b y dogs barking at the m oon, and whose principal sacrificial anim ai was the dog. T h eir lunar character is stressed b y crescents depieted around or b e lo w the figures o f dogs.. O ther C ucuten i vases display processions o f dogs, a deer, a billy goat, a nanny goat, and a w o o lly Caterpillar in the ‘upper sp h ere ’ above the main zone in the centre o f the vase, the central m o tif o f w hich is the sectioned e g g and the id eogram o f the G reat Goddess. D o gs are portrayed leaping high on either side o f a tree, perhaps a life-tree, the sym b ol o f ali life, w ild and cultivated. T h e representations o f the life-tree guarded b y ferocious anim als on C ucuteni vases are the earliest in European art, and later persisted through ali o f prehistoric and early historic times. T h e guardian dogs, h ow ever, w ere replaced b y lions, he-goats or other male animals. In folklore, the O ld European m ythical dog has lasted to this day. In the B alk an countries it is believed that eclipses o f the sun and m oon are caused b y dog-headed monsters. In M acedonia, a Chetvorok, a dog w ith a w h o rl o f hair over each eye, m ak in g him appear fou r-eyed , is the enem y o f a vam pire. H ence w e have several aspeets o f the d o g : dangerous, nocturnal and punitive on the one hand, and a proteetor against the forces o f evil on the other. T h e northern European b e lie f in the existence o f a corn špirit in the shape o f a d o g or w o lf m ay also have originated in the N eolithic period. In fact, d o g ’s original role in m yth m ay ve ry w ell be derived from its im portance as a guardian, proteeting m an’s hom e, his seedlings and yo u n g crops against the early farm ers’ ow n herds and w ild animals - as was righ tly observed b y B o gaevskij (1937) and after him b y R y b a k o v (1965). 2 The doe, a double o f the Goddess o f Regeneration The prestige o f the deer in sym bolism is not sim ply connected vvith its appearance - beauty, grace, agility - but also w ith the phenom enon o f the cycle o f regeneration and gro w th o fits antlers. T h e latter aspect lay deep in the m ind o f N eolithic peasants. D e er’s antlers play an im portant ro le : reliefs o f stags vvith enorm ous antlers are frequent on vases o f the Starčevo co m plcx. Even in m iniature figurine art there w ere attempts to p ortray stags. T h e role o f a deer in O ld E u ro ­ pean m yth vvas not a creation o f N eolithic agriculturists. T h e im ­ portance o f a pregnant doe must have been inherited from a preagricultural era. The northern people in the hunting stage still believe in the m other o f the universe as a doe-elk or w ild reindeer-doc. M yths speak o f pregnant w o m en w h o rule the vvorld and vvho look like d e e r: covered vvith hair and vvith branehing deer’s horns on their heads (A n isim ov 19 5 9 : 28, 4 9 ff.; R y b a k o v 1965, 2 :35 ). In the U p p er Paleolithic era, sim ilar im ages probably existed ali o ver Europe.

164 l.attf C u c u ten i vase bearing .1 design d ivid ed in to three m etopes. each in clu d in g a d o g and caterpillars Valea l.u p u h n . n ortlieas'tern R om an ia. l'arlv fourth ! 11 ilk-mlim) 1 1«

K is I )ogs Hy ab o v e ‘ tlu* vomiih di^i *■ m ii f n 1 D esign painted in black 011 tlu' o ih re -re d m m I.hv ot a piril'orm vase. Late l u i u u m . ISiK/c / Ime. n orlh \vestcrn U krain e. Kariv tourili m illenm im i m

12 2 Dogs fia n k in g a Caterpillar. Painting on the upper part o f a vase from Valea L u pulu i, northeastern Rom ania. Late Cucuteni. H eight, 5 2 .8 cm. Fourth millennium BC


^ ____ i

1 2 3 Dogs guarding the lifetree. Paintings on Late Cucuteni vases from Sipintsi, western Ukraine

Does in the shape o f crcscents ( ? ) turu in ire directions. Painted t 011 red on the inner lce o f bou'ls. i , tsheuka; 2 , 4, 7, ia B u da ; 3 , 6, 8, :s i; s , Podolia. Hem U kraine. Late nteni. Fourth .nititn BC

16 7 , 168

12 4

E xcep tion ally beautiful are cult vases in the shape o f a doe. O utstanding is the large vase from M u ld ava in central B u lgaria. As a sculpture, the M u ld ava deer o f the N eolithic period com petes vvith the ceram ic m odels o f deer m ade som e five thousand years later, for instance w ith those o f the p roto-G eom etric o r G eom etric period o f G reece (cf. a sculpture o f a doe from a grave o f the tenth century BC in the cem etery o f K eram eikos in A thens: K u b ler 1943 : Pl. 26). As an anim al sacred to A rtem is and Diana, the doe continued to be sculpted in ancient G reece and R o m e (Hoehn 19 46 : Pls. III, V , V I, Figs 17 and 2 1). T h e b o d y o f the doe o f M u ld ava is decorated with crcscents in a negative d esig n ; hence the anim al is shovvn to be cIosely related to the m oon sym bolism . In the pictorial representations on Late C ucuteni b o w ls the schem atically portrayed b o d y o f a deer is transform ed into a crescent. Like snakes or tails o f com ets, tw o deer w h irl in oppositc directions o v er the spherical surface o f the bow l. Heads like crescent m oons and small crcscents repeated on abstract bodies cmphasize the lunar characteristics. T h e com b -likc signs encountcred on som e representa­ tions m ay sym bolizc the udders o f a doe, the source o f rainw ater. Painted in parallel lines, the bodies o f the deer give an im pression o f rain clouds, w hile through the m iddle a snake winds. hi som e portravals deer antlers and crescent m oons m erge together as they spin

69 A n th ro p o m o rp h iz e d toad vvith aised arm s fro m the V in ča sito. c, 5000 BC

5 D eer or deer antlers nning around a central <s-sign fojem an abstract tern on tlte inner surface i deep boit'l. The dess’ dog appears on one Tu>o pairs o f crcscents, <mentary sym'bols o f om ing' are on opposite s. Late Cucuteni. B ilcze 'te, northpestern Ukraine. Iy fourth millennium b c

170 ‘ B ir t h -g iv in g G o d d ess’ in the shape o f a toad. M a rb le fig u rin e from Anza, sou theastem Y u g o sla v ia . Central B a lk a n N e o lith ic. c. 5800 BC 1 7 1 S ty liz e d toad carv ed o u t o f blueish serpentin e fro m the N e o lith ic settlem ent at N e a N ik o m e d e ia , northern G reece . E n d o f seventh m illenn ium b c

T w o schematized or snakesispin in site directions in egg•d containers, •ated witfit.caterpillars ’iple lines. Late teni. Sipintsi, rn Ukraine. E arly i millennium BC

‘ 25

1 26

l6 y . 17 0

■71.

127

around a cross vvith knobbed extrem ities sh ow in g the fou r Cardinal points o fth e w o rld . T w o pairs o fo p p o sed crcscents and the goddess’ d og can also be seen. G eom etricized to a shape beyond recognition, tvvo deer, like vvater snakes or rain clouds, spin w ithin egg-shaped containers. T h ro u g h association vvith the egg and vvater their role as instrum ents o f the Goddess o f R egen eratio n is clear. j The toad and the turtle: the goddess in the shape o f a human foetus T h e goddess as life-g iv er assumed the shape o f a toad. A h yb rid o f w o m an and toad carved out o f greenstone or m arble or m ade o f clay is found in C entral and East Balkan civilizations, the Pro to -Sesk lo, Starčevo, V inča, K a ran o vo and Gum elni(a com plexes. In schema­ tized versions her outspread legs and pubic triangle are accentuated w h ile her head is ju st a cone or is entirely negleeted. T h e beautifully carved figures o f grccn and blue serpentine from N ea N ikom ed eia are ccrtainly frogs o r toads but thcy are either stylized, o r have a hole in the head, p rob ab ly to accom m odate the inscrtion o f a goddess’ hum an head. T h at these toads or frogs represent the G reat Goddess is suggcsted b y their form al sim ilarity to a grou p o f peculiar female figurines from H acilar. These com bine a toadlikc trunk vvith a vvom an’s chest, head and coif. Like the standing virgin s they hold their hands 011 their breasts. 174

1 7 2 T v v o figu res vvith raised arm s an d parted legs shovvn in re lie f on a V in ča vase fro m G o m o la v a . northern Y u g o s Ia v ia . Sn ak es ap p ea r betvveen the tvvo figu res and to the left o f t h e la rg er fig u re. Ei.irlv o r m id -titth m illen n iu m ne 17.1 Goddess" im age on th e neek o f a large vase. H er feet take the form o l handles. Szentes. southeastern lU m g arv . I'Mi.i si\th m illennium i» 174 T erraco tta turtle fron t the V in ca site

T h e life-g iv in g goddess, her legs w id ely parted, appears in relief on the vvalls o f £ a ta l H u y u k shrines, frequently in association vvith bulls’ heads or bulls’ horns (M ellaart 19 6 7: 10 2 -3 , 109, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 127, 13 4 - 3 5 ) . B u lls’ heads vvith enorm ous horns, or the horns alone, w ere attached to vvalls or to special pedim ents, and in several shrines one or m ore huge buli heads w ere placed ju st b elo w the goddess as i f to assert and strengthen her pow ers. T h e b elly o f the goddess is usually m arked vvith a circle or concentric circles. A lth ou gh no shrines o f com parab le antiquity or State o f preservation have been found in Europe, it can be surm ised from reliefs o f the goddess vvith upraised arm s and outstretched legs on sixth-m illennium vases o f the P ro to Sesklo and Starčevo com plexes that her im age vvas as frequent there as in A natolia. T h e re lie f o f a figure vvith w id ely parted legs and upraised arm s on a Starčevo potsherd from the site o f Sarvaš in northern Y u go slav ia is undoubtedly related id eolo gically to the C atal H u y iik shrine reliefs. Pottery bearing reliefs or incised repre­ sentations o f figures vvith upraised arms and parted legs is found from T hessaly and M acedonia to northern H u n gary and G erm an y, vvhere the goddess is schem atically en graved on vessels o f the B iik k and Linear D anubian com plexes o f the fifth m illennium b c (m any illustrations o f these are given by G ulder 1962). T h e stylized toad 1 2g Sh rin e from Qatal H iiyu k , central A natolia, ivith ' Birth-giving Goddess1 in relief above buli heads, Seventh millennium BC Zreat Goddess in the ' f a toad. Statuette acilar, west central a, a sixth~ ni um settlement

e lief o f'B irth -g iv in g s ’ on a pottery cnt from Sarvaš, ’rn Yugoslavia. ■ Balkan Neolithic. ' sixth millennium

176

m o tif on central European Linear Danubian pots is so frequent that B u tler in his m onograp h o f 1938 assumed this creature to be ‘sacred’ (B utler 19 38 : 56). T h at the upraised arms and outstretched legs had a m agical significance is evident from pottery reliefs o f tw o figures associated vvith snakes on a Vinča vase from G o m o lava. Parted legs and pubic triangle, in shorthand resem bling the letter M , becam e the ideogram o f the G reat Goddess. T h e M sign occurs on vases, engraved or painted, and in com bination vvith the im age o f the goddess’ face on pithoi from Szentes in southeastern H u n gary. The face, incised on the neck o f the pithos, is flanked by snakes. T h e handle ends are m odelled as upraised hum an arms and a small M sign is incised on the underside o f each arm , belovv the hand. Vases bearing such representations in engravings or reliefs could have played a part in the cult o f the dead. T h e m ysterious p ow er o ver life processes vvhich the toad is thought to possess consistently recurs in the consciousness o f the European people long after the dissolution o f O ld Europe. Thus the toad appears painted on am phorae o f Palatial Crete. O f particular interest is the ‘L ady T o a d ’ from Maissau, a Bronze A g e urnfield in lovver Austria, vvhich dates from around 110 0 b c (G ulder 1962). This terracotta has a hum an face, fem ale breasts and an exposed vu lva on the underside o f the nearly naturalistically portrayed anim ai. Terracotta, bronze, am ber and iv o ry toads are knovvn from Etruscan, Greek and R o m a n sanctuaries and graves. A bronze sculpture o f a toad vvith an inscription vvas found as a vo tive offering at C orinth and a beautiful tiny figurine o f a toad carved out o fa m b e r vvas diseovered in a grave at Vetulonia at P o g g io alla G uardia in Italy. Its being carved in am ber, an im ported and expensive m aterial, proves the high esteem in vvhich the toad vvas held during the E arly Iron A ge. Ivories from the sixth-century b c sanctuary o f A rtem is O rthia at Sparta in the Peloponnese inelude toads and turtles as vo tive offerings. T h e turtle cult vvas no less ancient and significant than the toad ’s: a terracotta turtle vvas found in Vinča and another com es from D im ini at V olos in Thessaly (N ational M useum , Athcns 3 7 : 6019). A t G rivac, a Vinča site in central Y u g o slavia, a representation o f a turtle vvith a p ig ’s head čam e to light (K ragu jevac M useum , Inv. 4, 288). T oad s made o f w a x , iron, silver and vvood are to be found to this day as vo tive offerings to the V irgin M ary in ehurehes in Bavaria, A ustria, H u n gary, M oravia and Y u g o sla v ia ; cthnographers have recorded m ore than a hundred instances in Bavaria alone (Gulder 19 6 2 :2 6 ). Som e o f these ex-vo to s have human heads, others bcar the sign o f a vulva 011 the underside, vvhile m any have a cross on the back. E xam ples from the eastern A lps are o f astonishing antiquity. T h ey vvere intended as a proteetion against barrenness and to ensure safe pregnancy. T o a d ’s m eat vvas eaten until recently to in vok c labour

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i j o Schem atized 'Birthg iv in g Goddess’ engraved on a potsherd from Borsod, northeastern Hungary. \ Biikk cuiture. End o f sipali millennium 8 c

1 3 1 ' Birth-giving Goddess' in the shape o f a toad. Engravitig on the base o fa Linear Pot(ery dish from the settlement o f K o lesovia Bohemia. End o f sixth millennium b c

•iphora decorated u'itli : sym bol and toad, ace o j Phaistos, •i Crete. M iddle

iI

pains, toad’s blood was used as an aphrodisiac and d ry toads were hung up to protect the house against ali evil. Such beliefs suggest a benevolent goddess, but the toad as a nocturnal and m ysterious creature can cause madness, can take a w a y the m ilk and suck the blood from humans w hile they sleep. In Baltic and Slavic (i.e. IndoEuropean) m ythologies, she is the main incarnation o f the chthonic m agician goddess. In the Indo-Europcan m yth ologies she is basically an incarnation o f a goddess o f death, w h ile in the south, w h ere O ld European ( i.e . pre-Indo-European) m y th o lo g y was firm ly rooted, the m ost prcvalent beliefs conccrning the toad are those connected vvith birth, pregnancv or tlie w o m b (uterus). European peasants still speak about a travelling uterus in the w o m a n ’s body. Sim ilar beliefs are recorded in Greek and R o m a n times. H ippocrates, Plato and Aristotle com pared the uterus to an anim al vvhich m oves in the lo w er part o f a vvom an’s b o d y (Blind 19 0 2: 69; G u ld cr 19 62: 36). I f this anim al is not satisfied, it m ay rnove up and hinder breathing, and cause fright or other disorders.

E gyp tian s also knevv o f the travelling uterus (R ein h ard 1 9 1 7 : 340). W h o is this anim al m o vin g about in a w o m a n ’s b o d y ? Equipped w ith docum entation from present folk, m edieval, G reek, R o m a n and E gyp tian beliefs, G uld er (1962) in his treadse on the M aissau toad presented a very convincing interpretation: this m ysterious anim al, must, he concluded, be a toad. The foetus was a toad w hich craw led into the w o m b (the real cause o f conception w as not knovvn in prehistory). N eo lith ic or even U p p er Palaeolithic m an m ust have seen the hum an e m b ryo at the age o f one or tvvo m onths: it is about 3.5 cm. in length, has a big head, tvvo dark points fo r eyes, black holes fo r a nose, tw o depressions for ears, a long opening for the m outh and stumps for arms and legs. Such a creature can easily be taken fo r a toad ! A n d this is w h at apparently happened far back in time, p ro b ab ly m ore than ten thousand years ago, and the b e lie f has still not com pletely died out. T h e idea that a toad causes pregnancy m ay have originated before the N eolithic period since representations o f toads (or lizards) engraved on bone artifacts are knovvn fro m the M esolithic M aglem ose culture.

13 6 lvo ry toad (a) and turile (b ) from the G reek sanctuary o f Orthia at Sparta. Sixth ccntury b c

1 3 7 M odem votive toads and w a x turtle. i , M u n ic h , 2, upper A ustria, 3 , Austrian A lp s

1 1 4 The ‘ L ady T oad’ from M aissau, a B ronse A ge cemetery in loircr Atistria. c. 1000 i h ; t u Bronze votii'e toad /roni Corinth ( ? ) , Pvlopouucsc, s ix i 11 caitury n i:

i !.s Anilicr toad from [ cm loiiiii, uvstern tetura! Uiily. litniscan

17

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4 The hedgehog: the goddess in the shape o f an animal uterus or foetus A n o th er h ybrid is the ‘Lady H ed geh o g’. W e reproduce a lid in the shape o f a hedgehog vvhich bears the unm istakablc im print o f a goddess’ face (mask). T h e im portance o f the hedgeh og in m ythical im a g e ry is w cll at.tested and terracotta figurines o f hedgehogs are recorded in V inča, East Balkan and Cucuteni sites. A beautifully carved alabaster hedgeh og, dedicated to A rtem is B rauronia dating fro m around 600 b c is housed in the Brauron M useum in Attica. In European folk m edicine the hedgehog plays an exceptional ro le: a vvound rubbcd w ith hedgehog fat is believed to hea! instantly, and also to rejuvenate and beautify a person. Supcrstitions and proverbs point to the h cd g ch o g’s prom inent role in scxual life. A hedgeh og is 179

176

a nocturnal anim ai; it does not em erge during d ayligh t and when startled in its n ightly forages it rolls itself up in a bali, from w hich sharp spines stick out in every direetion. N o w o n d er it is endovved w ith m agical pow ers. A k ey to understanding w h y the G reat Goddess ehose the hedge­ hog as her double again lies in parallels o f e x -v o to im ages. In Southern T iro l, instead o f an im itation toad, a so-called Stachelkugel, a ‘spiky bali’ , w as brought to ehurehes or chapels and also placed in graves. Such balls made o f w o o d and painted red, are usualiy 8 -19 cm . across, round or oval in shape, and are called ‘uteri’ . A b o u t fifty years ago m any such Stachelkugeln w ere to be seen; n o w on ly old ones still rem ain (Gulder 19 6 2 : 25). T h e prototype possibly derives fro m the uterus o f a co w , vvhich after parturition rem ains sw ollen and covered vvith warts (know n in G erm an as ‘ Igeln’ , ‘hedgeh ogs’). Indeed in som e areas o f Southern T iro l the c o w ’s uterus is called ‘Ig elk alb ’ , ‘h ed geh og’s c a lf’ (i d 30). T h e association o f a c o w ’ s uterus w ith the hedgehog is certainly not recent and m ay date from the period o f the beginning o f anim ai dom estication. T h e arehaeological evidence shows the G reat G oddess’ epiphany in the form o f a hedgeh og to be not later than the fifth m illennium b c . V o tive offerings in the shape o f a uterus - fiat and oval đ a y objeets w ith a ridged surface - occur am ong the Etruscan and R o m a n antiquities.

17 6 T erraco tta h e d g e h o g fro m C is c io a re le , S o u th e rn R o m a n ia . East B alkan civilization (G u m eln i[a-K aran o v o V I). M id -fifth m illenn ium bc

■77 P o tte ry lid in the fo rm o f a h e d g e h o g w ith g o d d ess' facc. V id ra , Southern R o m a n ia . East B alkan civilization . (G u m c ln ip -K a r a n o v o V I). M id-Fifth m illenn ium b c (see Fig. 138 )

3 The bee and the butterfly: the bull-born Goddess o f Transformatiort and Regeneration B efo re w e discuss the epiphany o f the G reat Goddess in the shape o f a bee or a butterfly w e must m ention the ancient b elief that bees are begotten o f bulls. O ne o f the earliest writers to m ention the bullborn bee is A ntigonos o f K arystos, about 250 BC, w h o says: In Egypt if you bury the ox in certain places, so that only his horns project above the ground and then saw them off, they say that bees fiy out; for the ox putrefies and is resolved into bees. (Antigonos, Hist. mir. 19 ; quoted by Cook Zeus I, 514 ; Ransome 1937: 114). T h e m ost appropriate tim e fo r this m ethod o f reproducing bees vvas said to be w hen the sun entered the sign o f the buli (Taurus). N e a rly three centuries later O vid speaks o f Aristaeus, the ‘H on ey L o rd ’ w h o vvas w eep in g because ali his bees had died, leaving the honeycom bs unfm ished. O n the advice o f his m other he captured Proteus, the m agician, w h o told Aristaeus ‘that he must bury the carcase o f a slaughtered o x, and that from it he w o uld obtain w hat he wanted, fo r w hen the carcase decayed, sw arm s o f bees vvould issue from it. T h e dcath o f one produccd a thousand lives’ . (O vid , Fasti I, 39 3; quoted b y R an som e 19 3 7 : 112 ) . In his fourth Georgic, V crg il (7 0 -19

181

13 8 Profile o f terracotta hedgehog from Cascioarele, Southern Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. See P l. i 77

b c) likew ise recounts this m ethod o f obtaining the o x -b o rn bees. A further explanation o f vital im portance is given b y P o rp h y ry (a d 233 to c. 304), w h o w rites:

h iyx gem from >5 portraying the Bee ssflankeđ\by u/inged iu ll’s horns and * a x e} (biitterfiy) the goddess’ head. o bc jf

arly M inoan threeead seal o f yellow portraying the ' i ti the shape o f a bee. ’ier two fdf.es shou> a id the foreparts o f tu/o spectivelf. Kašteli a, southept o f

140

17 9

The ancients gave the name o f Melissae (‘bees’) to the priestesses o f Demeter who were initiates ofthe chthonian goddess; the name Melitodes to Kore herself: the moon (Artemis) too, whose province it was to bring to the birth, they called Melissa, because the moon being a buli and its ascension the buli, bees are begotten ofbulls. And souls that to the earth are bull-begotten. [M y italics] (Porphyry, De ant. nym. : 18; quoted by Ransome 1937: 107). From this age w e learn that A rtem is is a bee, M elissa, and that both she and the buli belong to the m oon. Hence both are connected vvith the idea o f a periodic regeneration. W e also learn that souls are bees and that M elissa dravvs souls dovvn to be born. T h e idea o f a ‘life in death’ in this sin gu larly interesting concept is expressed b y the belief that the life o f the buli ed into that o f the bees. H ere w e have the v e ry essence o f the m eaning o f sacrifice vvhich is also applicable to N eo lith ic and C h alcolithic Europe as vvell as to the M inoan civilization. The im age o f the Great Goddess in the shape o f a bee appears on the head o f a buli carved out o f bone from the Late Cucuteni site o f B ilcze Z lo te in the vvestern U kraine. H er upraised and bifurcated arms are defm itely those o f a bee. H er head is a dot and the conical lovver b o d y (vvithout indication o f legs) is clearly an im itation o f a bee’s b o d y. Sim ilar representations, though less schem atized, are knovvn fro m M in oan, M ycenaean, G eom etric and A rch aic Greek art. M an y go ld rings o f M inoan vvorkmanship from C rete and Greece p ortray the bee-headed goddess or the same goddess h old in g bu ll’s horns above her head. A steatite bead-seal from Kašteli Pedeada, southeast o f Knossos, shovvs the goddess vvith legs parted and a long conical projection vvhich o b vio u sly is the lovver part o f the b o d y o f a bee. H er arm s are upraised and the head is hum an. T h e other side o f this seal portrays a bu ll’s head. Greek jevvelry o f the seventh to fifth centuries b c fro m R h o d e s and Thera includes gold plaques o f the ‘ B ee-G o d d ess’ . She has a pair o f ‘hands’ in addition to her vvings, and there is a rosette on either side o f her ridged abdom en. T h e fam ous painted B oeotian am phora dating from c. 700 b c portrays the ‘ Lady o f the W ild T h in g s’ , or the ‘ Mistress o f A n im als’ , as she is usually called, flanked by tvvo lions, a (decapitated) bu ll’s head, a bottleshapcd object (a uterus?), birds and svvastikas. It is significant that she has the arm s o f an insect. Z ig z a g g in g hair and a serrated line around the lovver part o f the body suggest the hairy b o d y o f a bee. In this casc the titles ‘ M istress o f A n im als’ or the ‘L ady o f the W ild T h in g s’ are

182

m isleading. She is here the ‘Goddess o f Periodic R e g e n eratio n ’ . She is shovvn vvith a fish inside her, a sym b ol o f fecundity related to vvater. T h e loose bull’s head is that o f a sacrificed buli. T h e buli is dead and the nevv life begins. T h e svvastikas (vvheels, concentric circles, rosettes) turn, the snakes era w l, the beasts hovvl (by the m iddle o f the third m illennium b c lions had replaced the m ore ancient dogs). T h e epiph an y o f the goddess is inseparable from the noise o f hovvling and clashing, and the vvhirling dances. Kuretes, the male devotees o f the goddess, dance vigo ro u sly, ‘rattling their arm s’ as C allim achus, the G reek poet o f c. 260 b c , says in his Hymn to Jo v e : 32. V erg il, describing the noise made to attract svvarm ing bees, says ‘they clash the cym bals o f the G reat-M o th er’ (V e rg il’s fourth Georgic: 63). A t Ephesus, A rtem is vvas associated vvith the bee as her cult anim al. In fact, the vvhole organization o f the sanctuary in classical tim es seems to have rested on the sym b olic analogy o f a beehive, vvith svvarms o f priestesses called bees, melissai, and num erous eunuch priests called ‘drones’ , essertes (Barnett 19 56 : 218). W h y vvas the bee ehosen for the sym bol o f regeneration? W e m ay ask the same question vvhere the Egyptian beetle or scarab is conccrn ed; it too sym bolizes the m oon and eternal renevval. The reason p robably is because both have antennae like buli horns and vvings in the form o f a lunar crescent. T h e periodic svvarm ing and buzzing o f bees, vvhen a nevv generation is born, and the Creative activity associated vvith the produetion o f honey must h ave greatly im pressed our forefathers vvho regarded it as the food o f the gods. This is suggestcd by the fam ous gold pendant from a tom b at M allia in C rete dating from the early sccond m illcnnium b c , a superb piccc o f M inoan goldvvork, in vvhich tvvo bees hold a h on eycom b in the shape o f a disc. T h ree other discs are suspended 011 the vvings and at the point vvhere the bodies o f the tvvo b ees (M atz 19 6 2 : 126). Knovvn portrayals o f bees from antiquity are m ade o f metal, usually g o ld , or take the form o f engravings, reliefs and paintings. H itherto. probable representations o f bees painted o r indicatcd in re lie f on vases from the N eolithic and C h alcolithic periods o f O ld Europe have been either com pIet®!y overlopkcd or confused vvith the

F rieze (partiy strueted) o f Bee Goddess inted on Proto-Sesklo Dtzaki, Thessaly. o - 6200 BC

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Schematized Bee >s< on a potsherd from iv ic e , Linear Pottery n Czechoslovakia

3.ee Goddess, a 'ry relief from Trufefti. sical Cucuteni. Second ffifth millennium BC

jCfiii dressed iti bee < h old ju g s over horns u’hich a plant groivs. naean geni

portrayals o f schematized toads or ‘dancing figu res’. T h e im age o f the goddess in the shape o f a bee or som e other kind o f insect has a v e rv lo n g h is to ry : earlicst representations occur in the N eolithic P roto-Sesklo and Starčevo com plexes. A creature vvith w in g-lik e arm s and a protruding cone betvveen the parted legs painted in cherry red on a w h ite background on a ja r from O tzaki, a P ro to -Sesk lo site in Thessaly, m ay be one o f the earliest representations o f a ‘Lady B e e ’ . Schem atic figures vvith upraised arms and bifurcated heads have long been k n ow n in the Starčevo com plex o f H u n gary. W hat m ay be a headless bee appears in re lie f on a large vessel fro m the same site o f Kopancs. Headless bees portrayed on rosettes are knovvn from the A rtem isium o f Ephesus (m ore than 5000 years later) w here they vvere p robably used as eharms. In R o m a n times, headless bees to­ gether w ith headless toads also occur on rosettes used as talismans to avert the evil eye (R an som e 19 3 7 : 110 ). A figure o f a goddess in the shape o f a bee (?) is painted in red on a Tisza dish from Ilonapart at Szentes. H er bee-like attributes are a bifurcated insect-type head, legs and a sting (‘a tail’). Schem atized figures o f bees, h aving the characteristic ridged b o d y, are quite frequent on Linear pottery. A n alogo u s representations often appear in relief on C ucuteni vases. O n a M ycenaean gem o f M inoan vvorkm anship tvvo lion-headed genii clad in bee skins hold ju g s o ver horns from w hich a new life springs in the shape o fa plant. W hat do these ju g s c o n ta in ? -p ro b a b ly ‘foo d o f the gods’ produced by the bee. T h at mead vvas used as a libation is w cll knovvn from Classical G reek w riters. Sacrificial honcy vvas am ong the ‘sober o fferin gs’, the nephalia, but it was also knovvn as an intoxicant. H oney w as alw ays considered to be a food that conduces to a long and healthy life. Pythagoras, vvhosc life spanned the grcater part o f the sixth century b c attributed his lo n gevity to a constant use o f h oney in his dict. H on ey was a healing substance. Glaucus, the son o f M inos and Pasiphae, vvas restored to life when buried in a h oncy ja r. T h e apiculture o f the M inoans is docum cntcd b y hieroglyphs, representations o factu al beehives, engraved im ages, and m yths. The Greeks, w h o like the rest o f the Indo-Europeans k n ew on ly o f w ild honey, inherited bee-keing from the M inoans. T h e y borrovved i«4

even the m ost im portant nam es: sphex (‘bee’), simblos (‘h iv e ’) and propolis (‘kerinthos’) (R ansom e 19 3 7 : 64). T h e y also inherited the m ythical im age o f the G reat Goddess as a bee, the Goddess o f R egen eratio n , the im age o f her virgin priestesses or nym phs as bees, and m an y other m yths and beliefs connected w ith the bee and honey. T h e Cretans on the other hand, must have held bees in high esteem from the beginning o f the N eolithic era. T h e fact that w e have been considering the bee rather than the butterfly does not im p ly that in ancient m y th o lo g y the bee vvas the m ore im portant o fth e t w o ; both vvere equally ancient and essential in the sym b olism associated w ith the goddess. The difficulty is that in schem atic prehistoric reliefs or paintings o f the goddess vve can recognize little m ore than an insect head or insect hands. W hether she is ‘L a d y B e e ’ or ‘L ad y B u tterfly’ cannot be determ ined. In most N eolithic reliefs, such as that from K otaart, the im age o f the goddess can be interpreted as representing either a bee or a butterfly. The scene on the gold ring from the grave o f Isopata near Knossos, dating from c. 1500 b c , ineludes four fem ale figures in festival attire, perhaps p o rtrayin g the goddess and her devotees, usually assumcd to be melissae, or bees. T h eir heads and hands are certainly those o f an insect, but vve cannot be sure o f vvhat kind.

G o ld cHrysalis jrorn a ber tomb at M ycenae.

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Scal inipression from '0, eastern Crete, aying gbddess ivith the s o f an iy e d butter(1y. ilc M inoan III

1 50

151

T h e m otifs o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and ‘d ou ble-axes’ are vvell knovvn to the student o f M inoan-M ycenaean art. It vvas indeed Sir A rth u r Evans vvho published a series o f chrysalises, buttcrflics, and goddesses related to chrysalises or vvith butterfly vvings (Evans 1925). H e interpreted the chrysalis as an em blem o f a nevv life after death. C o m m o n vvhite and other species vvith eyed, indented vvings occur repeatedly in M in o an and M ycenaean art. In a cham ber tom b at M ycen ae a detailed exam ple in the form o f a gold chrysalis bead vvas found b y A . J . B . W ace. It has eyes, and the vving cases and articulation o f the abdom en are indicated. In Sh aft-grave III at M ycenae, Schliem ann diseovered go ld pendants in the shape o f chrysalises associated vvith golden butterflies, as w ell as butterflies em bossed on the plates o f vvhat had been scales (Evans 19 2 5 : 56, Fig. 48a and b : 59, Fig. 52). T h e M ycen aean butterflies are an inheritance fro m M inoan C rete, vvhere they are knovvn from the M iddle M inoan III and later periods. A seal from Z a k ro in eastern C rete reveals the goddess vvith a hum an head, large vvings o f an ‘eyed ’ butterfly, and anim al or bird legs. T h e epiphany o f the goddess in the shape o f a butterfly in M in o an-M ycenaean religion cannot be doubted. W e m ay ask novv hovv far back she can be traced. A n upper torso o f a fem ale figurine vvith schem atized butterflies incised beneath the breasts vvas found at o di C o rv o , a neolithic settlem ent o f the sixth m illennium b c north o f F o ggia, southeast Italy (T in e 19 7 2 : 330). T h e figurine probably belongs to the late ‘ Im presso’ period, M asceria de la Q uercia com plcx. A n oth er em blem o f regeneration o r b irth -g ivin g resembles the letter M . It vvas inciscd ran d o m ly on the back and front o f the torso. T h e phallic top o f the figu rin e’ s head vvas encirclcd b y a spiral, p robably a snake. T h e uplifted face o f the figurine vvas masked and impressed dots around the neck suggcst a bead necklace. T h e accum ulation o f sym bols allovvs one to regard this figurine as a G reat Goddess in her funetion as the Goddess o f R egen eratio n . T h e shape o f a butterfly em erges 011 C^atal H iiyu k frescoes (M ellaart 19 6 7: Pl. 40) and is incised on European N eo lith ic pots. T h e butterflies 011 D anubian Linear Pottcry jars even have dots on them, possibly to represent the ‘com m a’-typ e butterfly. These schem atic buttcrflics are the prototypes o f the M inoan ‘doub le-axes’ vvhich vve find p ortraycd betvveen the horns o f a buli. T h e em blem o f the G reat Goddess in its origin has nothing to do vvith the a x e ; it antedates the appearance o f metal axes by several thousand years. In the second m illcnnium bc ; , because o f their incrcasing im portance axes vvere m ade in im itation o fa butterfly (therefore double-bladed). W hen fm ally the buttcrfly becam e a double-axe, the im age o f the goddess as a buttcrfly continued to be engraved on doublc-axcs. 186

149 M inoan goddess holding butterflies (double axes)

1 5 1 Bucrania and ritual liorns surmounted by a ‘double a xe’ (butterfly). Painting on a M ycenaen k ra ter from Salam is, C yp ru s

15 0 Engravings o f butterjiie. on N eolithic vases from the Linear Pottery culture in C zechoslovakia. Fifth millennium BC

1 5 2 Painted representation o f goddess with ivings in the shape o f a double a xe on a M iddle M inoan I t I vase from Knossos

M o reo ve r, on painted M inoan vases there is frequently an anth ropo­ m orph ic im age o f the goddess having vvings in the shape o f a doubleaxe, an eeho o f the goddess’ epiphany in the shape o fa buttcrfly. T h e T o m b o f the D o u b le-A x cs at Knossos vvas, in fact, a shrine o f the goddess (Evans 19 2 5 : 6 1). T h e proccss o f transform ation from a butterfly to a d ou b lc-axe m ust have been influenccd by the sim ilarity o f shape betvveen the tvvo or b y the influence o f the n carby IndoEuropeans (M ycenaeans), to vvhom the axc o f the T h u n d er-g od vvas sacred since it vvas inbued vvith his potency. W hcrcas the IndoEuropean axc vvas the vveapon o f a male god, the M inoan d oublcaxe vvas n ever shovvn in such a context. It appears as an em blem held by the goddess in each hand in frescoes and on sehist plaques. C aterpillars appear on Cucuteni vases, both in a proccssion o f the goddess’ animals (see Fig. 12 1) and in association vvith her dogs (see Pl. 164). Short zigzaggin g creatures vvith round heads at both ends above the belt o fsp ira llin g snakes probably vvere meant to represent

187

0 1 5 .i Painted representation o f goddess u'ith u>ings in sliapc o fa double axe (resanbting a btntcrfly) on a flora! stem. Late M inoan /, island of M oclilos, C.ri’tc

|Gold p laau c o f B e c G oddess i C am iro s, R h o d c s . Seventh |ury bc "Bee G od d ess. R e l i e f on a Jie r d ; K o p an cs, southeastern &gairy. C en tra l B alkan Jithic. S ix th m illen n iu m bc IRem'ains o f a b o w l sh o w in g poddess painted in red on te b a ck gro u n d . Szentes, eastern H u n g a ry . A lfo ld jithic

fU te C u c u tcn i vase fro m |i» northcastern R o m a n ia . T h e rpillar in the band arou n d the S is significant

i - s B u l l - l i o n k - d ” o d d o ' ni tlu- \l i . i | v ni .1 l n v r e m U - t a l o n ■> gtvl i/e d | , „ | | \ Ih -.u I ol b o n e . H i l i v c /.l oli-, n o r t l i u e v l e n i U k r. i i m -. I .ite ( tmiH'iH.

P o u n li m ilK'iitm nn m

caterpillars. Cresccnts vvith dots around them, in association w ith b u ll’s horns vvithin the sections o f crossed lines, such as w e have seen painted on a Cucutcni dish (see Pl. 49), could also be caterpillars. T he m oon crescent, the Caterpillar and bu ll’s horns are closely connected. Since caterpillars and butterflies appeared in O ld European sym b olism , it is reasonable to assume that there w ere chrysalises too. T h e chrysalis, i f inarticulately presented, can be easily overlooked . S o m e horizontally ridged grcenstone pendants from E arly N eolithic settlem cnts (such as vvere unearthed in the earliest site o f Anza, M acedon ia, dating from the end o f the seventh m illennium b c ), as vvell as certain form s o f shells used as beads, could be interpreted as representing chrysalises. T h e shape o f a chrysalis does not necessarily have to appear in lifelike representations. T he figurines o f the chthonic goddess o f the C h alcolithic period seem to have the chrysalis as an u n d erlyin g idea. These figurines are usually schem atic and groups o f horizontal lines are inciscd on the narro w in g lovver b o d y (cf. Fig. 103). T h e narrovv skirts o f the V inča ladics, vvhich usually end in horizontal lines or bands (sce Fig. 8), m ay likew ise bc related to the idea o ft h e chrysalis. A 11 odd painting 011 one o f the shrines o f Qatal H u y iik o f the seventh m illennium b c seems to represent a h oneycom b with chrysalises, bees or butterflies (M ellaart 1964: 129). E ven to the scientific observer today, the transform ation o f an u g ly Caterpillar into a beautiful vvinged creature seems like a miraele. B u t even m ore astonishing is the fact that m an, equipped vvith only the patience to observe, recognized ali the stages o f the dram a and ineorporated it in his sym bolism at least seven or eight thousand years ago.

188

1X3

184, 1X5

6 The bear: the goddess as mother and nurse A strange anim al-headed figurine vvith tvvo turban-shaped ears, fem ale breasts, and its single unbroken arm resting across the abdo­ men vvas found at the Starčevo settlement o f Porodin. In V inča sites a num ber o f bear-headed figurines vvere found, representing either iphanies o f the goddess in anim al form or her vvorshippers. Som e are seated on a throne and decorated vvith crescents. T h e fam ous sculpture knovvn as the 'L a d y o f V in ča’ , broken from a throne or scat vvhich vvas not recovcrcd, is p robably a refmcd portrayal o f the goddess vvearing an anim al mask. Painted in alternating black and red bands and vvearing a pentagonal stylizcd mask vvith huge black eyes, she has her right arm held diago n ally across the front o f her b o d y, the hand touching her left breast. H er shoulders are broad and 011 the upper arm are four incisions vvhich m ay sym b olically asscrt her status. A V inča figurine, representing the bear m other or nurse, from Fafos in Southern Y u go s!av ia shovvs a seated vvoman holding a cub, iyo

18 3 G od d ess vvith an im al (bear?) m ask seated on a th ro n e fro m the V in ča site. c. m id -fifth m illcn n iu m BC

184, 185 T h e ‘ L a d y o f V in č a ’. T erracotta o f a m asked goddess o rigin a lly seated 011 a throne. Late V in ča, 4500 - 4000 bc

1 86, 1 8 7 B ear cub (?) fro m P av lo va c , Sout her n Y u g o sla v ia . V in ča, c. ° ° ~ ° o ° K<;

45

4

188 A n th ro p o m o rp h ic fig u rin e w ith an im ai (bcar?) head fro m P o ro d in , So u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia . C en tral B alkan N eo lith ic. eariv sixth m illenn iu m bc:

i8 y , iy o T e rra c o tta o f a m o th er and ehild fro m the E a rly V in ča site at R a s t« , w estern R o m a n ia . c. 5000 ne o r earlier i y i , i y2 V in ča fig u rin e p o rtra y in g bear-m asked w o m an w ith a pouch 011 her ba ck . Site ot Ć u p rija I at S u p ska, ccntral Y u g o sla v ia

■A *'1 \ •

19 3 G od d ess, h o ld in g a b a b y , bo th w e a rin g bear m asks, fro m Fafos II at K o so v sk a M itr o v ic a , Y u g o s la v ia . V in ča cu ltu re

195: V ase frag m en t w ith represen tation o f an im al-m asked ‘ M a d o n n a ’ in relief, fro m Z c n g o v a r k o n y , a L c n g y e l settlem ent in sou th w estern H u n g a r y . Fifth m illen n iu m BC

her face concealed b y a bear m ask. T h e m aternalf đevotion o f the fem ale bear m ade such an im pression upon O ld European peasants that she w as adopted as a sym b ol o f m otherhood. B ear cubs vvith large heads w ere also m odelled. T h e V inča sculpture fro m G radac in central Y u g o sla v ia o f a m other holding a ehild vvith the head o f a bear cub is unfortunately headless but she p robably w o re an animal m ask. Sim ilar figurines w ere found at Fafos, D renovac and other Sesklo and V inča sites. T h e anim al-headed ‘L en gyel M ad o n n a’ from the settlem ent o f Z e n g o v ž rk o n y in southwestcrn H u n gary cuddles a shapeless infant in her arm s. Sculptures in vvhich the m other holds a large ehild inciude the figurine from the early Vinča site o f R a stu in southw estern R o m a n ia , w h ich is rem arkable for its perfeet p rop ortions. U nfortu nately, both m other and ehild are headless and the right arm and legs o f the m other are broken pff. T h e preserved hand o f the m issing arm touches the left. breast at vvhich the. ehild vvas suckling. T h e back o f the figurine is covered b y incisions, including V ’s, meanders and crescents., A nalogies vvith other Vinča sites that h ave yielded calibrated radiocarbon dates place the K a stu sculpture in the early fifth m illennium b c . S o m e east and central B alk an clay figurines o f the fifth m illen­ nium b c are dubbed ‘hunchbacks’ because o f their schem atically rendered hum ps. T h eir heads are either masked or am orphous. The m ystery o f the hum ps is explained b y an articulated bear-m asked V inča figurine carrying a bag suspended on a thick rope o v er the neck. A pp aren tly she is a bear nurse. H undreds o f such schem atized bear-nurse figurines im p ly the role o f the goddess as a proteetress o f vveaklings or o f a divine ehild. T h e y are especially num erous in the K a ran o vo com plex o f central B ulgaria.

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T h e im age o f the Great Goddess o f Life, Death and R egen eratio n in anth ropom orph ic form vvith a projeetion o f her povvers through insects and animals - bee, butterfly, deer, bear, hare, toad, turtle, h ed geh og and d og - was the outvvard sym bol o f a com m un ity conccrncd vvith the problem s o f the life and death cyclc. Even i f the goddess’ corpuicncc and association with w ild animals im plics an U p per Palcolithic origin, her im age during the period o f early agriculturc must have been transform ed. T h e dom csticatcd d o g , buli and he-goat n o w bccam c her com panions, and she ruled both w ild and cultivatcd life. Because her main funetion vvas to regenerate the life forccs, the goddess vvas flanked b y male animals noted fo r their physical strength. T h e animals are E u ro p ean ; ncithcr leopards nor lions flank her as thcy do m Anatolia and M esopotam ia. 195

18 6 , 18 7

194

195

18 9 , 19 0

1,89

1 9 1 , 19 2

H er aeeensussed pubie triangle m ay have been iinked w tth the concept o f the ‘G reat M other'« w o m b ’ (to adeps the term «šeđ by D ičterich , N eu m an n and Eliadc) or the ‘ lap o f the subsereanean queen’ , but she was not cntirely feminine- She wns androgynou s in the N eo lith ic period, h avin g a phallus-shaped n e c k ; divine biscxuaiity stresses her absolute povver. T h e d ivorce from the m ale attributcs occurred at som e tim e during the course o f the sixth m illennium b c . In her chthonic and frigh tcn ing aspect she m ust have been a M oth er T errib le perhaps yearning for hum an and anim ai blood, as indicated by her epiphanv in the shape o f a ferocious dog. T h e re was no isslated im age o f a M oth er T e rrib le ; the aspects o f deash and lift m in «e»»cably in t e m m e d . She m * deployed in graves m stimulase. and perpeeuase she preereasiv«? p © w « s o f the đeeeaseđ, T h e d ? e « S s d d m iike she Sum srisit N jnkh u r* « g . § m life m ihe B s a d (aneshe? m m e fe r Ninfchursag w s* m n iim ffl« . 'Sh e » h e g i v « life se the H er m agleal hatiđi m i ffiusie w e re fe r she feiease o fth e life fercei. T h e iy m b » l* e f ‘b eeem in g ’ - e g g * . cresean«. h ®n w . and crosscs veishin eirele* and concem ric g 'm lm - m m engraved ©r painted o v er her b o d y or on v o tive vases. B ečh an eg g split into tw e halve« and tw ins w erc concs* emphasiaed throu gh out her rnany representations. A round 4 0 0 0 b C a layered and split eg g becam c the cm b lem o f the goddess and continued in evidence th rou gh out the M inoan and M ycenaean period. T h e constant portrayal o f tw in crescents, or tvvo does w ith opposed bodies refleets the m agical potency o f a splitting pair. I11 her incarnation as a pregnant doe, a chrysalis, Caterpillar, butterfly, bec, toad, turtle, or hedgehog, she was a sym b ol o f em b ryonic life and regeneration. In this fundam enta! notion lies her associa­ tion vvith the m oon and the horns. As a bee or a butterfly she cm erges from the b o d y or horns o f the b u li; as a bear she takes care o f ali yo u n g life. As a suprem e C rea to r vvho creates from her ow n substance she is the p rim ary goddess o f the O ld European pantheon- In this she consrasts w ith the Indo-European Earth-M other, vvho is the im * paipable saered earth-spirit and is not in herself a ereative prineipie; a n ly through the inseraesion o f the m ale sky~god does she beeom e pregnant, H pKA ffi ANO Ai»TBMW! SUliVIVAL OJ* THI © M i lUHliPRAN SUBAT G o r je f i s s in A n c i e n t G r e e c e a n d w n s f f i B N A n a t o l i a

T h e question n o w arises as to w hat happened to the prehistoric goddess after the third m illennium b c . D id she disappcar after the advent o f the patriarchal Indo-European vvorld or did she survive the dram atic ehange?

196

In M inoan (nsn Indo^luropean) C rete the G reat Goddess is aeen in representations on freseoes, ring* and seals. She is shovvn in associa­ tion vvith bulls, s r bull-horns, *doublc-axes’ (butterflies), he-goats or lions. O n a stam p from Knossos she appears as a lady o f nature untamed on top o f a m ountain flanked by tvvo lions and a m ale hum an vvorshipper. O n a gold ring from Isopata near Knossos the bu tterfly- o r bee-headed goddess is, as vve have seen, surrounded by vvorshippers in festive garm ents vvearing insect masks (see Fig. 146). She is represented on frescoes accom panied b y vvOrshippers, vvo'men or men in festive garm ents vvith upraised arms. G igan tic dogs portraved 011 sceatite vases or 011 cylinder seals (M atz 19 6 2 ; 1 3 0 ) are probably the com panions o f the same goddess. She or her animals, part:icularly the bulls, do mina te ritualistie sccnes th roughout the period o f M inoan In G reece, as in India. the G reat Goddess survived she superim« poseđ in đ o slu re p a a n cu Isu m ! h oriio n . As the prcdeeessor o f A n atolian and G reek H ekatc-A rtcm is (related to Kubaba, K vb cb e/ G ybele) she lived through the Bronze A ge, then through Classical Greece and even into laser hissory in spite o f tram form asions o f her outer form and the m any difterent names that vvere applied. to her. T h e im age o f H ekate-A rtem is o f Caria, Lvdia and Greece, based on descriptions o f early G reek authors, vase paintings, and finds in actual sanctuaries dcdicatcd to this m ultifunetional goddess, supplem ent and ve rify our understanding o f the appearance and funetions o f the prehistoric goddess. W rittcn sources pour blood into her veins o f stone, clay, bone or gold. In nam e and character she is a non-G reek, a non-Indo-European goddess. T h e nam e o f A rtem is is knovvn from G reek, Lyd ian and Etruscan inscriptions and texts. Its antiquity is dem onstrated b y the appearance o f the vvords A-ti-rni-te and A -li-m i-to, the dative and genetive case o f her nam e, on Lincar B tablets from Pylos (Bennett 19 5 5 : 208-9). Hckatc (Hekabe) vvas Asiatic, not knovvn to the Greeks in nam e. She vvas Enodia in Thcssaly, perhaps an earlier nam e later replaeed by H ckatc. W hether Artem is and H ekatc appear as tvvo goddesses or as one, they both belong te the m oon cyele. Hekate, gruesom e and Iinked vvith deafh; Artem is, youthful and beautiful, refleeting the purity o f untouched nature and Iinked vvith m otherhood. In C aria (vvestern T u rk ey) Hekate was the prim ary goddess. M ysti*fies and gam es w ere perform ed in her sanesirary at Lagina. In C o lo p h o n , dogs vvere sacrificed to her and she h erself could turn into a dog. W est o f Lagina vvas Zerynthos, from vvhich H ckatc derived her nam e o f Zcryn th ia. In Sam othrace, there vvas a cave callcd Z cryn th o s associated vvith H ekate. D ogs vvere sacrificed there and m ysteries and orgiastic dances w erc perform ed. Hekate and her dogs

fsdaee

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are described as jo u rn e y in g o ver the graves o f the dead and above the sacrificed blood . In the days o f Aristophanes and A isch ylos she is the mistress o f the n ight road vvho leads travellers astray, o f cross w ays, o f fate, and o f the w o rld o f the dead, being knovvn b y both names, H ekate and A rtem is. As Q ueen o f the Ghosts, H ekate sweeps through the night follovved b y her b ayin g hounds; as Enodia she is the guardian o f crossroads and gates. H er sanctuaries stood at the gate to a h ill-fo rt or at the entrance to a house. Pregnant w o m en sacrificed to Enodia to ensure the goddess’ help at birth (W ilam o w itzM oellen do rf, I, 19 5 9 : 6 9 -17 4 ). T h ere is no m ention in A ischylos o f H ek ate-A rtem is assisting at birth. C la y figurines o fth e goddess in a seated position w ere sacrificed to her (id .: 17 1 ) . A terracotta m edallion found in the A thenian A go ra portrays a triple-bodied H ekate-A rtem is w ith stag and dog flanking her. She holds a torch, w h ip and b o w -a n d -a rro w (T hom pson 1960: 367). Sophocles in A n tigo n e m entions Enodia as Persephone, the ruler o f the dead. T h e torch o f the goddess p ro b a b ly relates to the fertilizing p o w e r o f the m oon since H ekate’s torches w ere carried around the freshly sow n fields to p rom ote their fertility. Statues o f R o m a n D iana sh ow her cro w n ed w ith the crescent and carryin g a raised torch. H ekate is responsible fo r lun acy and, on the positive side, is G iv e r o f V ision. T h e L a d y o f free and untam ed nature and the M oth er, protectress o f vveaklings, a d ivin ity in w h o m the contrasting principles o f v irg in ity and m otherh ood are fused into the concept o f a single goddess, w as venerated in G reece, L yd ia, C rete and Italy. She appears as A rtem is and under m an y local nam es: D iktynn a, Pasiphae, Europa (‘the w id e -g lan cin g on e’), B ritom artis (‘ the sw eet v irg in ’) in C rete, Laphria in A eto lia, K allisto (‘ the beautiful’) in A rk adia, or A g ro tera (‘ the w ild ’), and D iana in R o m e . She, ‘ the pure and strong one’ , w as surrounded b y nym phs, flanked b y anim als, and as huntress dom inated the anim al w o rld . G am es vvith bulls w erc am o n g the rituals o f this goddess. She vvas present e veryw h ere in nature, above ali in hills, forests, meadovvs, and fertile vallcys, and often w as th erioform , app earing as a bear or doe. T h e A rkadian K allisto, her com panion and dou b le, was said to have assumed the form o f a bear. T h e stag is her standing attribute in plastic art; she is called ‘staghuntress’ in the H o m eric H ym ns. H er com panion T a y g e te was transform ed into a doe and in the legend o f the A lodac she hcrself assumes that fo rm . Pausanias’ records (8.37.4) that in the tem ple o f D espoina in A rcad ia her statue vvas clothed w ith deer pelt. N ear C o lo p h o n lay a sm all island sacred to A rtem is to w hich it vvas b e -' lieved pregnant does sw am in order to bear their y o u n g (Strabo 14.6 43, cited b y O tto 19 6 5 : 84). W ell-bred Athenian girls o f m arriageablc age danced as bears in h onour o f A rtem is o f B rauronia, and during rites o f cult-initiation girls ‘ becam e’ bears, arktoi (B ach o198

fen 1863 :2 4 ). In paintings on vases, the vvorshippers o f A rtem is w o re anim als m asks vvhile dancing. T h e girls and w o m en o f Lakedem onia p erform ed orgiastic dances to g lo rify A rtem is. Fat men, padded and m asked as com ic actors, participated in fertility dances fo r A rtem is (Jucker 1963). W e can recognize their ancestors in the m asked and padded m en o f the Vinča culture o f c. 5000 b c (see Pls. 24, 25). O fferings to A rtem is inciude phalii and ali species o f anim als and fruits, fo r she w as proteetor o f ali life, bestow ing fertility on humans, animals and fields, and the sacrifice o f any liv in g thing vvas app ropriate to her. A cco rd in g to the legend adapted b y Sophocles, the m ost beautiful girl o f the year, Iphigeneia, had to be sacrificed to the goddess. T h e possibility o f hum an sacrifice is suggested b y the fact that A rtem is herself is called Iphigeneia in Hermione and Ageira and that hum an sacrifice vvas perform ed fo r Laphria w h o vvas also A rtem is (W ilam ow itz-M o ellen d orf, ibid.: i8 if.) . M utilated beasts, from vvhich ‘a m em ber vvas cut o f f ’, vvere sacrificed to A rtem is in B oeotia, Euboea and Attica. In Asia M inor, in the great spring festival o f C y b e le , the shorn genitals o f her priests vvere consecrated to her (Persson 19 4 2 : 106). H e-goat and stag vvere particularly appreciated sacrificial anim als, and also the hare, a m oon anim al. In nearly ali shrines dedicated to A rtem is spindle-vvhorls, loo m vveights, shuttles and kallatoi have been found and from inscriptions in sanctuaries it is knovvn that vvoollen and linen clothes and threads vvound on spools vvere offered as gifts to her (R o u se 19 0 2: 274, 296). O n C orinthian vases, A rtem is and her priestesses are seen holding a spindle (Jucker 1963 : Pl. 20 .j) . She appeared at births as the b irth -givin g goddess, A rtem is Eileithyia (‘ C h ild -b earing’). Figurines in a seated position vvere sacrificed to her. D iana also presided o ver childbirth and vvas called ‘O pener o f the W o m b ’ . A s the B ear-M o th er she nursed, reared and proteeted the n e w ly born vvith th epietas materna o f a bear. Tithenidia, the festival o f nurses and nurslings in Sparta, honoured her nam e. T his goddess, as O tto (1965) poetically obscrvcd, m irrors the d ivin e fem in in ity o f nature. U n lik e the E arth -M oth er vvho gi ves birth to ali life, sustains it, and in the end receives it back into her bosom , she refleets the v irg in ity o f nature vvith its brilliance and vvildness, vvith its guiltless puricy and its strnngencss. A nd vet, intertvvined vvith this crystal-clear essence vvere the dark roots o f savage nature. A rtem is o f Brauronia aroused madness. H er anger caused the death o f w o m en in childbirth. It is no m ere coincidence that the venerated goddess o f the sixth and fifth centurics in A ncient Greece resem bles the Goddess o f Life and D eath o f the sixth and fifth m illennia BC. M yth ical im ages last for m ariy m illennia. In her various m anifestations - strong and beautiful V irg in , B ear-M oth er, and L ife -g iv e r and L ifc-takcr - the 199

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appearanee Giasslcai Greek: civiligaiian , V iilage vvorship her to this day in the guisc o f the V irgin The o fth e goddess in bear shape vvas d e ly ingrained in m y thical thought throu gh the m illennia and survives in coiitem porary C rete as ‘ V irgin M a ry o f the B e a r’ . In the cave o f A cro tiri near ancient K y d o n ia, 3 festival in h on o u r o f Panagia (M arv) A rkouđiotissa (‘she o f the bear’) is cclebrated on the second day o f F eb ru ar/ (Thom pson 19 0 1-6 3 ). In European fo lk beliefs, she still w ifh in pregnant w om en in shape o f w an d erin g uterus la c h o f virgm U v, b irth -givin g ra e th e fh e ad , as w c!l as M eth er is w ell m ihe N eo iith ie and C h aleelith ie c?m o f O lđ lu r a p e .

the aspeets, Tsrribie

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9 Th§ Prggnant Vigitation Goddess A goddess tymbolizing earth fcrtility was the natural responsc to an agrarnoways fiife - Hej imap harbeu«neaesumulatienejf% ymbsh h o m the pie-agricultufal era as do those o f the Great Goddess and B ird Goddess, She đevelops her a w n eha ra eter in the course of time. but her intim ate relationships to the U p p er Palaeolithic Pregnant Goddess is obvious. T h e seed must have been recognized as the cause o f germ ination and grovvth, and the pregnant belly o f a vvoman m ust h ave been assimilated to field fertility in the infancy o f agriculture. As a result, there arose an im age o f a pregnant goddess endow ed vvith the p rerogative o f being able to influence and distribute fertility. T h e b elief that vvom an’s fertility or sterility influences farm ing persists alm ost u niversally in European folklore. Barren vvomen are regarded as dangerou s; a pregnant vvoman has m agical influence on grain because like her, the grain ‘becom es pregnant’ ; it germ inates and grovvs. T h e Pregnant Goddess can be deciphered either b y means o f her i]ii4fi ideogram - a dot in a lezenge, or a lozenge vvithin a loaenge ineised or painted on her belly, thighs. neek or arm s, or b y the naturalistic portrayal o f a pregnant fem ale with hands above the belly. She is related to the square, the perennial sy m b el o f earth bound matter. T h e pregnant figurines o f t h e seventh and sixth m illennia b c are nude, vvhile the pregnant ladies o ft h e fifth and fourth millennia are exquisitely clothed exeept for the abdom en, vvhich is exposed and on vvhich lies a sacred snake. In this series a high degree o f stylization is o b se rv ed : the abdom inal part o f the body is emphasizcd and the other parts are m odified. Som e figurines take the form o f bottleshaped am ulets o r rattles, o b vio iftly not representations o f the goddcsses, but necessary in m agical procecdings to obtain fecundity.

200

201

197- 199

196, 200, 201

19 6 P re g n a n t G od d ess in fu ll attire w ith a snake w in d in g a b o v e the b e lly . F rom M ed ve d n jak . V in ča. 5000 - 4500 bc 19 7 S m all p r e g n a n t fig u r in e vvith hands h eld o v e r th e a b d o m e n . P o ro d in , So u th e rn Y u g o s la v ia . E a r ly sixrh m ille n n iu m

bc

198 U p p e r p art o f fig u rin e d ep ictin g a nude and p regn an t w o m a n (P regn an t Goddess?) w ith hands held a b o v e the b e lly . P o ro d in , Southern Y u g o s la v ia . E a rly sixth m illen n iu m b c 199 P iilar-h ead ed p regn an t fig u rin e o f H am an g ian typ e. C e rn a v o d a cem etery, D o b ru ja , c. 5000 b c

200, 2 0 1 T h e ‘ Fat L a d v o f S ita g r o i’ , M aced on ia, w ith a d o u b le spiral (tw o snakes) a b o v e the b e lly. East B alk an civilization . c. 4500 BC 202 B o ttle-sh a p e d fig u re (am ulet) o f a P regnant G od d ess (?). S ita g ro i, M aced o n ia. East B alkan civilization . c. 4500 b c

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2

3 cm

1 5 7 L o w e r ha f o f fe m a le fig u r in e w ith a dotted q u a n ered lo z en g e in fro n t a n d snakes ivin din g o v i’r buttocks fr o m L u k a V ru b le v etsk a y a , upper D n iester v a !le y . c. lati*fifth m illen n iu m b c

T h e d o t (seed ) a n d t h e l o z e n g e (s o w n f ield )

i R a n les in the shap e oj a p reg n an t ivontan fr o m a g r a v e ivltich also inelud ed ric h ly p ain ted b la ck-o n -rcd b o ivls. V y k h v a tin tsi, S o v ie M o ld a v ia . Late C u cu teni. Fourth m illen n iu m » c

7

15 6 ’erracotta figurine: tvith g ra in im pressions. L u k a - V rtib lcvefsk ay a settlem ent in the u pp er D n iester V a lle y . Proto('u c u tc n i. S tid -fifth m illcn n iu m b c

T he dot, representing seed, and the lozenge, sym bolizing the sown field, appear 011 sculptures o f an enthroned pregnant goddess and are also inciscd or painted on, totally schematized figurines. A lozenge w ith a dot or dash in its centre or in the corners must have been the sym b olic invocation to securc fertilitv. Less abstract are the Early Cucuteni figurines from the western U kraine vvhere the entire body, particularly the abdom en and buttocks, w erc impressed vvith real grain. D u rin g the subsequent Classical Cucutcni phase the idea o f p regnancy was expressed by the inscrtion o f clay balls into the belly o f a fat figurine (Fig. 155). A lozenge is often the most pronounced feature, the rest o f the fem ale b o d y serving only as a background to the ideographic coneept. The idea o f pregnancy as opposed to sterility is expressed by a dot in the centre o f a lozenge or vvithin each o f the paneis o f a Cjuarteređ lozenge. This ideogram , already present on seventhm illennium stamp-seals from f^atal H iiyuk (M ellaart 19 6 7: Pl. 12 1), is encountered throughout O ld Europe both on N eolithic and C h al­ colithic figurines. A lozenge and dot or a quadripartite lozenge is a very cornm on m o tif on schematic Early and Classical Cucuteni (T ripolye) figurines. O ne or tvvo snakes wm d above the bclly vvith its incised lozenge or surround sacred protubcranccs, most notablv the buttocks. The repetition or m ultiplication o f lozenges and their association vvith snakes or spirals was ob vio usly mcant to render the figurines or amulcts m ore cffectivc. Com positions o f alternating lozenges and spirals are frcquent on figurines and pots and also on clav plaques vvhich m ay svm bolize loavcs o f bread. 205

J.5 Ć

IS7- i 6o

2O4. 205. 157

2 0 6 , IĆO

IĆI

F igu rin e jw ith a d otted lozen ge ;cd on chjj? b e !ly . G lad n ice near :ina, Southern Y u g o sla v ia . c. 6000 bc

4

15 8 M iniature fig u rin e incised u/ith a dotted lozenge in fron t and on the back. East Balkan civilization. Vidra, northern Rom ania. c. 4 5 0 0 BC

.04. 205 C lassical C u c u ten i fig u rin e . *hc elab orate incised design ineludes a qjuartcrcd lo zen ge a b o v e the ab d o m en . C u c u te n i. n orth ern M o ld a via . M id -fifth m illenn iu m BC

0

t $ g , 160 H igh ly schematic figurines ( or eharms) from Sitagroi, Macedonia. First h a lf o f the fifth millennium b c

tel

3 CM

16 1 Loaf-shaped clay plaque incised unth lozenges and spirals. Vinča settlement at VrŠac, eastern Yugoslavia. c. 5000 b c or early fifth millennium BC

0

06 Pregij:lan t vvom an w ith a m u ltip le lozei je design on the bellv fro m K olekoj a t', ccntral B u lg a ria . c. 45 ° ° b c . T h e chair or (throne) vvas fo u nd snnj v but b elon gs to the sam e period

1 2

1

2

3

cm

/ 62 Fragment of the middle part o f a figurin e ivith designs o f dotted lozenges and triangles and an egg (upper Icft) painted in black on red. Sitagroi. M acedo'iia. East Balkan civilization. c. 4500 BC

1 6 } Fragment oj a fig u rin e incised ivith complicated design induding dotted lozenges and triangles from the mound o f Tangiru, lower D anube, Rom ania, c. 4000 BC or late fifth millennium b c

tek polished disc ite enerusted lines . Ploskata M ogila v d iv , centraI i. East Balkan ion. c. 4000 b c 2 10 , 2 1 1 2 0 7 -2 0 9

209

2 12

A series o f Gumelni^a and C ucuteni figurines have on the abdom inal area a m ore com plicated design consisting o f interconnected lozenges and triangles usually containing a dot. Since this same com posite design also recurs on round discs w hich are probably am ulets or stamps from G u m eln i;a settlements, this must be an established ideogram . It suggests the sacredness o f sow n fields. T he e n t h r o n e d P reg n a n t G oddess

Lozenges are typical em bellishm ents o f the garm ents o f enthroned goddesses. T h e fmest exam ples from various regions o f O ld Europe inelude the vessel-shaped L ad y o f K oke'nydom b in southeastern H u n gary and the ‘ L ad y o f Pazardžik’ from central B ulgaria. The fo rm er w ears o ver the lo w er part o f the b o d y a garm ent made up o f s o f various sizes, m an y o f vvhich show a lozenge design; the latter is decorated w ith flovving incised lines interspersed vvith lozenges. O n each buttock are incised tw o large lozenges - placed here not as decoration, but to stress the funetions o f the carth-fcrtility goddess w h o is responsible for the germ ination, sprouting, gro w in g and ripening o f plants. T h e vessel shape and the iugs in the low er part o f the K o k en y d o m b L a d y suggest she vvas put to ritual use, (filled w ith vvater?), and carricd o ver the fields. T he Pazardžik Lndy is a classical exam ple o f the Pregnant Goddess. H er centre o f grav ity in the abdom en draw s her dovvnvvard tovvard the earth o f vvhich she is a part. H er am ple proportions, the cssencc o f this sculpture, are sym b o lic o f the fertile earth. She vvears a round mask vvith a prom inent nose and six holes fo r the lovver lip. H er hands rest royalIy on the abdom en. A n im pressive statuette o f an enthroned, heavily-drapeđ goddess vvearing an ornate mask vvith slanted bulbous eycs and a m cdallion suspended on a thong vvas diseovered in Priština, Southern Y u g o slavia. Snakes are incised on her belly to form an angular com position, above vvhich there is an ideogram m ade o f 011c horizontal and fou r vertical lines. 208

207-209 'Tlu- L .id y o f P azard žik'. ccntral B u lg a ria . East B alkan civilization , c. 4500 Ht

/ 65 Fragm enti offigurines o f pigs impressed with grain. Luka Vrublevetskaya in the upper valley o f D niester, U S S R . M id-fifth m illennium B c

T h e p i g , t h e s a c r e d a n i m a l o f th f . G o d d e s s o f V e g e t a t i o n

T h e curious connection between the V egetation Goddess and pigs as knovvn from Classical G reek times goes back to the N eo lith ic era. Sculptures o f pigs are knovvn from ali parts o f O ld Europe and date from e ve ry period. In num ber they equal the representations o fd o g s, bulls and he-goats. T h e fast-grovving b o d y o f a pig w ill have im pressed early agriculturists; its fattening m ust have been com pared to corn grovving and ripening, so that its soft fats apparently čam e to sym bolizc the earth itself, causing the pig to becom e a sacred anim al p robably no later than 6000 b c . A n early Vinča Pregnant Vegetation Goddess vvears a p ig ’s m ask, vvhile the sacredness o f the p ig ’s body is indicatcd b y the C ucuteni pig sculptures vvhich have traces o f grain im pression on them . Grain vvas impressed on the b o d y o f the pig ju st as it vvas im pressed on the body o f the Vegetation Goddess. These figurines and the p ig masks im ply that the pig vvas a double o f the Pregnant V egetation Goddess and vvas her sacrificial anim al. Beautifu l sculptures o f entire pigs vvere found in the m ound o f N ea M a k ri in ccntral Greece. T h e Vinča civilization has left us a m asterpiecc in the form o f a p ig ’s head from Leskovica near Štip in M acedonia. A w cll m odelled early exam ple com es from the Starčevo settlem ent o f D onja B ranjevin a at D eronj in northv/estern Y u g o slavia (Karm anski 1968). Vessels or their handles vvere often shaped in the likeness o f a p ig ’s head or body and m ust have sym bolized the goddess h erself in the same w a y as other vessels did the B ird Goddess or the G reat Goddess. T h e site o f V inča, in vvhich the sculptures 2

11

213

1 65

2 i 6 Sn o u t o f a lifc-sizc su ck lin g pig from A n za, eastern M aced on ia. c. $ 3 0 0 -5 10 0 b c

2 1 7 H ead o f n p ig w ith p erforated ears fo r earD alb ok i near Stara Z a g o ra , B u lga ria . c. 4000 b

2 18 H an d le o f a cult vase o r rh vton fro m V in ča in the fo rm o f a p ig ’s head. E a rly fifth m illenn iu m b c

z18

216

217

appeared in m any strata, yielded one exceptionally w ell sculpted head as w e ll as a rhy ton m ade o f a thin red clay decorated vvith bands painted in black, in the shape o f a p ig ’s head. In the Vinča layer o f the stratified site o f A nza a life-size pig m ade o f unbaked clay was dis­ eovered du ring the au th o r’s excavation in 1970. T h e Vinča layer was in a p lou gh zone and the p ig had been p artly d estro y ed ; m uch o f the rest disintegrated as soon as it w as touched, but its snout and one leg w ere preserved. T h ere can be no doubt that the p ig played an im portant cult role in East Balkan civilization. In addition to sm aller and larger figurines o f pigs, a p ig ’s head from central B ulgaria had perforated ears for ear-rin gs! Stout vases, h a lf anth ropom orp h icand h a lf zoo m o rp hic to resem ble the hind parts o f a pig, and small containers w ith p ig ’s heads or incised stylized m otifs o f a p ig ’s hindquarters, w ere p rob ab ly used for sacrifices or for vo tive offerings. Pigs, it is w orth notin g, w ere still being portrayed in M inoan C rete (Z e rv o s 19 5 6 : Figs. 580, 582), and du ring the Classical and H ellenistic age in G reece and Southern Italy. A true masterpiece o f the fifthfourth cen tury B C is a lam p i n the shape o f a pig vvhich was found in the cem etery o f C am arin o in Sicily. A lozenge and a fforal design appear in the m iddle o f the b o d v (Sep. 833 : Syracuse A rchaeological M useum ).

A l l u s i o n s t o D e m e t e r , K o r e a n d P e r s e p h o n e in G r e e k MYTHOLOGY

T h ro u g h her association w ith the pig, the beautifully draped D em eter w ith bare breasts, the queen o f corn, the bread -giver and the queen o f the dead (m anifested as her daughter Persephone) can be connected w ith her predecessor, the prehistoric V egetation Goddess. Persephone w a sev en called Pherrephata, ‘killer o fsu ck lin g p igs’, by the Athenians (V . G e o rg ie v 1 9 3 7 : 22f.). Su ckling p ig sp la y e d a very prom inent part in the cult o f D em eter and Persephone. T h e festival o f Thesmophoria, vvhich occurred at the autum n sovving o f the new crops in O ctober in h onour o f D em eter, vvas one o f the m ost im portant festivals in G reece. It was p erform ed solely by vvomen and lasted for three days. W o m en novv brough t sucklin g pigs, vvhich three m onths before the festival had been th row n into subterranean caves to rot, and placed them on altars o f Thesmophoroi - the nam e b y vvhich D em eter and her double or daughter K o re w ere called during the festival - w ith other g ift s ; they w ere then m ixed vvith the seeds to be used for sow in g (N ilsson 19 5 7 ; 3 1 2 ; Sim on 1969: 92). H erodotus describcs a sim ilar rite am o n g the E g y p tian s: the inhabitants o f the N ile delta let pigs tram ple on the seeds and press them into the earth (H erodotus 2, 14). T h e same is knovvn from Egyptian paintings o f D yn asty X V III (N e w b e rry 19 28 : Plate 19). T h e im portance o f the pig in N eolithic 214

and C h alcolithic O ld Europe, particularly the association o f p ig and grain, suggests that the Thesmophoria and other sim ilar festivals had their origin in early antiquity. T his does not neccssarily mean, hovvcver, that the E gyp tians brough t this custom to G recce, as H e r o d o t u s believed. A t threshing tim e another festival, called Skirophoria, t o o k place in A ncient G reece. Y o u n g virgin s vvere clad in vvhite robes and at night given sacred objeets called skira. These objeets vvere figurines o f suckling pigs and cakes m ade in th e shape o fs e r p e n t s . A fter the festival they w ere deposited in th e sanctuary o f D e m e t e r . In the goddess’ sanctuary at L ykosura, offerings m ade to D e m e t e r vvere listed in inscriptions: oil, h on eycom b, barley, figurines, p op py seeds, lam ps, incense. A m o n g th e terracotta figurines portrayed in th e m arble reliefs found in the sanctuary w e r c female exam ples vvith anim ai heads or anim ai legs ineluding those o f a pig (Nilsson 19 5 7 : 3 1 2fT.). T h e pig as an anim ai cssential in purification rites played a m ajor role in the Elcusinian M ysteries. So im portant vvas it, that vvhen Eleusis vvas perm itted to issue her a u t o n o m o u s coinage in 3 5 0 -3 2 7 b c , the pig vvas ehosen as the s ig n an d sym bol o f her M ysteries (H arrison 19 6 1: 153).

slsviHi partisalariv

10

The Year-God

T h e w h o le group o f interconnected sym bols - phallus (or cylinder, m u sh room and conical cap); ithyphallic anim al-m askcd m an, goat~ m an and the bull-m an - represents a male stim ulating principle in nature w ith ou t w hose influence nothing vvould g ro w and thrive. T his fam ily o fsy m b o ls goes back in its origin to the eariy agricultural era, to the same period when the Goddess o f Vegetation was born and w h en go at- and cow -h erdš existed. C h argin g bulls, buli heads or horns alone, bo vin e heads w ith hum an eyes and ithyphallic men are already knovvn to the Proto-Sesklo and Starčevo cultural com plexes, i.e. no later than the seventh m illennium 0 e. Shrines o f Gatal H u y u k inciude large buli figures in vvall frescoes and sculptured buli heads and horns. A ro u n d the M editerranean the buli and he-goat played a prom inent part in religion from the seventh m illennium onvvards. So did the phallus, recognizable as a high cylindrical neck o f an d rogynou s figurines, as a štand, or the stem o f a cup. T h e phallus and bison are k n ow n from the A urignacian and M agdalenian era o f the U p p er Palaeolithic. Isolated representations o f phalli vvere found in the cave o f Laussel, D ord ogn e. A bison-m an p layin g upon a m usical instrum ent in the en graving from La Pasiega, Santander, and another hybridized bison-m an in the same cave (G iedion 19 6 2 : 193) illustrate that the im age o f a half-anim al, halfhum an creature and the connection o f man vvith the vvild buli occurred early. T h e sym b olic context, h o w cvcr, vvas different; the bison-m an o f the U p p e r Palaeolithic vvas not a ycar-g od o f an agri­ cultural society. Phallic figurines from the N atufian and Pre-P ottery sites in Palestine dem onstrate the persistent im portance o f phallic sym b olism in pre-agricultural and agricultural socicties. T he phallus

Representations o f phalli are found in ali phases and cultural groups o f O ld Europe vvith a vvider varicty in N eolithic Greece and Y u g o 2 16

AsFiaiis sssgBSžFd- Tnsv

wsf$ ftsiiisnsd

in

ali sisi?* It&fB tiis? ffliniiiHifg i@ che T h eir dijgaFaiien and shaps FfiHge from n au ifalu iie to fsm astie: som e have a ’eap' of a eircufncision and an opening on to p ; others are gcom ecricaIly deeorated by painting or incision; still others spiral upw ards like snakes. T h e clay phallus from Tsangli, a large Sesklo site in Thessaly, is painted crcam , its naturalism enhaneed bv reddish-brovvn bands and has a broad incision at the top. From iater N eolithic Sesklo comes an enorm ous m arble phallus painted vvith red meanders top and bottom (N ational M useum , Athens 5936; Z ervos, 19 6 3: 398). The Vinča and Lengyel elay or bone phalli vvere decorated vvith bands o f horizontal incisions and vvhite enerusted patterns o f dots sym bolizing snakes. T h e East Balkan and Cucuteni phalli are usunlly undecorated. D anilo, B u tm ir and Vinča scttlements yielded hundreds o f ‘vvine cups’ w ith phallus-shaped stems. M an y o f them have plain, pointed stems, but others are ch arm ingly decorated and m asterfully shaped sculptures. M ost interesting are those phalli im itating snakes, indicatcd by incision or in relief. In som e instances tvvo heads o f snakes or o f frogs appear on the top; others have human facial features, such as a protruding nose, vvhile others again are geom etrically decorated vvith striated zigzag bands or triangles. C ylin drical cups m odelled as human heads also occur, and dishes and bovvls ofth e Late Vinča com plex have a phallus standing in the m iddle (Pločnik site: A rchaeol. M useum Niš, Inv. 490). A noth er category o f phallic representations is made up o f stands vvith hum an, animal or am orphous facial characteristics. Sim ple clay cylinders vvith a flattened base are frequent in the Starčevo and Early Vinča com plexes o f the central Balkans. Som e have human facial features and female breasts; others have male genitals. W e have already discussed the phallic aspect o f the long cylindrical necks o f the B ird Goddess and Great Goddess o f the seventh and sixth millennia b c . T h e com bining o f fem ale and male characteristics in one figurine did not com pletely dic out after the sixth m illcnnium b c .

i 66 Phallic stems o f 'ivine cups'. Sm ilčićat Zadar, Dalmatia. c. late sixlh millennium n e

1

2

3

1-------1--------lem

1 67 Aiiiliropoiiiorphic ' figurin e ili a shape o fa phallus U'itli a flat base. C rnokalaika Bara, )onlrni Vugoslavia. c. early six{/i niilleniiiiim u c

2 i 9 C!n>f phallus fro m T sa n g li, T h essaly . Painted in reddish-£>rown on cream . C e n tra l B alk an N e o lith ic . c. 6000 BC

22n lio n e ph.slliis fr o m H n itu t la v iie . .) l eti Mte 111 M n r a v i.i l ’h e •»pir.»I \\.is e.N eem ed b y J n l l i n ^ p itted lme>

2 2 1 Tw <| c la y phalli fro m a Late C u c u te n i site at F rum usica, n orthern M o ld a v ia . F ou rth m illenn ium BC

S te m 0 11 e u p \vith M u k c - h k e \p ir .ilv S m ili u .«[ Z . ul.tr. l>ahn .ttM . P .i m l o eu lc u ri

223-225 M u sh ro o m -sh a p e d objeets o f ligh t green stone fro m the VinĆa site 22 6 Phallus-shaped vase d ecorated vvith ru n n in g spirals in re lie f from B u t m ir near S a ra je vo . M id -fifth m illenn ium b <;

1

2 CK

j.-------------1

p Terracotta fig urin e ’h anthropomorphic tures and a canal dou/n middle. Tru^ejti sile, them M oldavia.

226

M an y o f the East B alkan fem ale figurines have a canal through the w h o le length o f the b o d y. Since the canals are about 2 m m . in diam eter it seems that they vvere not m ade for a practical reason but vvere sim ply im itations o f the phallic canal. D vvelling areas at Vinča yielded a num ber o f m ushroom s carved out o f light green rock crystal vvhich m ay have stood on domestic altars or possibly been used as studs for hip belts. M ushroom s are universally knovvn as aphrodisiacs, and the svvelling and grovving o f a m u sh room must have been noticed by the O ld Europeans causing it to be com pared to the phallus. T he fact that m ushroom s vvere carved out o f the best available stone alone speaks for the prom inent role o f the m ushroom in m agic and cult. T h e Indo-Europeans in the days o f the R ig v e d a m ade their m iraculous Som a drink from flyagaric (W asson 19 7 1), and it is possible that the Vinča m ushroom s vvere connected vvith intoxicating drin ks; at ali events they are im itations o f phalli (cf. the m ushroom cap in Pl. 225, right). The shape o f a m ushroom or phallus occurs frequently in sculptural art as a hum an cap on figurines, and a phallic form can be inferred in the beautiful B u tm ir vases vvhich are decorated in running spirals and štand on cylindrical legs vvhich a globular bovvl. M agical povver vvas ob vio u sly attributed to phallic objeets and conferred an appropriate benefit. T

2 27

228 229, 230

231

233-235

he ith yph a llic m a sk ed god

T h e ecstatic dancer, goat- or bull-m asked, as seen in the Vinča sculptural repertory, can be interpreted as a representation o f either an archetypal D ionysus or an excited vvorshipper o f the Great Goddess. A m ost rem arkable exam ple is the sculpture from Fafos, in vvhich he appears in hum an shape, p robably to perform at a festival. His anth ropom orph ic portrayals shovv him also in a standing position vvith both hands holding his genitals, or vvith the right arm held across his breast and a red painted phallus in the left hand. M ore often he is seated on a throne, naked and ithyphallic. T his posture recurs in ali phases o f O ld European history, depieted rather clum sily in the P ro to -S esk lo (tvvo enthroned ithyphallic figurines vvere uncarthed at Elateia and are housed in the C haeronea m useum , central G reece: W ein berg 1962) and Starčevo com plexes, but m ore articulately in those o f V inča, Sesklo and D im in i. T h e head, vvlien preserved, usually vvears the mask o f a horned anim ai vvith large human eycs.

2 2 7 lth yp h a llic m asked m ale fig u re fro m Fafos II, a V in fa site at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Y u g o sla v ia . P ro b ab Iy second H alf o f fifth m illen n iu m BC 2 ’ X Stan d in g m ale figu re h o ld in g genitals. S esk lo, T hcssaly

22y, 2 30 M asked (and o rig in a lly horned) m an h o ld in g rcd -pain ted penis vvith the left hand. C rn o k a la č k a B ara, C lassical Vinćaj settlem ent near N iš, southeastern Y u g o s la v ia

220

233 ith y p h allic fig u rin e w e a rin g a goat mask w ith exaggcraccd horns and cyes. Fafos I near K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o sla v ia . c. 5 30 0 -50 0 0 b c

234 A n in ial-h cad ed (m asked) m ale figurine ho ld in g gen itals w ith the left hand. From V in ča. M id -fifth m illcn n iu m b c 235 H ead o f a fig u r in e w ea rin g goat m ask. C rn o k a la ć k a B a ra , So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . V in č a, m id -fifth m illenn iu m b c

T h e b u l i. w ith a h u m a n mask

236 2 39 , 24 0 , 1 7 0

24O-242 239 , n o

17 0 Black-on-red painted :ult vase, probably a lamp, n the form o f a stylized buli. T h e cylindrical Container on 'op is broken. From the ■nound o f Sitagroi near Drama, northeastern Greece. East Balkan civilization. :. 4300 b c

The m ale g o d ’s principa! epiphany was in the form o f a buli. The enthroned m ale figurines o f Late Vinca, vvearing an enorm ous mask, have vigorou s shoulders vvhich are shaped like a bull’s rum p or h o rn s; quite frequ en d y, too, the entire b ody is that o fa buli. T h e god m ay also be represented as a vessel in the shape o f a buli, but vvith the an im al’s head shovving hum an characteristics: large w ise eyes or ears w ith perforations fo r ear-rings or other decorations. T h e bu ll’s strength is shovvn to be concentrated in his ru m p ; both buttocks are enorm ous and snakes are incised upon them. Standing firm ly on short legs, he con veys the impression o f m onum entality., This peculiar am algam o f anim ai and man, typical o f Balkan C h alcolithic art, expressed the Mysterium Fascinans, som ething that cannot be described in o f norm al experience. It vvas a m ajor factor in the inspiration and creation o f these extraord inary sculptures. A human head grafted onto a b u ll’s body reaches a culm ination o f povver throu gh sym biosis: the vvisdom and ions o f man m erged vvith the physical strength and potency o f the buli. Such hybrid creatures m ust have been regarded as possessing a greater potential than either a m an o r a buli alone. R epresentations o f a buli, he-goat or ram often appear on small ritual vessels. These horned heads em bo d yin g virile forces could have played their part in festivals, or in the vvorship o f both the male and the fem ale d ivin ity. Vessels vvith horned anim al-head protom es vvere enerusted or painted in vvhite, red and black.

2 36 M an in a seated position vvearing a large m ask. Late V in ča site at V alač near K o so v sk a M itro v ic a , Southern Y u g o s la v ia 2 3 7 H u m an -h ead ed (m asked) buli fro m Fafos II at K o so v sk a M itro v ic a . Southern Y u g o sIa v ia . M id -V in č a , 5000 - 4500 BC

238 H u m an -h ead ed (m a sk e d ) buli fr o m V alač. So u th e rn Y u g o sla v ia . Late V inča. 4S00 - 4000 Hf;

3u ll-lc g g e d terracotta trip o d w ith a h o le in en tral cy lin d e r. F ro m M e d v e d n ja k , classical a site at Sm ed erev sk a P alan ka southeast o f rade 2 ro u c h in g buli w e a rin g h u m an m ask. V ase the m ou n d o f G u m eln ifa . East B alk an zation. c. 4500 bc Terracotta head (m ask) o f a bu li vvith Jn -lik e eyes. S ita g ro i, M aced o n ia. Enst in civilization . c. 4500 bc Terracotta head o f a buli, vvith h o rn s bro ken ■itagroi, M a ce d o n ia . East B alk an civ iliza tio n .

A llusions

i

to

D ionvsus

pionysus is a prc-Indo-European god o f great antiquity in spite o f his com positc name (dio-nysos, ‘god o f N ysa or N y s a i’ ; the latter p r o b a b l y is a pre-Indo-European place nam e). His cult in G reece is e v i d e n c e d by temples, sculptures o f phalli and descriptions o f p rocessions carryin g huge phalli as late as the second century b c , and the persisting tradition o f D ionysiac festivals even into later times is attested by a group o f m ythical im ages h aving strong roots in the local (southeast European-vvestern Anatolian) soil. Discussions about the origin o f the Greek D io n y s u s - vvhcther he čame to G reece from Thrace, C rete or vvestern Asia M in o r - are pointless, since ali these lands o rigin ally belonged to the same M oth er C ulture. D ionysus vvas a bull-god , god o f annual renevval, im bued vvith ali the urgency o f nature. B rim m in g vvith virility, he vvas the god m ost favoured by vvomen. The abundance o f phalli in D ionysiac festivals, in sculptures near the temples, on herms used as signposts on the roads and before the doors o f houses suggests that the ancient Greeks vvere no less obsessed by phallic m agic than vvere the O ld Europeans. The b ull-god vvas also alive in m any areas o f Greece and particularly in M acedonia in the tim e o f Euripides vvhose Bacchac abounds in buli epiphanies: A H o rn ed G o d w as fo tm d A n d a G o d u/ith serpents crou/ned (E u rip id e s,

Baccliae, 9 9 ;

citc d b y H a rriso n [ 19 0 3 0 ] 1 9 6 1 : 4 3 2 ).

In the O rp hic m ystcry, the vvorshipper ate the raw flesh o f the buli before he becam e ‘ B acch os’ . T h e ritual o f D ionysus in T h race ineluded ‘ bull-voiced m im es’ w h o bellovved to the god. T h e scholiast on L yco p h ro n ’s Alcxandra says that the vvomen vvho w o rshipped D ionysus Laphystios vvore horns themselves, in im itation o f the god, for he vvas im agined to be bull-headed and is so represented in art (ref. in Harrison i b i d 433). Plutarch givcs m ore particulars: ‘M any o f the G reeks represent D ionysus’ im age in the form o f a buli. The vvomen o f Elis in their prayers invoke the god to com e to them vvith his b ull-foot. A nd am ong the A rgives there is a Đ ionysus vvith the title B u ll-b o rn . T h ey sum m on him by their trumpets out o f the vvater, casting lambs into the depths to the D o or-k cep er’ (Plutarch de J s . et Os. X X X V , cited by H arrison ibid. : 433). Dionystts also manifested h im self as the buli Zagreus, in vvhich guise he vvas torn to pieccs by the Titans. T h e key to a m ore com plete understanding o f the m ale god and the B ul! G o d o f Old Europe lies in the D ionysiac festivals - A nthesteria, Lenaia and the Greater Dionysia. In these festivals, vvhich have assimilated elements o f deep antiquity, D ionysus appears as a year-

227

god. T h e idea o f renevval is predom inam throughout the festivals of w in ter and sprm g. Each re-enaccs an orgiastic agricultural scenario * w ith phalli, phallus-shaped cups, ladles and cult dishes and the buliman (Dionysus) m arryin g the queen (goddess). The Lenaia festival held in Ja n u a ry v/as preceded by a Rural Dionysia in w hich phalli w ere carried in procession amid general m errym ak in g to p rom ote the fertility o f the autumn-sovvn seed and o f the soil during the vvinter recess. O fferings vvere made before the im age o f D ionysus (including pouring porridge vvith a ladle), and priapic and goat songs vvere sung. T h e purpose o f the Lenaia festival vvas to aro u šeth eslu m b erin g vegetation (Deubner 19 56 ; Jam es 19 6 1: 14 2 -4 3 ). T h e C ity Dionysia festival in M arch vvas also designed to ensure fertility. T o this festival the cities o f the Athenian em pire sent the grossest kind o f fertility em blem , the phallus, as part o f their tribute (W ebster 19 5 9 : 59)- Anthesteria was a Festival o f Flovvers in h on ou r o f D ionysus as the god o f spring, and included drinking and rejo icin g. T h e second day o f the festival vvas called Choes, the Day o f the Cups. T h e vvine vvas taken from the jars and brought to the sanctuary o f D ionysus in the marshes, vvhere it vvas silently distributed in sm all ju g s am o n g ali citizens o ver the age o f four. A fter everyone had drunk, the vvife o f the magistrate vvas m arried to D ionysus in the Bukoleion or O x-stall, attended by vvomen vvho had taken vovvs o f chastity in the service o f Dionysus. Thither the im age o f Dionysus, possibly in bovine form , or an actor vvearing horns and a hide, vvas b ro u gh t on a boat-like strueture on vvheels to com plete the nuptial rites (James 1 9 6 1 : 140). A sanctuary o f D ionysus, vvhich can be traced back to the fifteenth cen tury b c , has been diseovered on the island o fK e o s (Caskey 1964: 326). It yielded m ore than tw enty terracotta figurines portraying vvomen in a dancing posture, dressed in festive attire, vvith exposed breasts, ‘snake collars and belts’. T h e y m ay represent maenads, the devotees and ecstatic dancers in the D ionysiac festivals. T h e sanctuary vvas used fo r m ore than one thousand years, up to the Hellenistic period.

243

Since m any elem ents o f the y e ar-g o d ’s festivals are represented in the sculptural art o f O ld Europe, it seems not unreasonable to assume that festivals took place in N eolithic and C h alcolithic Europe. Possibly the central idea o f ritual dram a, the ‘ Sacred M arriag e’ , the ritual coition o f the m ale god and a fem ale goddess, is refleeted in the little sculpture from Cascioarele. T he statuette belongs to the East Balkan C halcolithic Gum elni(a com plex and is the on ly one o f its kind, but this does not necessarily mcan that there vvere no portrayals o f the ‘ Sacred M a rriag e ’ in other areas and periods o f O ld Europe. T h e presence o f the masked ithyphallic god also im plies a festival at vvhich a vvedding cerem ony is enactcd, the m ale god m arryin g the 228

m ille n n iu m BC

G reat Goddess. From the Cascioarele figurine it is seen that she isnot a pregnant goddess, but a vouthful virgin. She is portrayed in the nude and has a large pubic triangle.

244, 245 E n th ro n ed m ale g o d fro m P yraso s, T h essaly . Sesk lo cuiture. S ix th m ille n n iu m BC

W h e n vvas the d ra m a o f h ie r o g a m v in trodu ce d into Europe? W n s i t a t the v e r y b e g in n in g o f t h e N e o lit h ic p eriod, o r o n the

advent

ot a d v an ce d a gr icu ltu r e ? It seems unlik elv to h ave been later than c. 6500 b c , vvhen the ‘ phallic obsession’ b ecam e m anifest through

representations o f phallic stands, cups and it h y p haliic gods.

T hi; ‘soRRovtTUL c;on' W e h a ve con sidered until novv the vo u t h fu l, strong, C r e a t iv e aspect o f the p r im e v a l D io n y su s . Is there a n y th in g in the sculptural art o f 244. 245 248-252

O ld E u r o p e to indic ate his other aspect - the pcaccful ancient? There are fi gures o f a squ attin g o r seated man on a stool or th ro n e ; his arms either rest p e a c e fu lly on his lap, or they are p ro p p e d 011 his knees to p r o v id e a sitpport fo r his head. H e shovvs n o signs o f e m o t io n and is not a n im a l- m a s k e d ; his a.ttitude and the f.icial expression o f the mask he vvears i m p l y c o n t e m p la t io n and w o r r y . W e n i a y c a ll him , therefo re. the ‘ sorrow fi.il g o d ’ . T h e r e are not e n o u g h data to reveal his fu netions, but vve m a y suppose that he is either a g o d o f vegetation, an old v e a r - g o d w h o m u s t die in ord e r to be re b orn the fo llo w in g sp ring, o r a g o d o f death, con sort o f t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s in her aspect o f D eath . T h e vvide te m p o ra l and g e o g r a p h ic a l distrib ution o f this tvp e o f g o d speaks for his established position in the p antheon o f O ld E u r o p e . His im p o r t a n c e is stressed b y the fact that the sculptures o f a ‘ sorrovvfu l g o d ’ are fr e q u e n tly p ro d u c e d vvith e x t r e m e care, some ra n k in g as m asterpic ces o f N e o lith ic art. A m o n g these are the

24C)

24^-250

247

V u lk a n e sh ti and H a m a n g i a (C e r n a v o d a ) men in a leaning position seated on a small stool. B o th are nude and in the m vve find the best p o r tr a v a ls o f t h e m ale b o d v dating fr o m the fifth m ille n n iu m b c . T h e back o f t h e V u lk a n e sh ti figure, is pe rfe ctlv re n d e re d ; o n e feels 011 it the totich o f t h e g o d - m a k e r 's fm gers. U n fo r t u n a t e i v it is badly d a m a g e d and ali that rem ains intact is its b a c k ; legs, a r m s a n d half o f its head are missing. In G e r a s i m o v ’s reconstru ctio n . t h is m an has his elbovvs 011 th e knees. O n e o f t h e most celebrated sculptures o f the B a lk a n N e o lit h ic is the H a m a n g i a ‘T h i n k e r ’ (so n am e d after K o d i n ’s ‘T h i n k e r ’). a m an sitting 011 a stool. leaning forvvard. h o ld in g his head 011 c o lu m n a r a rm s vvith elbovvs 011 the knees. His legs are m assive and as stable as those o f a th rone. T h e facial features are o n ly r o u g h l v in dicated and no atte m p t has been m ade to m o d e l his hands. T h e head is d e fin itely m a s k e d : it is flat and has p e rforation s in the u p p e r corners. T h e back is neatlv c u rv e d and vvell p ro p o rt io n e d . T h e H .im an g ian ‘ s orrovv fu l g o d ' vvas pl.iced in .1 g r a v e vvith a female fi gurin e, p r o b a b lv re p re se n tin g the G r e a t G odde ss. S h e is also of

246 T o r s o (seen fr o m the b a ck ) o f seated o ld m an fr o m V u lkan esh ti, S o v ie t M o ld a v ia . E ast B a lk a n civ iliza tio n . L a te fifth m ille n n iu m BC

im

T h e G rea t G od d ess o f H am an gia Eageeher vvith 'T h in k e r ' in g fa vc o f t h e eem eccry u f C tm a v o d a T h e ‘s o r r o w fu l g o d ’ o r o f H am a n g ia . F ro m a in the ce m e tcry o f C e m a v o d a , R o m a n ia . c. 5000 BC

2 5 1 , 2 5 2 T h e ‘ so rro w fu l g o d ’ o f T irp c $ti, M o ld a v ia . c. m id -fifth m illcn n iu m BC

’ i T he ‘iorrouiful go d ' o f idra, lower Danube. East ilkati civilization. c. late th milletihium s c - 4 0 0 0

unique w o rkm an sh ip, portrayed in a seated position vvith her arms resting on one leg w h ich is draw n up. She has a large pubic triangle and a m assive cylin d rical neck. H er face, a mask vvith deep triangular incisions fo r eyes, like that o f the m ale figurine, is ju st as sorrovvful as his. B o th figurines are o f the same style, siže and colour and vvere p rob ab ly m ade b y the same gifted sculptor. In addition to the pair o f gods, this grave in the C ernavod a cem etery yielded three schematic w h ite m arble figurines o f the G reat Goddess type. A figurine portrayed in alm ost the same posture, but m ade in a Cucutenian style, vvas unearthed in the settlem ent o f Tirpe$ti in northern M oldavia. From the artistic point o f vievv the Tirpe§ti sculpture is not a masterpiece, but again the value o f the sculpture lies in the peculiar tension it con veys through its crouching posture and the erude head (a mask) held betvveen the lon g arms and inarticulate hands. W e shall conclude this su rvey vvith the illustration o f a ‘T h inker’ fro m V id ra, vvithin the East Balkan Gum elni{a com plex. H e sits vvith his righ t arm resting on his lap and the left ing his ehin - a natural position fo r rum inating. T h e relationship o f his gesture to that o f the G reat G oddess, as portrayed on the vessel o f Sultana (see Pl. 15 s) and on m an y other figurines, suggests he has povvers similar to those o f the G reat Goddess. A conspicuous feature o f the Vidra man is his single eye, vvhich m ay sym bolize m agical and chthonic characteristics. In the Late C ucuteni civilization alm ost ali knovvn m ale sculptures are one-eyed. T

he

D

iv in e

C

h il d

T h e Y e a r-G o d cycle starts vvith the birth o f the D iv in e C h ild . T h e m asked goddess in the shape o f a bear, snake or bird nurses the baby (see Pls. 13 2 , 18 9, 1 9 3 - 1 9 5 ; Figs. 26, 96). T h e infant appropriately appears in the shape o f a cub, baby snake, baby bird - ali sym bols o f y o u n g life in nature. M asked figurines h old in g and feeding babies, or figurines vvith sacks on the back or vvith a hum p - probably a schem atic representation o f a sack (see Pl. 26) - and their portrayals as parts o f ritual vases, (see Pls. 26, 13 2 , 189, 190) occur frequently enough to attest a ritual rc-enaction o f the m yth o f the birth and nurturing o f the Infant. T h ere is a striking sim ilarity between the O ld European D ivine C h iid and the infant Erichthonios, H yakinthos, and Cretan Zeus in the ancient G reek m yths, vvhich have a prc-G rcek origin. The D iv in e C h ild represents the aw akenin g or a nevv-born špirit o f vegetation. Erichthonios appears as a snake or a h a lf snake, h a lf hum an. A scene on a G reek am phora show s him em erging from a chest guarded b y tvvo snakes by w hich Athena also stands (British M useum , E .4 18 ) ; on other vases, G e (Earth) holds out the small

234

E rich th o n io s to A thena. A ccord in g to legend A thena hid the child in a chest together vvith snakes and ga ve the chest to the three tnaidens, A glauros ‘ the B rig h t one’ , Pandrosos ‘the ali D e w y on e’ , and H erse ‘d e w ’ , to guard. T h e oldest lite ra ry testim ony, the C atalogue o f the Ships o f the Iliad, says that the corn -yield in g Earth bore him and Athena fostered him . In the Eleusinian M ysteries, the holiest and m ost ancient cult o f A ncient G reece, the D ivin e C h ild Ploutos (i.e. Erichthonios) is given to others to rear. Erich thonios’ association vvith the snake recalls the prom inent place the snake occupies in the Eleusinian cult and in the festival o fT h e sm o p h o ria . D u rin g the latter, m ysterious sacred objeets vvere in use, m ade o f w h eat dough in the shape o f snakes and men (Nilsson 19 50 : 558 -6 3). H yakinthos and C retan Zeu s represent the same god o f yo u n g vegetation under different names. H yakinth os’ connection vvith the vegetation cult is further evidenced b y his nam e vvhich denotes a flovver (id. : 558 vvith a ref. to M achteld J . M ellink, Hyakinthos, Diss., 1943). Cretan Zeus, the H o ly B ab e born in the C a ve o f D ikte, has on ly an Indo-European (Greek) nam e, but is no other than the p re-G reek M in o an -O ld European D ivin e C h ild . A nd it is significant that this child vvas not reared b y the m other (Ge, R h ea, the Indo-European Earth Goddess), but b y A rtem is, the Mistress o f A nim als, D em eter or Athena. As a sym b ol o f the perpetuation o f life the D ivin e C h ild vvas at the heart o f the w h ole com plex o fim a g e s o f an agrarian religion, and represents the m ost traditional o f m otifs. The chances are that rites sim ilar to the Eleusinian M ysteries w ere perform ed in O ld Europe. A ritual hym n o f invocation com m em oratin g the birth o f the Infant dating from the second or third century a d vvas found en graved on a stone stele at Palaikastro in eastern C rete. S u rely itš origins m ust lie in O ld European sym bolism , transmitted through the agen cy o f M inoan culture. ‘ Io, K ouros most Great, I give thee hail, Kronian, Lord o f that is wet and glcaming, thou art comc at the head o f thy Daimoncs. T o Dikte for the Ycar, O , march, and rejoice in the dance and song, that we make to thee vvith harps and pipes mingled together, and sing as w e comc to a štand at thy well-fenced altar. For here the shicldcd Nurturers took thcc, a child immortal, from Rhea and vvith noise o f beating feet hid thee away. And the Horai began to be fruitful ycar by year and Dikte to possess mankind, and ali wild living things werc held about by wealth-loving peacc. io, Kouros, the Great . . . T o us leap for full jars, and leap for flcccy ftoeks, and leap for fields o f fruit, and for hives to bring incrcasc. Io, Kouros, the G r e a t . . .’ (Quotcd in original and transiation and analyzed by Harrison, T h em is, 1912, 1962 edition: 1-29).

235

p a n th e o n o f gods. S h e , th e Great Goddess, is associated vvith m oon crescents, quadripartite designs and bulPs horns, svm bols o f continuous creation and ehange. The m ysterious transform ation is m ost vivid ly expressed in her epiphany in the shape o f a Caterpillar, chrysalis and butterfly. Indeed, through this sym bolism our ancestor p r o e la im s that he believes in the beauty o f yo u n g life. T h e ubiquity o f phallic sym bols eonnotes the glorification o f the spontaneous life posvers. Phallieism eertainly had obscene allusion; in the context o f religious ritual it vvas a form o f catharsis, not o f sym b olie procrsadon. T h ere is no N eolithic times undcrstood b io legical conceptkm . W ieh inee-ption o f farm ing man of m iraeuleus I i r t h jntensiveiy than the prcvious hunter-fisher had A separate deity em erged, the Goddess o f Vegetation, a sym bol o f the sacral nature o f the seed and the sovvn fielđ, vvhose ties vvith the Great Goddess are intimate. Significantly, alm ost ali N eolithic goddesses are com posite images vvith an accum ulation o f traits from the pre-agricultural and agricultural eras. T h e vvater bird, deer, bear, fish, snake, toad, turtle, and the notion o f hybridization o f animai and man, vvere inherited from the Palaeolithic era and continued to serve as avatars o f go d ­ desses and gods. T h ere vvas no such thing as a religion or m ythical im agery n e w ly created b y agriculturists at the beginning o f the foo d -prod u cin g period. In O ld Europe the vvorld o f m yth vvas not polarized into fem ale and m ale as it vvas am o n g the Indo-European and m an y other nom adic and pastoral peoples o f the steppes. B oth principles vvere m anifest side by side. T h e m ale d ivinity in the shape o f a yo u n g man o r a m ale anim ai appears to affirm and strengthen the forces o f the Creative and active fem ale. N either is subordinatc to the oth er; by com plem entin g one another, their povver is doubled. T h e central theme in re-enaction o f m yths ob vio usly vvas the celebration o f the birth o f an infant. The baby as the sy m bol o f a nevv life and the hope o f survival is hugged by m asked goddesses, Snake, B ird and B ear. M asked N urses bearing a sack (the ‘hunch -back’ figurines) seem to have played a role as protectresses o f the ehild vvho later m atures and becom es a yo u n g god. T h e male god, the p rim eval D ionysus is saturated vvith a m eaning closely related to that o f the G reat Goddess in her aspect o fth e V irgin N ature Goddess and V e g e ­ tation Goddess. A li are gods o fn a tu re ’s life c y đ e , concerned vvith the problem o f death and regeneration, and ali vvere vvorshipped as sym bols o f exuberant life. The pantheon refleets a society dom inated by the, m other. The role o f vvoman vvas not subject to that o f a m an, and nnich that vvas

no

evidence that ifj

Ceneiuiiong J :5 figOnne 3rt and pictorial paiiiting she agrieuitur'a! anccstors reefeateđ their m ythieal w 6 rld and the vvorship o f their gods. Prinlordial events, principa! pcrsonalities o f the pantheon vvith their innum erable epiphanies, vvorshippers and participants in ritual cerem onies, ail scem to have a life o f their ovvn in their various representations. M yth s and seasonal dram a must have been enacted through the m edium o f the idol (the figurine), each vvith a different intention and vvith the invocation o f appropriate divinities. T h e m ultiplicity o f purpose.and design is shovvn b y sanctuaries, sacrifices, festive attire, masks, figures in dancing or leaping postures, musical instruments, shrine equipm ent, ladles and drin kin g cups, and other num erous and varied representations o f objeets and events vvhich m ade up the contcxt o f these religious festivals. In m aking im ages o f gods, vvor­ shippers and actors o f the dram a, man assured the cyclic returning and renevval o flife . M a n y figurines vvere ex-vo to s and like the vvords o f prayer vvere dedicated to the Great Goddess, the B ird or Snake Goddess, the Vegetation Goddess, or the M ale G o d, a prototype o f D ionysus, the daem on o f vegetation. Fem ale snake, bird, egg, and fish played parts in creation myths and the fem ale goddess vvas the C r e a t iv e principle. T he Snake G o d ­ dess and B ird Goddess create the vvorld, eharge it vvith en ergy, and nourish the earth and its creatures vvith the life-givin g element conceived as vvater. T h e vvaters o f heaven and earth are under their control. The G reat Goddess em erges m iraculously out o f death, out o f the sacrificial buli, and in her body the nevv life begins. She is not the Earth, but a fem ale hum an, capable o f transform ing h erself into m any livin g shapes, a doe, dog, toad, bee, butterfly, tree or pillar. T h e task ofsu staining life vvas the dom inating m o tif in the m yth ical im agcry o f O ld Europe, hence regeneration vvas one o f the forem ost manifestations. N atu rally, the goddess vvho vvas responsible for the transform ation from death to life becam c the central figure in the 236

the she phenomena

the

agrieulture,

mankind

began toobserve mar« etasclv and more done.

237

c r e a te d b e t w e e n th e in c e p t io n o f th e N e o li t h i c a n d th e b lo s so rn in g

Abbreviations

o f th e M in o a n c iv iliz a t io n w a s a re su lt o f th a t s tr u e tu r e in w h ic h ali r e s o u rc e s o f h u m a n n a tu r e , fe m in in e a n d m a s c u lin e , v ve re u tiliz e d to th e fu ll as a C re a tiv e fo r c e .

T h e O ld European m ythical im agery and religious practices vvere continued in M inoan C rete. T h e M inoan culture m irrors the same values, the same manual aptitude in artistic endeavour, the same glorification o f the virgin beauty o f life. T h e O ld Europeans had taste and style - w him sical, im aginative and sophisticated; their culture was a w orthy parent o f the M inoan civilization. Som e seholars did in the past classify European prehistory and early h istory into m atriarchal and patriarchal eras respectively. ‘The beginn ing o f the psych ological-m atriarch al ag e ’, says N eum ann, ‘is lost in the haze o f prehistory, but its end at the daw n o fo u r historical era unfolds m agnificen tly before ou r eyes’ (N eum ann 19 5 5 : 92). It is then replaced b y the patriarchal w o rld vvith its different sym bolism and its different values. T h is m asculine w o rld is that o f the IndoEuropeans, w h ich did n ot develop in O ld Europe but vvas superim posed upon it. T w o entirely different sets o f m ythical im ages met. S y m b o ls o f the m asculine gro u p replaced the im ages o f O ld Europe. S om e o f the old elements vvere fused together as a subsidiary o f the nevv sym b olic im agery, thus losing their original m eaning. Som e im ages persisted side b y side, creating ehaos in the form er harm ony. T h ro u gh losses and additions n ew com plexes o f sym bols developed vvhich are best refleeted in G reek m y th o lo g y . O n e cannot alw ays disdnguish the traces o f the old since they are transform ed or distorted. A n d yet it is su'rprising h o w long the O ld European m ythical concepts have persisted. T he study o f m yth ical im ages provides one o f the best proofs that the O ld European w o rld vvas not the p roto-In d o -E u ro pean vvorld and that there w as no direct and unobstructed line o f d evelopm ent to the m od em Europeans. T he earliest European civilization vvas savagely destroyeđ b y the patriarchal elem ent and it never recovered, but its legacy lingered in the substratum w hich nourished further European cultural d evelopments. T h e O ld European creations vvere not lost; transform ed, they enorm ously enriched the European psyche. T h e teaching o f W estern civilization starts with the Greeks and rarely do people ask themselves what forces lay behind these beginnings. B u t European civilization vvas not created in the spacc o f a fevv ccnturies; the roots are deeper - by six thousand years. T h a t is to say,. vestiges o f the myths and artistic concepts o f O ld Europe, vvhich endured from the seventh to the fourth m illennium b c vvere transmitted to the m odem W cstcrn world and became part o fits cultural heritage.

A A A SH : Acta Archaeologica Acadcmiac Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest. A JA : American Journal o f Archaeology, N ew York. Banner, Kdkenydomb: J. Banner, ‘Anthropomorphe Gefasse der Thcisskultur von der Siedlung K okćnydom b bei Hodmez6v<*f$ifrhely (U ngarn)’, Germama, X X X V III: 14- 35. 1950. B C H : Bulletin dc Correspondance Hellettique, . Athens-Paris. Bcrciu, Contribufii: D. Berciu, Contribufii la problemele neoliticului in Rotninia in lumina noilor cercetcfri. Bucharest, 1961. B R G K : Berichte der Romisch-Cermanischen Kommission. B S A : Annual ofthe British School at Athens. London. B U : Belgradc Univcrsity. Czalog, Szegvdr-Tuzktives: Jć s e f Czalog, ‘ Dic anthropomorphon Gefasse und Idolplastikcn von Szegvar-Tuzkoves’, Acta Archaeologica. X I: 7-38. Budapest, 1959. Dacia: Recherchcs ec decouvertes areheologiqucs en Roum anio I—X II, 1924-47. Dacia R cv u c d ’archeologic et d’histoire . ancicnne, N .S. I- X V , 19 57-1972. Dom bay, Zengovdrkony\ jsfaos Dombay, ‘ Dic Siedlung und das Graberfeld in Zengova'rkony\ Archaeologia Huttgarica. 37. Budapest, 1960. Dumitrescu, L'art Romanie: V. Dumitres­ cu, L'arttjvolithiaucen Rotnanic. Bucharest,

I9rt8. Dumitrescu, Traian: V. Dumitrescu, ‘ La station prćhistorique dc Traian; fouilles de 1936. 1938 et 1940’ , Dacia, N .S. IX -X ( 1941- 44). 1945Evans, Palače 0/ Minos: Sir Arthur Evans, The Palacv o f Minos, a toniparative of the successiiH' stages o f the Barly Cretan Civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. London, vol. 1 - 1 9 2 1 ; vol. II-19 28 ; vol. II I - 1930; vol. IV -19 35 . Galović, Predionica: R . Galović, Predionica: Neolitsko Naselje Kod Prištine (German translation: Predionica: Aneolithischc Ansiedlung bei Priština). Priština. 1959. GaraSanin, Religija: D . GaraSanin, 'R e li­

gija i kult neolitskog ehoveka na Central­ nom Balkanu’, Neolit Centralnog Balkana, 1968. Gaul, Neolithic Bulgaria: ] . H. Gaul, T h e Neolithic period in B ulgaria; early food producing cultures in Eastern Europe’, American School of Prehistoric Research, Bulletin 16. 1948. Georgiev-Angclov, R u sa Georgi I, Georgicv and N. Angelov, ‘ Razkopki na selištnata mogila do Ruse prez 1948-1949 god’, izvestija. Bulgarska Akad. na Naukite, Archeol. Inst. X V III (1952): 119 -19 4 and X X X I (1957). Gcorgicv, Beitrage: Georgi I. Georgiev, ‘Beitrage zur Erforschung des Neolithi• kums und der Bronzczeit in Siidbulgarien’, Archaeologia Austriaca, X L lX L II: 90-144. 1967. Godishnik, Plovdiv: Annuaire de Musee National Archeologique. Plovdiv (in Bulgarian). Grbić, Pločnik: M . Grbić. Pločnik aneoli­ thische Ansiedlung. Belgradc, 1929. Grbić, Porodin: M . Grbić et al., Poroditi, kasnoneolitsko naselje na Tumbi kod Bitolja. Bitola, 1960. Guldcr, Maissau: Alois Gulder, ‘ Die urnenfelderzeitliche Fraucnkrote von Maissau in Niedcrostcrreich und ihr geistesgesehicjullcher Himergrund', Mittcilungen der PrUhistorischen Kommission der Čsterreichischen Akadcntic der Wissenschaften.

X : 1—157Hcsperia: Hfspvrit1 Journal o f the American School at Athens. Athens-Princeton. IP E K : Jahrbuchfur Prtihistorische unci Bthnographische Kunst. Berlin. Izvestija: Bulgarska Akademija na Naukite. Izvestija na Artihcologichcskija Institut. JH S : Journal of Helletiic Studies, London. Kalicz, D ieux: Nandor Kalicz, Dieux D ’Argile. L ’dge de pierre et de cuivre en Hongrie. Budapest. 1970. Kandyba. Schipemtz: O . Kandvba, Scltipenitz. Kunst und Gerate eines ncolithischen Dorfes. Biicher zur U r- und Friihgeschichte. V. 1937. Korošcc. Prehistorijska plastika: Josip Koro-

šec,

‘P rahistorijska

glinenu

plastika u

Jugoslavija (Prehistoric plastic art m Vugoslavia)’, Arthcohškl Raitci'i i Ras­ prave, I ( 1959 ), 6 1 - 1 1 7 ; II (196 2). 1 0 3 174. K S llM K : Kmikie Sooks'mhmja 0 Dokiatlnkh i Vok-vykh hsledomiijakh Instituta hiniti Matcfifiinoj Kuhury. MdftCavv,

MeliaafJ. Cotal: James Mellaart. 4iy62 SSčavatiafi* at Osa! Huvtik- Scccmd pf?lliTiiiiary repoffc’ . AthV.olm Studits,

XU\: M i A •' M vM iair i I s M m fs ljđ p » Afkheolitgii š š š k - , M§§saw*L?ii?figrašL HAM

Nfitisn«}

AittipiEi*?

iiuniisnuiliscli-a rch'aologiselicu Abtci Inu%der Siebenhtirgischen Naiional Mm?uni. Koio*, vhr-Ciuj, 1941 • R ybakov, Comogony: B. A. Rybakov ‘C osm agonv and m ythology o f the agriculturalist* o f the Eneolithic’, Soviet Aii(hr0polo#y and Afchacology, IV, z:

36 and 3:3 3 -5 1. iy ć $~ 66. Transistian from Russiim, ofiginai!y pubHšhcd in Sm'tskfljfl AfkhMkgijd. 196$, 1 and 2: S A : $\m nlm ja A rMitologiji!. S C IV ; Snuiii fi m m š fi mirt Rtfpubltaet P o p u lar Romins, »nstitwt'iii đv AfJiv8lag&-

Siisftteki G m lsšu e C . k e n fftw The in ? ej ite fifsi f m i m , Quy 4 & 3?m ¥ Šeier*m > 23tieh3r(?sž. Ni&jdlftV, Cičfiftošnić&i Bogdan Nikdi&v. Tašie, Valu? : N. Tasić, 'Hraistorisko naselje ’ĆHineftfl pločka s pismeni znači Ot s. kod Valaea’ (Prehistoric settlement at Oradežriica, Vračanski okryg* (Rćsum <5 Vala«?), Glasnik Muzeja Kosova i Metohije, in Frcneh: Plaque cn argiie avec des signes II. IV. V :45 »957dVcriturc du village GradeSnica, dtfp. de Tasić-ToiuicS Cmokalaćka Bara: N. Tasić Vraća), in t article vvith Vladimir I. and E. Tom ić, Cmokalaćka Bara Naselje Georgicv, ‘ Debuts d ’ćcriture de ChalcoStarce vučke i Vinćanske Kulture, Disscrtalithique dans les terrcs bulgares’, Archaeotiones. VIII. Krusevac, 1969. logija, X II, 3 : 1-9 . 1970. NM Belgrade: National Museum Belgrade. Todorovic'-Ccrmanović. Batijica: Jovan NM Belgrade Catalogue (1955): Norodni Todorović and Aleksandrina CermanoMuzej Beograd, Praistorija II. Katalog vić, Banjica'naselje vintanske kulture. (BanKeramike I (1955). Includes: B. Stalio, jica, Siedlung der Vinča-Gruppc). Bel­ grade, 1961. Zlokučani-Gradac, R . Galovič, Lipovac - ‘Dizaljka’, and Sremski Karlovci Tsountas, Diminiou kai Sesklou: Ch. ‘ Karaš’. With German translacion. Tsountas, A i proistorikai akropokis Diminiou kai Sesklou- Athens, 1908. Pa<sek, Cčnimicfiic tripolienne: T . S. ck. U C L A : University o f California at Los La C
im im * 8f Afžfia€§i8gy Ofiri«?

240

Details of sites ineluding radiocarbon dates A ch ilicion , near Farsala, Thessaly, Greece, a siMtified teli o f the Sesklo cuiture with continuous habitation from c. 6600 a c to c. j8oc> B c. The superimposed villages yielded daincstic shrines and cm)e places ceiitered afpund the ovens in the co«rtyards, over joo anfhropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines o f đay and sso»e, removable maaks, msskd«co»ted vases, stumps, altar table?, tlmmes. iaj{jgi m đ other eultie cquipmeru. Oated by fe n ? tadioeafbe’ H dstes, Artiilteisu is a bartfeane fer the sttiđv o f the Sesklo M M t n ift archiisefura!, cersmic. aiis »M dsvciapments. The avurage datss are: l’ hass 1 (Early C eram ic and Proto-Sesklo) 7470 + 7 0 - 7 3 8 0 + 40 B.P., true age around 6500 b c ; Phase II (Early Sesklo) 7310 + 30 —7262 + 50 B .P., true age c. 6300 uc; P h ase III (tra n sitio n a l) 7221 + 50 —7160 + 40 B .P., true ager. 6200 b c ; Phase IV (classical Sesklo) 7040+ 7 0 :—6900 B .P., true age 6000-5900 BC (the uppermost level, IV b, vvas not radiocarbon dated). Finds in the Larisa archacological museum. Publ. Gimbutas 1974; Ferguson, Gimbutas and Suess 1976. The final report to appear in 1983 in Monumenta Archaeologica, Institute o f A rchaeoIogy, University o f California, Los Angeles. Excav.itcd 1973-74 by the author. A nza. at the villagc ol An/abcgovo be­ tvveen T itov Veles and Stip. East Macedo­ nia, southeast Vugoslavia. Stratitlcd Central Balkan Neolithic site beginning vvith the earliest painted pottery complcx related to Proto-Sesklo in northern Greece (Anza I) contimting throughout the vvholc Neolithic (Anza II and III), and ending vvith Earlv Vinča (Anza IV). Excavated 1960 by J. KoroSecand 1969-70 by thet YugoslavAmerican team, M. (»arašanin and M. (fimbutas. M useum: 5^tip. Publ. Marija Gimbutas Arclnieology. 25. 2, 1972: 1976. C 14 dates for Anza I: 7340 ; 250 BP, true age c. 6400/6300 u <: (LJ 2 1 80): 721 o : 100 BP, true age c. 6400/6300 11c: (LJ 2330/ 3 0 - 7140 : 250 B P, true age c. 6400/6300 BC (LJ 2332); 7 120 : 100 BP. true age c.

6400/6300 b c (LJ 2337): 7080 x 100 BP, true age c. 6000 a c (LJ 2339); 7070 :i ioo BP, true age c. 6000 b c (LJ 2342); 7030 ± 320 BP, true age c. 6000 b c (LJ 2 15 7 ); 6880 x 250 BP, true age c. 6000 » c (LJ 2333). Anza U : 6980 ± 80 BP, true age c. 5900/ 5800 b c (LJ 2409); 6900 i. 80 B P , true age c. 5900/5800 uc (LJ 2405)Anza III: 6700 .1 8 0 BP, true age c. 5700/5600 iu; (U C L A 1705C ); 6560 ± 120 BP, tfue a^e c. 57eo/.sr?oo s e (U C L A 1705U): 6 0 5 i 250 BP. ffuc age c. 5700/ 5600 » c (LJ 2185). Anza IV : 6250 i 100 B P, true age r. 5300 b c (LJ 2329): 6200 • 200 BP. true age C.

5300 BC (LJ 24ii).

A rgissa. or Gremnos, near Larisa, Thessalv, Greece. A stratified Neolithic and Bronze Age teli. In over 8.5 m. ofcultural material, fifteen strata vvere observeđ, representing the tollovving scquence: pre-ceramic Neoli­ thic, early ceramic, Proto-Sesklo, Dimini, and Mvcenaean. Excavated 1955-58 by V. Milojčić. Publ. Milojćić 1955, 1958. 1965; Milojćić-Boessneck-Hopf, 1962. Museum: Larisa. C 14 dates. Pre-ceramic Neolithic; 8130 : 100 B P. true age c. 7150 b c (U C L A 1657A ); 7990 ; 95 BP, true age c. 7000 uc. (U C L A 16570). Early ceramic: 7500 : 90 B P, true age f. 6500 b c (GrN 4145). Ariu^d. distriet south o f Glieorghe, region o f Bratov. A stratified settlement o f the C'lassical and Late Cucuteni civilization. Excavated 1907-8. 19 10 -12 and 1925. Publ. F. Laszlo Dacia I (1924). A szod . located northeast o f Budapcst. I lungary. A site and eemetery o fth e Lengvcl cuiture. Excavated 1960-66 by N. Kalicz. Museum: Aszod. C 14 dates: 5100 : 105 BP, tru e. age 4200-3800 b c (UOLA 1225). A z m a k , near Stara Zagora, central Bul­ garia. Large teli site vvhich yielded a complete sequenee o f the East Balkan or

241

'Karanovo* civilization. Excavated 1960-63 by Cl. I. Georgiev. Museum: Stara Zagora. Publ. Georgiev 19 61, 1962, 1963, 196$, 1969. C 14 đates for the Karanovo I phase: 7303 ■}: 150 B P, true age c. 6350 b c , (Bln “ 93)'. 7*58 ± 150 BP, true age c. 6200 d c (Bln 2 9 1); 6878 x: ioo BP, true age c. 5900 b c (Bln 292); 6768 ± 100 B P , true age c. 5800 b c (Bln 294): 6 7 7 9 1 100 BP, true age c. 5800 b c (Bln 296); 6720 ± 100 BP, true age c. 5750 b c (Bln 295); 6812 ± 100 BP, true age c. 5850 bc (Bln 299): 6675 ± 100 B P, true age c. $700 » c, (Bln 297); 6540 4. 100 B P, true age c. 5550 b c (Bln 298); 6652 ± 150 B P, true age c. 5700 b c (Bln 224); 6483 .£ 100 BP, true age c. 5500 b c :, (Bln 30 1); 6426 ± 150 B P, true age c. 5450 (Bln 300); 6279 i : 120 B P, true age c. 5300 b c (Bln 430). Karanovo V phase: 5840 i 100 BP. true age c. 4800 b c (Bln 136); 5737 ± 150 BP, true age c, 4550 b c (Bln 143); 5630 150 B P. true age c. 4450 b c (Bln 150): 5829 ± roo BP, true age c. 4750 b c (Bln 15 1) ; 5760 :: *50 B P, true age c. 4600 b c (Bln 148); 5803 150 B P, true age c 4700 b c (Bln 142): 5697 i- 100 B P, true age c. 4550 bc (Bln 137 ); >219 ± 150 B P, true age c. 4200-4000 B C (Bili 147). Karanovo VI phase: 5888 ; 100 BP, true age c. 4850/4800 b c , (Bln 149); 5390 : 100 BP. true age c. 4350 bc (Bln 145); 5035 150 BP. true age c. 4200/3800 BC (Bln 146); 5 7 17 ioo BP, true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 1 3 1 ) : 5703 .l 100 B P, true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 139); 5597 120 B P, true age t\ 4450 b c (Bln 144): 5700 100 BP, true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 135 ); 5621 • 200 BP, true age c. 4500 b c (Bln 138 ); 5620 ; 100 BP. true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 14 1) : 5520 : 200 BP. true age c. 4400 b c (Bln 134). bc

B an jata, central Bulgaria near Kapitan Dim itrijevo at Pazarđžik. Teli site vvith remains o f East Balkan Karanovo I—11. 111. V and VI phases. Excavated 1947-48 by P. Detev. M useum: Plovdiv. Publ. Detev, 1950. B an jic a. northeast o f Belgrade. Stratified Vinča site vvith 4 m. o f cultural remains. Five phases have been noted. Excavated

242

»VSS-S7 b y j. T odorović and A. Cormanovic and published in 1961.

Vallev. Excava.ted 1926-30 bv A. Leszik. j. Hillebrand and F. T om pa; 1948 by J.

Boian and Gumelnifa settlements o f the East Balkan civilization. The former yielded

C 14 đates: 57*0 d: 90 BP, true age c. 4550 b c (GrN 1542) for the Late Vinča horizon.

Korek and P. Patay. Museum: Miskolc. Publ. Tom pa 1929; Korek and Patav

B erc$ti, at Bujor, eastern Rom ania. Classi­

B ran č, Nitra, Slovakia, Czechoslovakia. Lengyel settlement defended by a strong palisade. The site belongs to the Brodzany

the sanctuary vvith tvvo pillars, the Iatter a clay model o fan edifice. Excavatcd 1925 by Gh. Stefan; 1962-69 by H. and V. Dumitrcscu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. V. Dumitrescu 1965, 1970; H. Dumitrescu

cal Cucuteni (Cucuteni A) settlement. Museum: Galami. Publ. Ion T. Dragomir Dan ubius i (*967). B e rn o v o L u k a, western Ukraine, middle Dniester. Early Cucuteni (Tripolye) settle­ ment. Excavated 1952 by T. S. ek et al. Publ. ek Doklady VI, Inst. Arch. Kiev

(195$)■ B ilc z e Z lo te , south o f Tarnopol, upper Dniester Basin. A Late Cucuteni cave site. Excavatcd at the end o f the nineteenth-early twentieth century by G. Ossowski and W. Demetrykiewicz. Museum: Arch. Mus. Cracovv, Poland. B la g o e v o . at Ra2grad, Bulgaria. East Balkan civilization, Chalcolithic, Karanovo VI period. Find place o f marble figurine, Fig. 102, ehapter VIII. B o đ ro g k e re sz tu r, northeast Hungary. Name o f the cultural group and period o f the Hungarian Copper Age follovving the Tiszapolgifr com plex: indudes a cemetcry o f 50 excavated graves. Excavated 1921-26 by L. Bella.J. Hillebrand and F. V. Tompa, Publ. Bella Jl>. der Urg. Arch. Ges. (1923), Hillebrand IV P Z 13 (1926). B o ian , island in Lake Boian north o f the Danube, bet\vcen Olteni^a and Calara$i, southeast Rom ania. Eponvmous site o f the Boian variant synchronous vvith Karanovo IV and V o f the East Balkan civilization. Excavatcd 1924 bv V. Christescu; 1956-59 by E. Com$a. Museum: N A M Bucharest. Publ. Christescu Daria Ii (1925); Com$a Mat. Cere. Arh. 5-S (1959-62). B o rd jo g. near N ovi Beeej. northern Yugoslavia. Find place o f figurine. Pl. 94. Ch. VII. Tisza settlement. B o rets. near Plovdiv. central Bulgaria. East Balkan civilization. Chalcolithic. B o rso d . near Miskolc. northeastern Hungary. A Neolithic Bukk site in the Sajo

Rcgeszi’ti Fiiz, II. 2 ( 195*0 -

and Ludanicc phases o f the Lengycl culture. The Ludanice phase is represented by scvcntcen children’s burials. Excavated 1961-62 by J. Vladrfr. Museum: Nitra.

1968. C 14 dates o f the Boian-Spanfov settle­ ment: 5570 (Bln); 5K60 (Bln); 5980

± 100 •{• 100 ± 100

BP, true age c. 4400 bc BP,true age c. 4800 BC, BP,true age c. 4900 b c :

Publ. j . Vlada'r 1969.

(Bln). Gumelni^a settlement: 5618 r 120 BP.

B u tm ir, near Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. Epony-

true age c. 4450 b c, (Bln); 5485 ±. 120 BP. true age c, 4350 b c (Bln).

mous site o f the Butm ir complcx. The settlement was stratified into three habitation horizons representing continuous developmcnt. Excavated 1893-96. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo. Publ. Radim sk^ 1895; Fiala 1898. B y la n y , near Kutini Hora. Kolin, Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. Large settlement o f the Linear Pottery culture, followed by a settlement o f the Chalcolithic Lengyel culture. Excavated 1953-61 by B. Soudsk?. Museum: Bylany and Prague. Publ. Soudsky 1958, 1959. 1960, Anti(jnity, X X X V I (1962). 1966. C i 4 dates for the Early phase: 6320 ± 230 BP, true age c. 5350 bc ( M i897); 6250 ± 230 BP. true age c. 5300 b c ( M i896). M id-phase: 6270 ± 65 BP. true age c. 5300 b c (G rN 454); 6 170 I 45 BP. true age c. 5100 b c (G rN 4752). Late phase: 6180 145 BP, true age c. 5100 b c (GrN 4755): 5^10 i 65 BP. true age c. 4700 b c (GrN 4751). C alo m fire$ti. dist. ofTeleorm an. Southern Rom ania. East Balkan civilization. Chalco­ lithic. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. C ap ri. Orotta dclle Felei, NaplirS, Jtalv. Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlement with ccramie ware ofth e Capri. Ripolj and Diana groups. Excavated 1921 by V. Rellini. Museum: M useodi Capri. Publ. Rellini Monumenta Antiqua 29 (1923). C flscioarelo, southern Romania near Olteni^a. an island in the lovver Danube. A stratified Chalcolithic site including late

Č avd ar. 60 km. east o f Sofia, Bulgaria. Neolithic, East Balkan teli o fth e Karanovo I period. Excavation 1970 by R . Katinčarov. Museum: Sofia. C ern avo d a, northv/est o f Conscam;a, Danube delta, Rom ania. Cem etery site o f the Hamangia culture. Excavated 1957 by D. Berciu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ, Berciu, 1966. Pls. 247-250, Ch. X . C i4 dates for Hamangia 111: 5880 ± 70 BP, true age c. 4800 b c (G rN 1986). C ernica, locatcd at Bucharest, Rom ania. Cemeterv o f the East Balkan civilization. Chalcolithic, Early Boian phases. 340 burials uncovcred. Excavated 1960-67 by G. Cantacuzino and S. Morintz. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. Cantacuzino 1967C hacro nea, Bocotia, central Grcecc. Settle­ ment with 6 m. o f cultural material, basically Proto-Sesklo with red-on-white painted vvarc. Excavatcd 1902-7 by G. Sociriadis. Museum: Chacronea. Publ. Sotiriadis Athen. Miri. 30(1905); Epheut. Arch. (1908); Rev. Etmies Greque.< 25 (1^25). C orin th . Peloponnese. Greece. Contains Nćvera! laver? o f Nooiitliic scttlefnents fovind urnier članica! remains. Exciwatc^ since 1896. Publ. S. W cinberg Htsperi* 6 (1957); 17 (19 4 8 ); 29 ( 1960); A JA { 1939), 5 * («947): V. Milojčić GnoMio« 22 (1950)C rn o k alaćk a Ba**a, near Niš, 20 km. southeast o f the mouth o f the M orava. Southern Vugoslavia. Stratified Central Balkan Neolithic (Starčevo II) and Chalco-

-43

Jirhic Vinca site. The Vinca culture consists oj three phases. Escaviued iy}& bv M. Miiffcovjć; 195 i by M. and D. GaraJanin; M useum o f Kruševuc and N M o f Belgradc (R . Cinlović) 1959-60 and 1967- Publ. Tasić and T o iilič i&ty. C r v s B ft

near P e tro v ^ i. M on te-

V ugOšIsviii. C a ve ti«? vvifh ifviđifiH't* u/H'Hftrflltfftt-iK the PalaettliEftu:, Mv’suUtliic.', and Early N eolith ic. E g ca vattd 19 5 4 -5 7 bv A . lioii;u' ;wvd M , B ro d ar. Publ. B enae and

lirtidar Glasnik

A r/i. <2 (1957); 1 3

( I95-H). C sa, southeast Hungary. Neolithic Cen­ tra! Balkan Starčevo (Koros) settlement. M useum : Szarvas, southern H ungary. Publ. F. K-rccsmarik Arch. En. 32 (19 12}. C u cu ten i. near Tirgu-Frumosf. district o f Ia?i. Moldavia, northeast Rom ania, Strati­ tiod svtdement vvith Cucuteni A, A - 13, and B phases which gave its name to the Cucu­ teni civilization in Moldavia. Evidence o f copper from the earliest phases. Excavated 1909-30 by H, Schmidt; 1961-68 by M. Petrescu-Dim bovip. M useum: Berlin and Bucharest, la$i and Birlad. Publ. Schmidt Cttatfi'iii 19 32: Petrescu-D im bovip CiitiiH'tii 1 9 6 6 . C u in a T u rc u lu i, located 011 bank o fth e Danube at che Iron Gates. district o f Turim Scverin. Rom ania. Central Balkan Neo­ lithic Starčevo site vvith three eonsecutive phases, £xcavated 1967-72. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. D an ilo , near Sib enik. Yugoslavia. Eponv­ mous site o f the Danilo culture. Excavated 1952 by D. Rcndič-Miocevi«?: 19 53-55 bv J . Korošec. M useum: Šibenik. Publ. Korošec 1964. D ik ili-T a s h . at Philipi, Macedonia, Greece. Eponymous site o fth e Maccdonian variant o f the East Balkan civilization. Stratified mound vvith culturalstrata parallel to Sitagroi. Excavatcd by J. Deshayes and D. Theocharis 1965; 1968-70. Publ. j. Deshayes, Bullctin
-44

lithic Dimini group. E.scavuted ?«oS by Ch. TscHHitas. Museum: A ih em uju! Vobs. Publ. Tsmmtas 190K. C 14 date: 56*0 i. 150 BP, true age c. 4450 15c (GrN). Divotffift, near Ki‘agiycv;ic\ ceiuraj Yugoslaviu. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo and Lace Vm£a settlement. Excavated [^ ^> 69 by fhc t Yugaslav« A meriean team, A. Mlierron and D. Srejovič. M useum : Kragujevnc. C i 4 dates for the Starčevo phase: 6950 i £00 UF. true age c. 6000 ii0 (Bln 896) and for the same pit, thermoluminescence dat­ ing (Aitkcn’s O xford Lab.) yicldcd a value o f 6190 800 BC. Other Starčevo dates: 7080 180 BP (Bln 823); 7020 ± 100 BP (Bln 826); 6970 100 BP (Bln 824); 6910 : ioo BP (Bln 827); 6995 100 BP (Bln 862); 7060 .: 100 BP (Bln 866); 7200 ± :oo BP (Bln 899). True age c. 6000 b c . Vinča phase: dates for Pit 121 vvere 5860 : 100 BP, true age c. 4S20 b c (Bln 898); 5247 : 100 BP, true age c. 4300 b c (BM 5 7 4 ) : thermoluminescence measurement vieided a value o f 4920 BC ± 700 for the same pit. Other Vinca dates: 5825 ± 100 BP. true age c. 4800 b c : (Bln 863); 6020 i00 BP. true age c. 5000 » c (Bln 865), D o n čo v a M o g ila (Bikovo), central Bul­ garia. Teli o fth e Chalcolithic East Balkan civilization o f Karanovo V and VI periods. Exeavated 1948-49 by P. Detev. Museum: Plovdiv. Publ. Detev. Codhlmik 1 (1954). D on ja B ra n je vina, near Deronj, northern Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo settlement. Excavatcd and pubh*>hed bv S. Karmanski 1968. Museum: Odžaci. D ude$ti. southeast o f Bucharest, Romania. Stratified site vvith remains o fth e East BalLm Karanovo III and Earlv Vinča materials hich succeeded the Starčevo (Cri§) culture. I- w.ivatcd 19 5 4 -5 6 bv E. Com$a. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. Com$a S C U ' 7 11956); Kotigrcss (1958). D v o r y N ad Ž ita v o u , near N ove Zam ky, vvestern Slovakia. Cemoterv o fth e Linear Potterv culture. Želiozovce group. Mitseum: Nitra. Excavated and published by J. Pavuk Slof. Arh. X X I. 1 {1964).

Elateia (Drakhmani), Phokis, Greece. Xw o Neolithic teli sites. Excnvuted 1909-10 fov G. Sotiriadis and 1959 by S. Weinberg. Museum: Chacronea. Publ. Soiiriadis Atheti. Mitt- 30 (1905), 31 ( 1yo6); Bphm , Arch- ( 1908); fiev. Bttidcs Griu/ucs 2 5 (19 12 ); Vodice and Thompson Pn’historic Tln,ssiiiy 19 12 ; Weinberg A JA 65 (iy fli): Hetpvria 31 (1962). . Horizons vvith the earliest monoehrome potccry: 7480 x 70 BP, true age c. 6500 bc (GrN 2973); 7360 90 BP, true age c. 6400 liC (GrN 3037); 7*90 i 100 BP. true age c. 6200 b c (GrN 3041). Follovving horizon vvith painted pot­ terv: 7040 ±. 330 B P, true age c. 6050 b c (GrN 3502). Fafos, at Kosovska Mitrovica, Southern Yugoslavia. Fafos I-E.irly and Fafos Il-Late Vinča settlements. Excavated 1956 and 1959-61 by B. Jovan ović and J. GliSić. M useum : Priština. Fru m u sica, near Moldavia. Classical Cu­ cuteni settlement. Excavated and published 1946 bv C . MatasS. Museum: Piatra Neam$. G h clae$ti (or Nedeia near Ghelae§ti). district Neam{, northeastern Romania. a Cucuteni A /B -B , settlement, c. 4000- 3600 b c , noted for the discovory o f a Central strueture vvith a ritual find. In an egg-shaped vase four figurines (tvvo unpainted and tvvo vvith black-painted heads and feet) had been placed at the Cardinal points. Six vases, painted vvith snake and double-seed bands, were arranged in a circle around it. The assemblage probablv was instrumental in rituals dedicated to the resurgence o f plant life. Excavated in 1970 bv Niju, C'ucoj and Monah, publ. 1 9 7 1 : Ouco§ 1973. Finds in the museum o f Piatra Neamj. G lad n ice. near Priš:ina. S o u t h e r n Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo settlement. Excavatcd 1960 bv J. (Jlišić. Museum: Priština. G o lja m o D clch evo , a Neolithic, Chalcol­ ithic and Copper Age teli and a ccmeterv o f 30 graves in the va!ley o f R. Luda Kamchija. tiortheastern Bulgaria. e.vcavated bv D. Zlatarski 1931 and H. Todorova 1968-71.

The site yiclđed exquisite graphite painted potterv, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic vases, over 100 figurines, a.o. cult objeets. The Chalcolithic period (Karanovo V , Sava variant) daeed by radiocarbon: Level III (Bln) 5940 ± 100 B .P. and Level IV (B ln 924) 5 8 4 0 + 10 0 , true age c. 4800 - 4700 l>c. The Copper Ago (later Karanovo VI); Level IX (Bln 921) 5515 ± 1 00and Level XII (Bln 920) 5590 + 100, (Bln 920a) 5640 ± 1OO, true age c. 4400 - 4300 b c . Finds in the Varna archaeological museum. Publ. Todorova, Ivanov, Vasilev, Hopf, Quitta, and Kohl 1975G o m o la v a , on the R iv er Sava, Vojvodina, northern Yugoslavia. A stratified teli vvith the M id-Vinća layer belovv Baden-Kostolac, Middle and Late Bronze Age, La Tene II and III, Rom an and Medieval cultures. Excavated since 1904 b v j. Brunsmed. 1953 by R . Rašajski and S. N agy, 1965-71 by B. Brukner and B. Jovanović. Museum: N ovi Sad. G o rn i Pasarel, central Bulgaria. Chalcoli­ thic settlement o f the East Balkan civiliza­ tion. Excavated 1952-53 bv N. Petkov. Museum: Plovdiv. Publ. Petkov 1957. G o rz a, at Hđdmez£>va'sitrhely, southeastem Hungarv. ScEtlement and burials o f fhe Chalcolithic Tisza group. Exeavated 195663 by G. Gazdapusztai. Museum: Hodmezovasa'rhelv. Publ. Gazdapusztai \hrni Fer. Muž. fi\‘konyi>i' 1963. G rad ešn ica (Gradeshnitsa) near Vraća, northvvestern Bulgaria, Neolithic and Chal­ colithic teli, cxcavated bv B. Nikolov 1964 73. The Neolithic sire o f three succcssive horizons parallels Starčevo II Karanovo I. c. 5800 - 5600 BC. 16 houses oftim ber uprights and wattlc and daub uncovered. some \vith geometric decoration on interior vvalls and ineluded richlv svm bolicallv decorated polichrome painted globular and anthro­ pomorphic vases. The three Chalcolithic levels run parallel vvith early Vinča, around 5000 b c 63 houses excavated arranged in streets. Houses are 6 to 9 m. long, rec­ tangular. some o f several rooms vvith ovens and pitehed roots. Horizon B vieided a temple model vvith svmbois and signs

-45

arranged in s on the ro o f and vvalls and a shallovv dish vvith inscriptions. More than a dozen vases were inscribed. O ver 200 schematic anthropomorphic figurines collected, some inscribed with signs. G ro tta S c a lo ria , Manfredonia, Foggia, Italy. Adriatic civilization: Neolithic cave site vvith flint and obsidian tools, red painted and impresso vvares. Excavated 1930 by Q. Quagliati. M useum: Foggia. Publ. by U. Rellini La piti antica ccramica dipivta in l falia 19 3 4 ; B P / L V I-L V II(1936- 37).

Scaloria.

G u m e ln ifa , near Oltcni^a, Southern R o ­ mania. The type site o f the Chalcolithic East Balkan civilization, synchronous vvith Karanovo VI in ccntral Bulgaria. The settlement has been dividcd into two main phases corresponding vvith Gumc!ni{a II and III. Excavatcd 1925 and 1960 by V. Dumitrcscu. M useum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. V. Dumitrcscu Dacia II (1925), VI/ VIII (1937/40), IV N. S. (1960): Archaeology (1966). C 1 4 dates: 5865 ± 50 BP. true age c. 4800 b c (Bln): 5675 ± 80 BP, true age c. 4500 b c (Bln); 5400 120 BP. true age c. 4350 BC (Bln); 5715 ± 7 0 BP. true age c. 4550 b c (G rN 3025); 5400 i : 90 BP. true age c. 4350 B c (GrN 3028). Haba§e$ti, near Tirgu-Frum o$, Moidavia, northeast Rom ania. A classical Cucuteni settlement. Cucuteni A complex. The settlement vvas fortified by tvvo defensive ditches. Excavaccd 1949-50 by V. Dumitrescu. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. V. Dumitrcscu 1954. C 14 ; 5330 + 80 B P true age 4360 BC (G rN 1985). H lu b o k e M a šu v k y , near Znojm o, M oravia, Czechoslovakia. Settlement o f the Lincar Potterv and Strelice group o f the Chalcolithic Lcngyel cuiture. Exeavated 1927-39 by F. Vildom ec; 1949-50 by J. Neustupnv. Publ. Vildomec and Salm l PUK 11 (19 31 -3 7); Ohzor Prehist. 13 (1946); Neustupnv Arch. Rozhl. 2 (1950); 3 (19 51): Časopis Nar. Mus. Prag. (1948-50). H u rb an o v o , near Hurbanovo. Komarno. Slovakia. Neolithic settlement vvith ceramic rem ains attributed to the Linear Potterv Želiezovce variant. Lengyel. Tisza and Biikk cultures. Excavated 1953 Southern

246

58. Museum: Nitra. Publ. C. Ambros and B. N ovotny Arch. Rozltl. 5 (1953); P

i (1958). M ikov, Georgiev and Dzambazov y 0dac za Arch. M uz. I (1952). Claul B A S P R

Čaplovic Arch. Rozhl. 8 (1956); B . Novotny Počiatky vytvarneho prejavu na Slovensku (1958); H. Quitta P Z 36 (1960).

16(194«)-

H v ar, island. cave site located at Grapčeva spilja. Adriatic civilization, Chalcolithic period. Excavatcd and publ. by G. Novak 1955. Museum: Zagreb. Ilon ap art, near Szcntes, southeastern Hungary. Linear Pottcry settlement, excavated by J. Cza the early sixties. Museum: Szcntes. Iz v o a re le . near Baca u. Moidavia, northeastern Rom ania. Settlement o f the Early Cucuteni civilization on the R iv er Bistrica. Five horizons have been identified as be­ longing to the Proto-Cucutcni and Cucu­ teni A. Excavated 1936-48 by R . Vulpe. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. Vulpe

1957. Jasatep e. Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Teli site ofthe East Balkan civilization containing Kara­ novo III, V and late VI characteristics. Excavated 1945. 1950-59 by Detcv. Mu­ seum: Plovdiv. Publ. Detev Godishnik 1 (1948). 3 0959). K ak an j, near Visoko, Bosnia, Yugoslavia. Late Central Balkan Starčevo settlement vvith Adriatic (Danilo) elements. Excavated • 954 by A. Bcnac and 1968 by G. Sterud. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo. Publ. Benac Glasnik Sarajevo Arh. N F 11 (1956). K a lo ja n o v e c . 18 km. southvvest o f Stara Zagora, central Bulgaria. Settlement o f the East Balkan civilization. Karanovo IV period. Museum: Stara Zagora. K ap itan D im itrie v o . Central Bulgaria. sve Banja ta.

K aran o v o . near N ova Zagora, central Bul­ garia. Large teli and eponvmous site o f the Karanovo cuiture vvhich provides the backbonc o f the East Balkan cultural sequence. Contains the major phases: Karanovo 1 and II (parallel to Starčevo). IN (Veselinovo), IV. V (Marica phase). VI (Gumelni^a), VII (Earlv Bronze Age). Excavated 1936-57 by V. M ikov and G. I. Georgiev. Museum: N ova Zagora and Sofia. Publ. M ikov Izvestija 5 (1937), Anti(juity XIII (1939). S/l

C 14 dates from the Karanovo II phase: 6807 ± >oo BP, true age c. 5850 b c (Bln 152); 6573 ± 1 0 0 B P, true age c. 5600 b c (Bln 201); 6300 ± 150 BP, true age c. 5550 b c (Bln 234).

Karanovo III phase: 6360 i BP, true age c. 5400 B C (Bln 158). Karanovo VI phase: 5840 + 230 BP, true age c. 4800 BC (Bln 236). K arbu n a, Ci misli district, Sovice Moidavia, U S S R . yieldcd a hoard o f 852 objeets in a vase attributed to the Pre-Cucuteni (Tripolye A) cuiture. O ver h alf the objeets vvere o f copper and over 250 vvere o f shell. The vase vvas uncovercd in an uncxcavated settlement. Publ. Sergecv „SVI (N o. i, 1962). K ato Ierapetra, located 011 the Southern coast o f Crete. Middle Neolithic settlement. Museum: Heraklion, Crete (Giamalakis Collection). K aza n lik , located at Kazanlik, central Bulgaria. A large teli vvhich yielded a complete sequence o f the Neolithic East Balkan civilization. Excavated 1966-70 by G. I. Georgiev and R . Katinćarov. Museum: Kazanlik. K en ezlo , near Tokaj, northcastern Hungarv. Nlithic Biikk and Chalcolithic Tisza settlement. Excavated by N. Fettich. Museum : Nyfregyh.i?a. Publ. Toni pa K o d ž a d c rm c n . near Šumen, northcastern Bulgaria. A 7 m.-high teli o fth e East Bal­ kan civilization vvith remains o fth e Boian cuiture follovved by Gumelni'a. Excavated 1914 bv R . Popov. Museum: Sofia. Publ. Popov Izvestija 6 (19 16 -18 ); Gaul B A SP R 16 (1948). K 6 k e n y d o m b . in Hodmezovasarhelv. southeastern Hungarv. Settleinent and cemeterv o f the Tisza cuiture. Exeavated 1929. 1940-42 and 1944 bv j . Banner. Museum: Hmlmezovasa'rhelv. Publ. Banner. Kokatydomb. K o lo m ijsh c h in a , at Khalepje. south o f Kiev, Ukrainian S S R . Settlement o f the Classical Cucuteni (Tripolyc) cuiture. E.\-

cavated 1934-38 by T. S. ck. Museum: Moscovv, Inst. Arch. Publ. ck 1949. K op an cs, in Hodmez6vasarhcly, south­ eastern Hungary. Comprises several Neoli­ thic and Chalcolithic settlements ineluding the Central Balkan Starčevo (Koros) succeeded by the Tisza comp!ex. Excavated by J. Banner. Museum: Hodmczova'sa'rhciy. Publ. Banner Dolgozatok 8 (1932); 9 -10 (* 9 3 3 -3 4 ); 13 ( 1937 ).

K o sz y Io w c e (Koshilovce), near ZaliSčiki, vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni (Tripolye) settlement. Excavated 1906-13. Museum: Lvov (Lvvovv), Publ. K. Hadaczek, La coloniv itidastriellc de Koszylowce (Cracovv 1915). K o ta art, at Hc5dmezovasa'rhcly, south­ eastern Hungary. A Central Balkan Neoli­ thic Starčevo (Koros) settlement ineluding eight burials in rubbish pits. Excavated 1933“ 34 by G. Banner. M useum: H<5dmezova'sarhely. Publ. Banner Dolgozatok 8, 9 -10 (1932. 1933- 34). C 14 date: 6450 ± ioo B P, true age r. 5500 bc (Bln 115). K ryn ic h k a . district o fB a lta, Podolia, vvest Ukraine. Late Cucuteni settlement excavatcd during the ninetecnth centurv. pri vate col. E. N. Antonovich-M clnik, Kiev. Publ. Makarenko IP E K (1927). K u k o v a M o g ila (Duvanli). near Plovdiv. central Bulgaria. Settlement o f the East Balkan civilization, Karanovo III period. Exeavated 1928-30 by B. Filov. Museum: Plovdiv. L a n g -E n z e rsd o rf. located at Korneuburg. eastern Austria. Settlement o f the Lcngvel cuiture. Excavatcd 1952 bv H. LadenbauerOrel. Museum: Vienna, Naturhistorisches Museum. Publ. Ladenbauer-Orel IP IiK 19 (1954- 59); //>, Landeskd. SicJvrostcneidi 36 (1964). C 14 dates: 5950 : 130 BP, true age c. 4850 bc : (Neustupnv 1969): 5880 ; 120 BP. true age c. 4800 i h : (Neustupnv 1969)* L a rg a -Jijic i. district o f la$i. Moidavia. northcastern Moidavia. Multiplesettlement site vvith Linear Potterv. Earlv ('PreCucuteni') and Late Cucuteni (Cucuteni B)

-4 7

material. Excavated and published by A. D. Alescanđrescu. Duda V and S C U ' X II. 2 (i9 6 1).

Museum: Argos. Publ. Cnskey Hesperia 23 («954). 25 (>9 0 ). 26 ( 1957). 27 (1958),

L e n g y e l, near Szeksza'rd, Tolna, Hungary. F,ponymous settlement and cemctery o f the Lengycl cuiture. The Earjy Chalcolithic cemecery includes 90 graves. Excavatcd 1882-88 by M. Wosinszky. M useum: Szekszdrd. Publ. Wosinszky Dtis prcihisiMisth? $duw zw i’rk von U‘ii$ycl f S88; Tolttirtenet? 1 896.

L e f (Varheghiu), at St Gheorghe, Transyl-

(«9$y)vania, Rom ania. The site consists o f various Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlements. The earliest stratum belongs to the Central Bal­ kan Starčevo (‘Cri$’) cuiture divided into tvvo phases, followed by the East Balkan Boian and Cucuteni-Ariu§d Chalcolithic ct?mplexe$. Excavated >949~55 by Z . Szckely, 1- Nestor and E. Zaharia. Museum: N A M : Btivhare>it. Publ- žisharia O m a N,S. VI (ititii).

seum- Unpublished. C l 4 date for carbonizcd grain sample: 6100 ± 100 B P (LJ 2521), true age c. 5000 bc

.

M egara H yb la ea, Syracusc, Sicily. Neoli­ thic settlement o f the Adriatic Impresso cuiture, Stentinello group. The site vvas surrounded by a defensive diteh. Excavated 19 17 by P. O rsi; 1950 by F. Villard. Mu­ seum: Museo di Siracusa. Publ. P. Orsi Monumenta Anticjua 27 (19 2 1); Vallet and Villard B o li Aete 45 #3 (1960).

LčpSnšfc! Vttf. on the fefink ©f the Danube i>t jhi? ?fć;r» CJate*. VtigOslžv'if*. A Vllifigv $ f hinises. prhv sćtslj?iyn bv M. Vasić; 1930 l?y M. Gfbie and tarifš wš?re found. CiiHttffiipor&fv with žhe 1931 bv V. Pewkes. Museum: NM 8el*Neolithic Early Starčevo com plex, but grade. iftcUiđes local Danubian Mesolithie ele~ Lisičići, near Konjic, Hercegovina, Yugo~ ments, especially in the physical tvpe o f slavia. A settlement o f the Adriatic (Hvar) people, massive CrtVMagnon. Hxcavated civilization, vvhich is divided into three 1965-69 by D . Srejovič and Z . Letica. living horizons. Excavateđ 1952-54 by A. Museum: Universitv, Belgrade. Publ. Benac. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sara­ Srejovič 1969. jevo. Publ. A. Benac Neolitsko naselje u C hron ologv: end seventh-early sixth Lisičićima kod Konjica 1958. millennium uc. C i 4 dates: 6560 100 B P. true age c. L o ve ts, near Stara Zagora, Bulgaria. East $600 b c (Bln 655); 6630 ; 100 BP. true Balkan civilization o f the Chalcolithic age c. 5650 b c (Bln 654); 6820 r 100 BP. period (Karanovo Vl-Gumelni^a typc). true age c. 5850 bc: (Bln 650): 6620 100 Museum: Stara Zagora. BP. true age c. 5650 uc (Bln 652): 6820 L u k a -V ru b le v e tsk a y a , located in the 100 BP. true ager. 5850 b c (Bln 576); 6843 100 B P . true age c. 5850 BC (Bln 647); upper Dnicster Vallcy. district o f Kameneodolski, Ukraine, U .SSR. Early Cucuteni 6860 100 BP, true age c. 5900 uc. (Bln (’Tripoive A ’) settlement. Exeavated 1946575); <>Hoo 100 BP. true age c. 5850 bc: 50 by $. N . Bibikov, Museum: Moscovv. (Bln 649); 6900 i 100 BP. true age c. 5950 inst. Arch. Publ. Bibikov 1953»<: (Bln 678): 6900 : 100 BP. true age r.

M o lfetta, Bari, Puglia, Icaly. Impresso settlement. Fifty burialsexca vated. Graphite and painted ware similar to the Serra d ’Alto complex vvere found. Excavated 1908-10 by A. Mosso and M. Gervasio. Museum: Museo Archeologico di Bari and Seminario di Molfetta. Publ. Mayer Le Stazioni preistoriche di Molfetta 1904: Messo M .A .L.

5950 b c (Bln 379): 7040 : 100 BP. true age c. 6050 b c (Bln 653): 6984 ; 94 BP. true ager. 60001* c (Z 1 15 ) : 7300 : 124 BP. irue age c. 6350 b c (Z 143): 7 310 ; 100 BP. true age c. 6350 uc: (Bln 740a): 7360 : 100 BP, true age c. 6400 b c (Bln 740b): 6970 : 60 BP. true age c. 6000 bc: (U C L A ).

(1924): 45 (»925).

(>o

L ern a. near Argos. eastern Peloponnese. Greece. Settlement consisting o f t\vo Neoli­ thic cultural layers follovved bv Earlv Bronze Age remains. The upper Late Neo­ lithic layer consists o f eight building horizons. E.veavated 1956-59 bv J. L. Caskev.

M atera, Basilicata, ltaly. Several Neolithic sites o f the Adriatic civilization, MateraCapri complexes. contemporaneous vvith the Sesklo and Dim im groups o f Greece. Excavated 1912 bv D. Ridola. Museum: Matera. Publ. D. RidoJa La Grotla dei Pipistre!Ii e la Grotta Funeraria in Matera 1912. M ed ved n jak . at Staro Selo, near Sinederevska Palanka, central Yugoslavia. Large settlement ofthe classical Vinča civilization. Excavated 1968-70 by R . Galović sponsored bv the Smederevska Palanka Mu-

M o h cin icc. Za'br«?h, Šumperk. Moravia, C*cehoslovakia. Linegr Pottery settlement follovvcd. by a Lcngyel settlement. ftecar vated 1953 *>>' Tichy. Museum: Brno. Publ- Tiehy Arch■ Rozhl. 8 (1956); Sbornik Afch- Vst. Brno 1 (1960); 2 -3 ; Preliled Vyzkuwm Brno 1960; 1962: Pam. Arch. 49 (»95«); 53 (1962).

X X (1910). M u ld a v a , central Bulgaria. Teli site vvith a rich layer o f the Neolithic East Balkan (Karanovo I typc) civilization. Excavated and publ. by Detev. Godishnik VI (1968). Museum: Plovdiv. M u rgecch ia, Matera, Basilicata, Italy. Neolithic settlement o f the Adriatic Matera cuiture. Site surrounded by two concentric ditches. Excavatcd 1K98 by D. Ridola. Museum: Matera. Publ. Ridola BPI 44

foundations. Aegean civilization. Excavated 1954 bv D. R . Theocharis. Museum: Volos. Publ. Theocharis Athen. Miti. 71 (1956).

N e a N ik o m e d e ia , near Verroia, Mace­ donia, Grccce. Early Neolithic (ProtoSesklo) o f tvvo levels and Late Neolithic settlements. Excavatcd 1961-6 3 by R . J. Rodden. Museum: Verroia. Publ. Rodden P P S 28 (1962); Scientific American (1965, April). C 14 dates for the first Early Neolithic building horizon: 8180 i 150 BP. true age c. 7200 BC (Q 655); 77^0 ± 270 13P, true age c. 6800 b c (G X 679)- Following horizon: 7 5 5 7 i 9 ‘ ftP> true age c. fifioo b c (P IZ02); 7281 i 74 BP, true age c. 6300 bc

(P 120 3A).

N c b c , near Travnik. Bosnia, Vugoslavia. A Butmir settlement. Ceramics are Classical and Late Butmir in styie. Excavated 194S49by A. Benac. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo. Publ. Benac Prehistorijsko naselje Nebo i Problem Butmirske Kulture 1952'; Glasnik Sarajevo Arh. N F 8 (1953). N itra , Slovakia, Czechoslovakia. Within the city the following sites vvere e.veavated: an early Linear Pottery site vvith 77 graves located on the left bank o f the R iv er N itra; a Lengyel site vvith houses o f the Ludanice tvpe. Excavated by J. Lichardus and J. Vladar. Publ. Vladar Slov Arch, 18-2 (1970). N itrian sk y H rad o k . N ove Za#mky, Slo­ vakia, Czechoslovakia. Settlement o f the Lcngvel cuiture. Middle Danube civiliza­ tion. Excavated 1957-59 bv A. Točik. Museum: Nitra. Publ. Točik Referaty Lib­ ila’ 13 (1959) i Lichardus. Pam. Arch. 57 (1966).

M u rg ia T im o n c , Matera. Basilicata, ltaly. Adriatic civilization, Matera complex. Mu­ seum: Matera. Excavated 1897 by D. Ridola and G. Patroni. Publ. Ridola BPI

N osa. at Subotica, northern Yugoslavia. Neolithic Starčevo (Koros) settlement vvith remains o f rectangular houses. Excavated >967-58 by D. Garašanin and L. Szekeres. Museum: Subotica. Publ. D. Garašanin Berichte Rom. - Germ. Kom. 39 (1958).

44 (1924).

N o v y e R u sesh ty I, near Kishenev, M oi­

N ea M ak ri, Marathon, Attica, Greece.

davia, U S S R . Classical Cucuteni settle­

Settlement consisting o f Early Neolithic (Proto-Sesklo) and Late Neolithic layers. Both contain rectangular houses vvith stone

ment. Excavated by V. 1. Markevich in the sixties. Museum: Kishenev. Publ. Marke­ vich 1970.

249

O bre I, near Kakanj, Bosnia, YugosIavia. Settlement consists o f four habitation hori­

O v c h a ro v o near Trgovište, northeastern Bulgaria, a Neolithic Starčcvo-Criij site vvith semi-subterranean dvvcllings and a

zons, the earliest representing Starčevo complex vvith geometrically painted blackon-rcd ware. The upper three beiong to an end phase o f the same Central Balkan Neolithic culture, locally called ‘ Kakanj’ , Excavated 1968 bv A. Benac and M.

Chalcolithic-coppcr age teli with thirteen habitation levels, cxcavated by H. Todorova 19 7 1-7 2 . The later parallels Karanovo IV -V I. Extraordinary discoverics vvere made in Karanovo VI levels. Level 9 yieldeda

Gimbutas. M useum: Zemaljski Muzej, Sarajevo and Cultural History Museum,

cultic scene o f 26 miniature cult objeets including four figurines vvith upraised arms

U G L A . Los Angcles. Publ. Marija Gim ­ butas Archaeology, 23, 4 (1970). C 14 dates for the lovvest horizons (Phase A ): 7240 4; 60 BP, true age c. 6250 BC (U C L A 1605 I): 6795 + 150 BP, true age c. 5780 b c (Bln Lab. 636); 6710 ± 60 BP, true age c. 5750 bc (U C L A (605G). Middle phase (Phase B ) : 6430 ± 60 BP, true age c. 5450 BC (U C L A 1605F). Upper horizons (Phase C ): 6230 ± 80 BP (Bln 659), true age c. 5150 b c ; 6150 ;j_70 BP, true age c. SO60 b c (U C L A 1605H).

and decorated vvith meanders and parallel lines, three temple fa^ades or altar screens, ninc ehairs, three miniature tables, three vessels vvith lids, tvvo large dishes, and three drums suggesting the ritual u seof music. The group vvas in association vvith a shrine model including an altar and oven. Quantities o f schematic figurines, other shrine models, anthropomorphic vases, graphite-painted pottcry, and ceramic vvorkshops čame to light. Finds in Trgovište museum. Publ. Todorova 1976.

O bre II, near Kakanj, Bosnia, Yugoslavia. Most important site o f the Butm ir culture. Nine habitation horizons have been established and three developmental phases. Excavated 1967-68 bv A. Benac and M. Gimbutas. Museum: Zemaljski Muzej. Sarajevo. Publ. M. Gimbutas Archacolo$y 23-24 (1970); A. Benac Obre //, Neolitsko naselje butmirske grupe na Gornjem Polju (Sarajevo 197 0 C 14 dates for the lovvest lavor (Butmir 1): 6175 : 80 BP. true age c. 5100 bc (Bln 639): 6075. : >00 BP. true age c. 5000 b c (Bln 792); 6 110 ;; 60 BP, true age c. 5000 b c (GrN 5683); 60io : 60 B P . true age 4950 b c (GrN 5684): 5925 : 80 BP, true age 4850 b c (Bln 657). Middle lavor (Butmir H): 5875 ■ 60 BP, true age c. 4840 b c (U C L A 160.sC). Upper laver (Butmir II): 5740 t. 80 BP, true age c. 4550 BC (U C L A 1605B). Other dates shovv the same period. O tzak i. near Larisa. Thessalv. Greece. Large teli site vvith four main cultural l.jvers beginning vvith Proto-Scsklo. follovved bv Pre-Sesklo. Classical Sesklo, and Late Neolithic. Excavated 19 5 3 -SS bv V. Milojćic. Museum:

Larisa.

Publ.

Milojćic

Auli.

Anzeiger 1954. !955- >959: Jb . Romisih(ierm. Zentral Aluseuni 1959.

250

Padina, Iron Gate Gorge, northern Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic settlement, Danubian regional group vvith Starčevo elementi. Related to Lepenski Vir. Excavated 1968-71 by B .Jo v an o v ić, sponsored by the Belgrade Arch. Institute. Publ. jovan ović A rit. Pregl. 10 (1968); Stare Kulture u Djerdapi 1 (1969): Arch. Ittgoslavica 9 ( 1971). Par$a, south o f Timisoare, vvestern R om a­ nia. Early Vinča settlement. Museum: Timo$oara. P aza rd ž ik (Junacite), Central Bulgaria. Teli site o f the Chalcolithic East Balkan civilization. follovved bv a Bronze Age layer. Excavatcd 1939 by V. M ikov. Museum: Plovdiv. P erieni. near Birlad. northern Moldavia. Romania. Neolithic settlement o f the Central Balkan Starčevo (*Cri$') tvpe. follovved bv a layer o fth e Linear Potterv culture o f ‘ Music N ote’ tvpe. E.vcavated 1949 and 1955 bv M. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a. M useum : Ia$i, Moldavia. Publ. PetrescuDimbovi^a 1957; Acta Arch. Acad. Sc. Ilung. 9 (1958). P ianul de Jo s. near Sibiu. Hunedoara. Rom ania. Settlement o f the Chalcolithic

pctrc$ti group. Excavatcd 1963 by luliu

R illi. Publ. Rellini La piu antica cera-

Paul. Museum: Sibiu. Publ. Paul 1965.

ntica dipinta in Italia 1934; R illi R S P 16, (19 6 1); 17 (1962).

P ie tre le, near Bucharest, Rom ania. East Balkan Chalcolithic settlement vvith re­ mains o f Late Boian and five phases o f Gumclni^a comp!excs. Excavatcd 1943-48 by D. Berciu. Museum: N A M , Bucharest.

R o s k e -L u đ v a r, south o f Szeged, Southern H ungary. Central Balkan Starčevo (Koros) Neolithic settlement. Excavated 1965 by O. Trogm ayer. Museum: Szeged.

Publ. D. Berciu Mat. Cere. Arh. 2 (1956).

R u d n ik K o so v sk i, near Prizrcn, Southern

P lo č n ik , Southern Yugoslavia at Prokuplje.

YugosIavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo settlement. Excavatcd 1966-69 by J . GliSić. Museum: Priština.

Large Late Vinča site vvith c. 3 m. o f cultural deposits. Excavatcd 1927 by M. Grbić; 1968-70 by B. Stalio. Museum: NM Belgrade. Publ. Grbić 1929. P o ro d in , near Bitola, Southern Y ugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic settlement. Star­ čevo complex, Macedonian variant. Excavated 1 9 5 3 - 5 4 by M. G rbićctal. Publ. Grbić 1960. C 14 dates: 7 110 i 470 BP. true age c. 6150 b c (H 1486/987). P re d io n ica, in PriStina. Southern Yugo~ slavia. Vinča site o f several periods. Earlv and Late, the latter half o f the tvvo phases. Excavated 1955-56 bv R . Galović. Mu­ seum: Priština. Publ. Galović 1959. C i4 dates for Early Vinča: 6279 : 80 BP, true ager. 5300 b c . (Bln 435). P yraso s, located at Nea Anchialos near Volos, Thessalv. Greece. Stratified teli site vvith the follovving succession o f Thessalian Neolithic: Proto-Sesklo, Sesklo, ArapiDimini, Larissa and Rakhmani. Exeavated 1956 bv 1). R . Theocharis. Publ. Theo­ charis Thessalika 2 (1959). R a d in g ra đ near Razgrad, northeastern Bulgaria, a teli vvith several phases, parallel to Karanovo IV, V , excavated by Totju Ivanov in 1974-78. Unpublished. The most remark­ able discovery vvas a tvvo-storey temple. Its first floor had a ceramic vvorkshop vvith a large oven and tools for potterv making and decoration. the second floor comprised the temple proper vvith a clay altar 75 cm. high. vertical loom . figurines. and temple models. R ip o li. Corropoli, Terano. Abruzzi e Molise. Italv. Eponvmous settlement and cemeterv site o fth e Adriatic Ripoli cotuplex. Excavated 1910 bv A. Mosso: 19131915 by l. PairO sso and 1961 bv A. M.

R u g B a ir, near Sv. Nikole, eastern Mace­ donia, southeastem Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo and Early Vinča stratified site. Excavated 1970 by American (U C L A ) and Yugoslav (Naroden Muzej, Štip) teams (M. Gimbutas and V. Sancv). Museum: Štip. R u g in o a sa , district o f Ia$i, Moldavia, northeastern Rom ania. Settlement o f the C'lassical Cucuteni (Cucuteni A) culture. Museum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. H. Dumitrescu Dacia III—IV (1927-32). R u se, northern Bulgaria. East Balkan civilization, Chalcolithic site. (Karanovo VI-Gum elni;a period). Excavated 1950-53 by G. I. Georgiev and N . Angelov. Museum: Ruse. Publ. Gcorgiev-Angelov Ruse. S a b atin o v k a II, Proto-Cucuteni (Early Tripolye) settlement near Uljanov, district ofK irovograd , vvestern Ukraine. Excavated 1947-49 by M. L. Makarevich. Museum: Odessa. Publ. bv Makarevich in Arkheol. Pa inja ik i Ukrainskoj R S R , vol. IV (1952) and Makarevich 1960b. Salcu^a. near Craiova. southvvestern R o ­ mania. Tvpe site o f the Salcu^a variant o f the East Balkan civilization vvith seven phases o f development. Follovvs the Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo (‘ C riO civiliza­ tion. Excavated 19 16 -20 bv I. Andriesescu: 1947 bv H. Dumitrescu: 1951 by D. Berciu. M useum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. Berciu

1961. Sarvaš. near Osijek, northern YugosIavia. Lovvest horizons o f this stratified S’te included a Central Balkan Starčevo laver. follovved bv the Lengyel and then Baden and Vučedol cultures. Excavated 1942-43

bv R . R . Schmidt. M useum: Osijek and Arheol. Muzej. Zagreb. Publ. Schmidt I 'učeJol (i94$)Sc a lo ria (see also Grotta Scaloria), a cave site at Manfredonia. south ofGargano, southeas­ tern ltaly, exćftvafed by Marija Gimbutas and Shan Winn 1978-80. The upper cave viddčđ habitation remains and 140 burials. most o f vvhich wcrc probably sacrificial; in the lovvcr cave with stalagmites and stalactjtes, a sacred Wćll, and quantities o f vases vvere found. Total o f c. 1500 symbolically decorated vases, inscribed bone and clay artifacts. and very rich flint industry vvas uncovcred from the main period o f the cave, c. 5600 - 5300 b c , based on six radiocarbon da tes; (LJ-498o) 6800 + 160; (LJ -4649) 6720 + too B .P .; (LJ-4981) 6620 ± 3 8 0 B .P .; (LJ-4650) 6490 ± 140 B .P .; (LJ-4651) 6.130 + 90 B .P .; (LJ-4983) 6 0 5 0 + 13 0 B.P. The report due to appear in Monumenta Archaeologica, Institute o f A rehaeology, U n iversityof California, Los Angeles, 1984. On water cultin the Iower cave .«<*<'Tine 1972. Finds are in the archaeological museum o f Manfrcdonia and Foggia. S e lev ac. 15 km. vvest o f Smederevska Pajanka, centra! YugosIavia. Settlement o f early classical Vinča tvpe. Exeavated 196970 by K. Galovićand K. Milosevićand 111 '70S by R. Tringham . Museum: Smederevska Palanka. Scrra d ’ A lto , Matera. Basilicata, ltaly. Settlement and cemeterv site ofthe Adriatic M atera-Capri cuiture and tvpe site o f the Serra d ’ Alto complex. Site surrounded bv a defensive diteh. Graves vvere excavated otitside the settlement. Excavated 1919 bv D. Ridola and U. Rellini. M useum: Museo di Matera. Publ. M aver Molfetta mul Matera 1924; Rellini Not. Se, so (1925). Sesk lo . near Volos. Thessalv. Greece. Eponvmous site o f the Sesklo cuiture. represented by the middle laver. Preeeded by the Pre-potterv. Earliest Potterv and Proto-Sesklo and foIUnved bv Dimini and Post-Dimini complcxes. F.nc.i vated 19 0 1-2 by Ch. Tsountas; 1957 bv D. R . Theocharis. Museum: Volos. Publ. Tsountas 190 8; Theocharis Praktika 32 ( 1957 ) : Ihessalika 1 (195K).

C 14 dates for Pre-pottery period: 775, i 97 BP (P-1681). true age c. middle ofthe seventh millennium BC. Early Potterv period: 7 6 11 + 8 3 (p_ 1679), 7427 it: 7« ( P - i M ) . 7300 ± 93 (p„ sriHo). true age o f ali three dates is wich$n the second half o f seventh millennium ac. Classical Sesklo: 6964 i- 92 (P-1674), 6?4* :i: 103 (P -1677), 6694 ± 87 (P-1675), true age vvithin the first half o f seventh millennium uc. Late Classical 6504 ± (P-1672), true age c. middle o f sixth millennium bc. Dimini Period: 5622 4 80 (P-1671), true age c. middle o f fifth millennium b c . S ip in tsi (Schipenitz), northvvest o f Chernovitsi. on the bank o f the R iver Prut, vvestern Ukraine (Bukovina), U S S R . Late Cucuteni settlement, Publ. Kandvba Schip enitz J947- Vienna, Naturhistorisches Museum. S ita g ro i. Plain o f Drama, northeastern Greece. Large rell o f the East Balkan civilization \vith 12 m. o f cultural debris. Five periods. I-V . I and 11. Late Neolithic svnchronous vvith Karanovo III and IV; III, Chalcolithic svnchronous \vith Karanovo VI. foIUnved bv periods IV and V o f rhe Earlv Bronze Age Balkan-Danubian cuiture. Excavated 1968-69 bv A. C. Renfrew and M. Gimbutas. Publ. Colin Renfrcvv Prm'. Prdi. Soc. 36 (1970). C i 4 dates for Phase I: 6625 : 170 BP. true age c. 5650 b c, (Bln 779}; 6425 100 BP. true age c. 5450 BC (Bln 778). Phase II: 5920 ; 120 BP, true age c. 4S50 b c (Bln 777); 5720 : 100 BP, true age c. 4550 b c (Bln 776); 6240 ; 100 BP, true age (. 5300 b c (Bln 884): 5904 l 66 BP. true age c. 4850 i h : (BM 649). Phase III: 5795 ; too BP, true age c. 4650 b c (Bln 882): 5555 : 100 BP, true age 1. 4400 BC (Bln 88 i); 5545 : 100 BP. true age <\ 4400 b c (Bln 883); 5100 : ioo BP. true age r. 4200-3800 i h : (Bln 774)-

S m ilč ić . near Zadar, Dalmatia. Yugoslavia. Contains an earlv level o f the Adria­ tic Impresso cuiture overlaid bv a horizon ofthe Danilo compleN. Excavated 1957-59• 1962 bv Š. Batović. Museum: Zadar. Publ. Batovic Diatlora 2 (19 6 0 -6 1): 1966.

Souphli- at Larisa. Thessalv. Greece. Stratiti^ teli ineluding Pre-ceramic, ProtoSesklo. Sesklo, and Late Neolithic Postpiniini phases. Excavated 1956 bv D. R . -j'heocharis. M useum: Larisa Publ, Thcochafis Tltt'.'salika > (19$#). S t a r a ja

B u d a . upper Siniukha Valley,

vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni settlement.

.publ. ek Ceraniique tripolienne 1935. Starčevo , near Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Eponymous site ofthe Neolithic Central Balkan Starčevo cuiture. Excavatcd 1930 by M. Grbić; 19 3 1-3 2 by V. Fevvkes, H. Goldman and R . W . Ehrich. Museum: N M Belgrade. Publ. V. Fevvkes Buli. Am. School Preli. Research 9 (1936): D. Arandjelovič-Garašanin, Starčeratka Kultura (1954). S t e n tin e llo , Syracu.se. Sicilv. Eponvmous

site o f the Stentinello group. Defended by a ditch and stone vvall. Exeavated 1890, 1912, 1920 bv P. O rsi; 1961 by S, Tine. Museum : Museodi Siracusa. Publ. Orsi BP I 16 ( 1 S90); 36 (19 10 ); Tine Arch. Stor. Siracusano 7 (1961). Strelice, JeviSovice, Zn ojm o. Southern Moravia. Czechoslovakia. Contains several sites o f the Chalcolithic Strelice group o f the Lcngvel cuiture. Escavated bv Palliardi and J. Vildomec at the end o f the ninetecnth-earlv tvventieth centurv. Museum: BoskovStcjn near Znojm o and Brno. Publ. J. Palliardi M P C . I (Vienna 1897): U 'P Z I (19 14): Vildomec ()P 7/8 (Prague. 1928/ 29); 12 (Prague. 1940): Neustupnv A R 3 (»95 0 Su lica. near Stara Zagora, Central Bul­ garia. Chalcolithic site, Karanovo VI period o f the East Balkan civilization. Museum: Stara Zagora. Publ. Gaul Neolithic Bulgaria. Su ltan a, located on the shore o f Lake Mosti$tca. district ot Oltcni(.\. S o u th e rn Rom ania. Belongs to the East Balkan civilization, Museum: Olteni^a. Publ. Marinescu-Btlcu Dacia XI (1967). S z e g v a r -T iiz k d v c s . at Szcntes. south­

T a n g iru , near Giurgiu, lovvcr Danube, Rom ania. Stratified teli vvith tvvelve levels o f Boian and nine o f the Gumelni^a periods o fth e East Balkan civilization. Excavated 19 33 -3 5 ; 1956; 1957 by D. Berciu. Publ. Bere iu 1961. T ecić, near Kragujcvae, ccntral Y ugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo settle­ ment and tvvo burials. Excavated 1960 by R . Galović. Museum: N M Belgrade. Publ. Galović 1964. T irp e$ti, district o f T g. Neam(, region o f Bacau, northeastern Rom ania. An Earlv Cucuteni (*Pre-Cucuteni UP) settlement. Excavated by V. Dumitrcscu a n d j. Mari­ li escu-BUcu in the earlv $ixties. Museum: N A M , Bucharest and Bacau. T isz a p o lg a r-B a sa ta n y a at the villagc o f Polga'r near Tiszalok, southeastern Hungary. Eponytnous ccmetery site o f the Chalcolithic period (or Early and Middle Copper Age o f the Carpathian Basin). 166 graves exeavated. E.veavated 1929 by F. Tompa and 1946 by I. Bogna'r-Kutzian. Museum: N M Budapest. Publ. I. Bogna'rKutzia'n 1963. In the same area. tclls vvith Neolithic-Chalcolithic remains are knovvn: Tiszapolgar - Csoszhalom. TiszapolgarFolyra's-Szilmeg and others. C 14 dates: 6940 : 100 BP. true age c. 4700 b c (Bln 5 13): 5845 : 60 BP. true age <\ 4700 b c (GrN 1934): 5 7 7 5 :. 100 BP, true age c. 4700-4600 b c . (Bln 512). Later level: 5575 : 100 BP. true age <\ 4400 i h : (Bln 509). T raian . northern M oidavia, northeastern Romania. The site o f several Neolithic Ncttlcmcnts: 1. Dcalul Fintinilor ineluding Linear Potterv. Earlv and Classical (Cucuteni A -B ) remains and 2, Dcalul Viei vvith a single laver belonging to the Earlv Cucu­ teni (‘Pre-Cucuteni I’) civilization. Exeavatcd 1 9 5 1 - 5 9 by H. Dumitrcscu. Museum: N A M . Bucharest. Publ. H. Dumitrcscu

eastern Hungarv. Settlement and cemeterv ofth e Tisza cuiture. Excavatcd 1956-57 bv j. Czajog. Museum: Szcntes. Publ. Czalog

. s c / r i u (1 95 2 ); i v (1 9 5 3 ) ; v (1 95 4 ); v i

Szegiuir- 7 V/ckores.

Arh. VI (1959).

(t<;

55 );

Mm. ('ere. Arh. III (1957) and V

(1^59); H . and V. Dumitrcscu Mat. Cere.

T r ip o Iy e , near K iev, vvestern Ukraine. Classical Cucuteni settlement and name used for the Cucuteni civilization in Soviet Moldavia and western Ukraine. Excavated 1899 hy V. V. Khvojka (Chvojka). M u­ seum: Kiev. Publ. Khvojka Trud)’ X I Arkh. sjezda, Kiev 1901. Tru$e§ti, near Botošani, northern M ol­ davia, Rom ania. Large habitation site in . vvhich 98 houses vvere uncovered, most o f vvhich belonged to the Classical Cucuteni (Cucuteni A) period. Excavated 19 5 1-5 9 ; 1961 by M . Petrescu-Dimbovi^a. Museum: la§i. Publ. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a Tru$e$ti. T sa n g li, Thessaly, Greece. Neolithic settle­ ment o f the Sesklo culture. The uppermost layer associated with the Early Helladic Bronze Age. Excavatcd 1905 bv Ch. Tsountas; 19 10 by A. J . B . Wace and M . S. Thompson. M useum: Athens. Publ. Wace and Thompson 19 12. T san i, Thessaly, Greece. Stratified Neoli­ thic teli including remains o f JPre-Sesklo (red monoehrome pottery), classical Sesklo, Dimini and Late Neolithic characterized bv a coarse grey vvare and Urfirnis \vare. Excavated 1909 by A. J. B. Wacc and M. S. Thompson. Museum: Athens. Publ. Wace and Thompson 1912. T u r d a f (Tordoš), La Lunea locality on the bank o f the R iver Murc$, Transylvania, region o f Huneodara, Rom ania. Early Vinča settlement. Unsystematicexcavation. end o f the nineteenth century. Museum: Institute o f History, C luj. Publ. Roska, Torma CoUection 1941. Vadastra, near Corabia, Oltenia, southvvestern Rom ania. Eponymous site o f the VSdastra variant o f the East Balkan civiliza­ tion; contcmporary vvith Boian. Preceded by a late middle Aurignacian Palaeolithic layer; overlain by a laycr o f the Salcuta complex. Excavated 1926 by Vasile Christescu; 1934 bv 1). Berciu: 1946-62 bv C. Matecscu. M useum: N A M , Bucharest. Publ. Christescu Dacia III-IV (19 27-33): Mateescu S C I V 6 (1955); Cere. Arh. 5-6 (1959): Arch. Rozhl. 14 (1962). V alač, near Kosovska Mitrovica, Southern Yugoslavia, Late Vinča settlement vvith

1 .U

cultural stratum 0.90-1.20 m. thick. Excavated 1957 by N. Tasić and J. Glišič. Mu­ seum: Kosovska Mitrovica. Publ. Tasić

1959; 1(X>*• C 14 dates: 5895 ± 80 BP, true age c. 4850 b c (Bln 436). Corresponds to 4 m. depth at the Vinča site. V alea L u p u lu i, district oflaši, northeastern Rom ania. Large Late Cucuteni (Cucuteni B) settlement on the terrace o f River Bahlui, Excavated 1953-57 by M . PctrescuDimbovi^a and M. Dinu. Museum: Ia$i. Publ. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a S C I V V (1954); Dinu Marin Matcriale Cere. Arh. 3 (1957); 5. G ( i 959)Varna, a Copper A ge cemetery o f c. 4500 bc (Karanovo VI period) near the tovvn o f Varna on the Black Sca coast in Bulgaria. Diseovered in 1972 and excavated in 1973-77 by Ivan Ivanov, the cemctery is particularlv noted for quantitics o f gold and copper artifacts, marble rhytons, goldpainted vases, and life-size funerary clay masks with gold attributes. Finds in the Varna archaeological museum. Publ. by Gimbutas 1977 a and b and Ivanov 1978. V a rv a ro v k a , near Kishenev. Soviet Mol­ davia. Late Cucuteni (Tripolve) settlement. Excavated 1967 by V. I. Makarevich, M useum: Kishenev. V ese lin o v o . district o f Jam bol, eastern Bulgaria. Teli o f the Late Neolithic, Kara­ novo III period, East Balkan civilization. Excavateđ bv V. M ikov. Publ. Mikov Izi'cstija 13 (1939).

V id ra, near Giurgiu. southeast o f Bucharest, Rom ania. Settlement o f the East Balkan civilization particularlv noted for its figur­ ine and plastic art. Lovvest level belongs to the Boian-Giulc$ti phase and is follovved by the Boian-Vidra. then the Gumelnifa layer. £xcavated 19 31-3 3 and 1958 by V. Rosctti. Museum: Bucharest C ity. Publ. V. Rosetti Sdpaturilc dc la l ’idra 1934: Publ. Muz. Municip. Ihieurcsti t-2 (1935-36); IP B K 12 (1938): Mar. Cere. Arh. 7 (1961). V in ča. 1 4 km. southeast o f Belgrade 011 the Danube, localitv o f Belo Brdo. Yugoslavia. Mound 10.5 m, deep. The t\vo earliest settlements (belovv X 111.) belong to the

Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo culture, above vvhich were 7 111. o f deposits characteristic o f the Vinča civilization. The Vinča civilization has been subdivided into four co n sec u tive phases. Excavated 1908-12,

thic (Gumclni(a) site o f the East Balkan civilization. Excavated by T. S. ek. Museum: Kishenev. Publ. ek and Gerasimov, 1967, V y k h va tin tsi, district o f Rybn ica, upper

1924, 1928-32 bv M . Vasić. M useum: BU and N M Belgrade. P u b l. M. Vasić Pre-

Dniester, Soviet M oldavia, U S S R . Late Cucuteni (Tripolye) cemetery. Excavated

istoriska Vinca I-IV (193 2-36). C 14 dates for Early and M id-Vinča:

1952 by T. S. ek and E. K. Chernysh. Before this cxcavation, several graves vvere

6190 ± B P , true ager. 5100 b c (G rN 1546); 5845 ± 160 B P, true age c. 4800 n e (GrN

uncovered by M. V . Voevodskij and A. E. Alikhova in 1947. Excavatcd again in 1951 by I. G. Rosenfeldt. Publ. ek 1954.

1537)V la d im iro v k a , Southern Bug Valley, western Ukraine. Classical Cucuteni (Tripolye B) settlement vvith about 200 houses. Excavatcd 1927-28 by B. Bezvenglinski; 1940 by T . S. ek. Publ. ek Cćrantique Tri po licune 19 35; ek 1949; E. K. Chernysh K S IIM K 40 (19 51).

Z cle n ik o v o , near Skopje, Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Located near the R iv e r Vardar. Tvvo phases: the Central Balkan Neolithic Starčevo civilization and the Late Vinča civilization. Excavated 1950-53 by R . Galović. Museum: Gradskij Muzej, Skopje. Publ. Galović 1964. Z en g d v đ rk o n y, near Pecs. Baranva.south-

V rsnik, north. o f Štip, Macedonia, southcastern Yugoslavia. Central Balkan Neolithic stratified site o f four main developmental phases, parallel to Anza I—IV. Begins vvith the earliest Starčevo (or Anza I) and ends vvith Early Vinča. Excavated 1958 by M. and D. Gara.šanin. Museum: Štip. Publ. by the excavators 1959 and 1961 in Štip Mus. Publ. C 14 for Vrsnik III: 6865 • 150 BP. true age c. 5900 b c (H 595/485). V u lk a n csh ti. Soviet Moldavia. Chalcoli­

vvestern Htingarv. Large settlement and cemeterv o f the Lengvel culture. The cemeterv included 368 burials most o f vvhich vvere single inhumations containing grave goods. Excavatcd 1936-48 by J, Dombav. Museum: Pecs. Publ. Dombav ‘ A Zengdva'rkonvi oskori telep os te meto’, Arch. Huug. 23 ( 1 939): 37 ( 19<'»o). Z h van cts, district o f Kiev, Ukraine. U S S R , Late Cucuteni (Tripolve) settle­ ment. Excavated bv T. G. Movsha Arhfteologija X IX (1965).

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Catalogue

Vidra mound, lovver Danube region, 29 km. southeast o f Bucharest. Excavated 1 9 3 1 - 3 3 t>y Dinu V. Rosetti. Bucharest City Museum. Publ. D. Rosetti, 1P EK , 12

T E X .T F I G U R E S 1 Tcrracotta torso. H. 8.75 cm. Fine brovvn fabric. Black lines about the abdomen

7 Terracotta torso vvearing a checkerboard skirt indicatcd by whitc-fillcd incised lines and dots. H. 7.6 cm. Lower part in form o f a cylinder. Classical Vinča. Found 5.6 m

indicate decoration by painting. Hip-belt shown by application. Found 6.9 m. dcep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s excavation. B U

deep in Vinča mound, Vasić’s cxcavation N M Belgradc. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, I: fig 144.

Collection, 4971. Publ. Vasić, Vinca, I: Fig- 95; Vol. III: Fig. 152.

vvhitc-encrusted incisions indicating dress. Classical Vinča. Potporanj, Kremenjak locality, settlement south o f Vršac, north­ eastern Yugoslavia. Regional Museum Vršac. Excavated at end o f nincteenth century. F. Milleker, Die steinzeitliehe Fiituie von Potporanj bei Vršac (Vršac 1934): 1-2 3.

deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s excavation. N M Belgradc 976. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, HJ: Fig. 168.

indicating hair and cyes. Nose in relief

i

H. 3-3 ein. Starčevo settlement at Pavlovac, locality Čukar. N M Belgradeand Archaeol­ ogical Institute N M Belgrade, 15035 exca~ vations o f 1955. Publ. M. GaraŠamn in 39. B R C K 1958, I. 2. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 34 14

!> Lowcr part o f terracotta figurine from Beletinci at Obrcž, district o f Sremska Mitrovica, northern Yugoslavia. Black

i Dark-rcd terracotta figurine. H. 11.3 cm. Eroded surface. Found 7.8 m. deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s cxcavation. B U Collection, inv. 948. Publ. Vasić, Vinca. 1U: Fig. 13 1.

Seated terracotta female figurine from the settlement o f Banjica near Belgrade. H. 9.2 cm. Head and part o f stool broken otf' Dark-grey fabric. White-encrustcd inci­ u 1 Terracotta figurine o f a man vvith a chestsions. Front and middle part o f back painted band. hip-belt and dagger indicatcd in black. Tvvo perforations on each arm stump. reliet. Orange-red fabric. Head and portions Knees and contours o f legs indicatcd alo f legs broken otf. H. 7 .’ cm. Cucuteni A settlement at Bcre$tt near Bujor. district o f though legs shovvn merged vvith those o f Galami, eastern Rom ania. Regional Muthrone. Excavated 1955—57 b v j. Todorović setitn o f Historv, G.ilap Publ. Ion T. and A. Cerm anović. Publ. J. T od orovićA. Cermanović, Banjica: Pi. V ili. 2. t. Dragomir. ‘SJpJturi arheologice la Tg. Bcrcjti (r. Bujor. reg. Ga lati)'. I Terracotta torso o f a Late Vinča female (|<X>7 ) : 4 1 - 5 7 . figurine. D ark-grev fabric;. vvhitc-fillcd 11 rerracotta figurine of a seated man from incisions. Found 4.1 m. dcep in Vinča Valac at Kosovska Mitrovica. Kosovo mound. H. 5.2 cm. Vasić's excavntion. NM Metohije province. Yugoslavia. Found 1.26 Belgrade. Publ. Vasić. Vinča. III: Fig. 419. m. deep in this Late Vinca settlement. Darkgrev fabric. smooth surface. Head broken Terracotta torso o fa female figurine vvear­ otf. H. 7.S cm. Whitc-fillcd inerustations ing a skirt indicatcd bv inciscd vertical and indicate tros. blouse and fmgers. Broad., horizonta] lines. H. 10 cm. Gradac settle­ V-shaped collar painted red. 1 y 55 excavament at ZJokuchani. Morava Vallcv, cNcation bv N. Tasić. National Museum, vatcd 1909 bv Vasić. N M Belgradc. inv. Kosovska Mitrovica. Publ. Tasić. I \ilar. 7S5. Publ. Vasić. ( lla< Scrh. Kongl. Akadeinic Pl. IX . Fig. 3. ( 1 9 1 1). B. Stalio. Zlokućani-Gradac, NM u

Representation o fa decorated shoc, part o f a sculpture. Gumelnita lt-1 phase from the

Terracotta masked head vvith incisions indicating hair divided into tvvo sections. H. 7 2 cm. Fine grey fabric. polished surface. M id-Vinča. Found 6.5 m. deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’sexcavation. B U Collection. 363. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, III: 28. Fig. 179. Terracotta head o f a masked vvoman from the settlement o f Crnokalaćka Bara at Rujištc near Ražanj, 20 km. southeast o f the mouth o f Southern Morava river. southeastem YugosIavia. Late Vinča. H. 6 cm. Black-baked. polished, lustroussurface. Pentagonal mask shovvs vvell modelled eyes. brovv-ridges and nose. Top of head at back incised to indicate hair. 1959-60 excavations o f Krušcvac museum carried out bv E. Tom ić and N. Tasić. Publ. Tasić-Tom ić. Crnokalaćka Bara: Pl. X , i.

burnished. Decorated by white-cncrusted incisions and dots. Traces o f black paint. H. 7cm . Excavation ofVojvodjanski Muzej, N ovi Sad, by B. Brukner, iy 6 i. Vojvodjanski Muzej, N ovi Sad. Publ. B. Brukner, 'Praistorisko naselje na potesu Beletintsi kod O breia’, Rad Vtijpotljanskikh Muzeja, I! (iyf>2): 10S. Pl. V III: 1.

4

270

'i

16 Female figurine in tcrracotta from Late Cucuteni (Cucuteni B) settlement at K rvnichka, district o f Balta. Podolia. Ukrainian S S R . H. 10.5 cm. Naturalisticallv rendered nude bodv vvith long hair indicatcd bv incision ending in a tfat disc vvhich apparcntly portravsa large round coil. Face flat vvith distinet contours o f a mask. Figure in a slightlv stooping position. Arms held beneath long breasts. Ninctecnth-centurv cxcav.ition. Ovvncd bv E. N. AntonovichMclnik. Kiev. Publ. N. E. Makarenko 'Sculpture dc la civilization tripolienne cn Ukraine', I PUK (1927): 1 19. 17

Tcrracotta masked head vvith a conical cap found 5 m. deep in Vinča mound. MidVinča. H. > cm. Light-brovvn fabric. Vasić*s e.Ncavation. BU Collection. Sfi.S. Publ. Vasić. I inča. III: Fig. >73-

Mask and phallic štand found in Phase IV at Achilleion, near Farsala, Thessaly, Greece. Grey clay vvith traces o f vvhite slip. Forehead damaged. Excavated 1973 by M. Gimbutas. H. o f removable mask 3 cm., o f

2^ 2'

štand 6 cm.

Cylindrical terracotta head vvith incisions

S Terracotta female torso with incisions indicating dress. H. 11 cm. Grey fabric medium coarse. M id-Vinča. Found 6.7 m.

2 Terracotta figurine o f fine fabric vvith

Belgrade ('aialo^uc II (1955): Pi. X V I. \a.h.

(1938)\

18

iq

Five masks from different periods: 1, Vinča found 8.5 m. deep (Starčevo). Publ. Vasić, Vinča, III: Fig. 50, Vinča collection, inv. 874; ii, Vinča, found 7.3 m. deep (Early Vinča). Publ. Vasić, Vinča, II, 94, Fig. 187; iii, Vinča, found 6.5 m. dcep (Mid-Vinča). Publ. Vasić, Vinča, II: Fig. 340, inv. 538; iv, Vinča, found 4.2 m. deep (carly Late Vinča). Publ. Vasić, Vinca, I: Pl. X X X V I ; v, Valač at Kosovska M itrovica (Late Vinča). Publ. Tasić, Valač.

jo Terracotta head vvearing broad triangular mask. H. 6.4 cm. Sevcn pairs o f perforations in back o f head and one at cach upper corner. Found 4.6 m. deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s cxcavation. Publ. Vasić. Vinča, III: Fig. 366. >1 Baked clay model o f a sanctuary vvith birdgoddcss’ image above the round opening and plumage indicatcd by incision. L. 20 cm. Dark-brovvn fabric. Derives from unsvstematic excavations o f end o f nincteenth centurv at La Lunca county o f Turda? (Tordoš) on the bank o f R . Murc$ (MaroŠ), Transylvania, Rom ania. Early Vinča culturc, early fifth millennium b c . Arch. Museum o fth e Institute o f Histor>\ Cluj. Publ. Roska. Torina Collection. _■j C lay model o f a shrine. Izvoarelc. Gumclni{a site. lovver Danube. N A M Bucharest. >i C lay model o f a shrine from Popudnia. upper Dniester region. vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni. After M. Himner. 'Čtude sur la civilisation prćmvceniennc*. trit. X IV ( 1933): Pl- XV III. >4. 11 Plan and decorative detail ofthe Cascioarele shrine, after V. Dumitrescu 'Ćdifice destine au culte decouvert dans la couche Boian Span(ov dc la station - teli dc Cascioarele . Dacia. X IV (1970): 20. Fig. 8 and colour plate. j.v jfl Plan o f a shrine and figurines found 011 its altar. From Earlv Cucuteni (Tripolve)

271

settlement at Sabatinovka, Southern Bug

mound. N M Belgrade. After Popovitch Revne Archeologicjue, II (1955).

Vallcy, Soviet Moldavia. After Makare­ vich. 1960. 27, 28 Contents o f the shrine at Gournia (27): perforated vessels from Knossos (2$). After Nilsson 1950: 80. 29 Zoom orphic štand vvith angular perfora­ tions from Turda§, Transylvania. Early Vinča period c. 5000 bc. Museum o f Cluj. io Plan o f a shrine from the Palače o f Knossos (detail). After A. J. Evans, BSA VIII (19 0 1-2 ): 9 5-102. 32 Gold ring from Mycenae. After Nilsson 1950: 81. 33 Terracotta ehairs or thrones from the settle­ ment o f Ruse on the Danube, northern Bulgaria. Gumelni^a complex, East Balkan civilization. After Georgiev-Angelov,

34 Reconstruction o f a cult table vvith vases from the settlement o f Pianul de Jos, Pe trepti II phase, excavated 1963 by Itiliu Paul. Scale o f vases is about 1:8 , ofjar under the table 1 :1 6 . Reconstruction after luliu Paul, ‘Ein Kulttisch aus der jungsteinzeitlichen Siedlung von Deutschpien (Pianul de Jos)’. Forschungen zur Volks- und Landesbunde, VIII. i (1965): 69-76. jj; Minoan seal depieting a priestess vvith triton shell beside an altar. After R . R . Schmidt, Cucuteni (1932): Fig. 2 i ; also S. Alexiou. Minoan Civilization (1969)* Fig. 49. 36 Late Vinča terracotta figurine. Dravving from photograph by Zervos reproduced in Naissance. II: 460. Fig. 734. terracotta

figurine

from 'the

Middle Minoan palače o f Tvlissos. After Evans, Palače o f Minos. I: 634, Fig. 472. {0> Cvlindrical Late Vinča figurine in terra­ cotta incised vvith ideograms and script signs. Light-brovvn fabric. H. n .6 cm. Found 3 m. deep in Vinča mound. Vasič's excavation. N M Belgrade. Publ. Vasić. I 'inča. 111: 89. Fig. 455. 30 Terracotta figurine. Earlv Vinča. H. approx. 5 cm. Light-brovvn fabric. From Vinča

272

41 Tcrracotta spindle-vvhorl from the mound o f Dikilitash near Philipi, Macedonia. After Deshaycs, B C H , X C II (196): 1072. 42 Inscribed vessels from Gradešnica near Vraća, vvestern Bulgaria. After B. Nikolov, *Plaque en argile avec des signes d’ćcriture du villagc Gradešnica, dčp. dc Vraća’ and Vladimir I. Georgiev, ‘L’đcriturc sur la plaque en argile du villagc Gradešnica’, Arkheologija, X II, 3 (1970): 1-9 , Figs. 6, 7. 43

Ruse: 93. Fig- 53-

37 Inscribed

40 Miniature terracotta vessels from the Vinča site. Early Vinča period. After Z . Letica ‘ Minijature sudovi iz Vinča’, Zbornik National Museum Belgradc, V (1967): 77126.

44

Burnt clay tablets, figurines, clay ‘anehor’ or figurine, and Sponđylus bracelet found in the ritual pit o f the Early Vinča layer at Tartaria near Cluj, Transylvania, vvestern Romania. After N. Vlassa, *Chronology o f the Neolithic in Transvlvania in the light o f the Tilrtilria settlement’s stratigraphy’, Dacia, N .S. VII (1963): Fig. 7. Inscribed clay objeets from Sukoro-Toradiilo, east o f Szčkesfehčrva'r. Early Vinča (Bicske type) settlement contemporary vvith Linear Pottery culture. After j. Makkay, 'The Late Neolithic Turdag group o f signs’, Alba Regia (Szekesfehervar 1969): I, 2.3.

Painted geometric designs on Late Cucuteni Found in the inside o f a clay silo dug in the 56, 37 vases from Sipintsi. A fter Kandyba, Schipeearth. Medvednjak at Sm cderevska Palan­ nitz (1946). ka, southeast o f Belgrade. Excavated 1969 by R . MiloŠević o f the Naroden Muzej in Exploded dravving o f decoration on a vase Sm ederevska Palanka. Housed in this from Dimbul M orii, a settlement o f Cucu­ museum, Inv. M 23. Courtesy o f the teni A - B phase at Cucuteni in northern Sm ederevska Palanka Naroden Muzej. Moldavia. Excavatcd 19 0 9 -10 by R . R . Schmidt and from 1961 on by M. Petrescu^8 Terracotta stamp vvith incised quartcred Dimbovi^a. Historical Museum o f Molda­ design. Ruse, northern Bulgaria. Gumelvia, Ia§i. Publ. by M . Petrescu-Dimbovi^a, ni$a com plcx. After Georgiev-Angelov. Ruse: Fig. 48, j . 49 T erraco tta m iniature horns o f consecration.

2, from the Ruse mound on the Danube in northern Bulgaria. After G . Georgiev and N . Angelov, Izvcstija, X X I (1957): 90, Fig. 50, 4, 5. 3, Vinča, afterj. Korošec. Acta et Dissertationes 1! (1962, Zagreb): Pl. X X X I X , 2. 50 Cucuteni vase vvith profile indicatcd (left side) (a) and exploded dravving o f the decoration (b). Cucuteni A phase from the settlement o f H5b3$e$ti, northern Moldavia. After V . Dumitrescu, Htibd{e$ti (1954): 289, Pl. L X V 11. 5/ Dccorative motifs 011 Cucuteni B vases

from Sipintsi on R iver Prut, 15 km. northvvest o f Chernovitsi (Czcrnovvitz), Buko­ vina. Exca vated at the end o f the nincteenth century by J . Szombathy et al. 52 Terracotta cult vessel. Porodin. Reconstrueted. After Grbić. Porodin (1960): Pl. X X V III: 4.

45 Dishes from the Gumelnifa Iayer o f the Tangiru mound, locaIity 2, lovver Danube, Rom ania. Diam. 16.5 cm. and 17.2 cm. Painted vvith graphite. Excavation by D. Berciu, 1959. N A M Bucharest. D. Berciu, Tangiru (1959): Fig. 8; and Coniribufii: 434, Fig. 2 i i . 46 Signs incised on inside and outsideofBylany and other Linear Potterv dishes and jars in Czechoslovakia. After B. S o u d sk y -1. Pavlu, ‘Imerpretation historique de l’ornement linoaire*. Pamatky Archeologicke. LV II—1 (1966): 9 1-12 5 . 47 Terracotta figurine vvith a flat crovvn bear­ ing a quartercd incised design. Arms are reduced to stumps and legs to a pointed cone. 11. 4.5 cm. Fine reddish-brovvn fabric.

53 Classical Cucuteni vase and exploded dravv­ ing o f decoration from Vladimirovka, Southern Bug Valley, vvestern Ukraine. 1927-28 excavations by B. Bezvenglinski. After T . S. ek, Cerainicjue tripolienne: Pl. X X I. 54 Tvvo dishes vvith black-on-rcd

painted decoration from Tomashevka, northeast o f Uman, vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni (Tripo!ye C). Excavated 1924-27 by P. P. Kurinnv. ;. 1 : 1 0 : 2, 1 : 5. After T . S. ek. Ceramujue tripolienne: Pl. X X X III.

55 Gumclnita vase from Tangiru, Southern Rom ania. H. 10.8 cm. Graphitc-painted. Excavation by D. Berciu, N A M Bucharest. Publ. Berciu. ('outribufii: 441. Fig. 202.

Cucuteni (1966): Fig. 36. 59 Askos from the Early Vinča layer o f the Anza site betvveen Sv. N ikole and Štip, eastern Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Grey fab­ ric. Burnished dark grey or black. H. approx. 60 cm. Low er part reconstructed. Naroden Muzej, Štip. Excavation by M. Gimbutas Publ. 1972 and 1976. 60 Vase vvith bird and egg design. Knossos, temple repository. After Evans, Palače o f Minos, Vol. I: Fig. 405, d. 61 Vase vvith bird design. Phylakopi III, Melos. After Evans, Palače o f Minos, Vol. I: Fig.

+05 62 Hoilovvanthropomorphic-ornithomorphic terracotta figurine. Starčevo complex. C v ­ iindrical head broken off. Spiraliform ehannelling around the buttock-shapeđ posterior. Fine light-brovvn fabric. H. 7.5 cm. Excavation by S. Karmanski. at Donja Branje vina near Deronj. Archaeological section, Museum at Odžaci, northern Y u go slavia. Publ. by S. Karmanski, Žrtvenici, statuete i aniuleti sa lokaliteta donja Branjevina kod Deranja. (Odžaci 1968): Fig. 1. 63 Tcrracotta figurine from Karanovo I deposit at the teli o f Čavdar, c. 60 km ., east o f Sofia in central Bulgaria. The figurine is flat in front. has a broad and high neck, pinehed nose and horizontallv incised cyes. Buttocks vvere probablv formed around a bird’s egg. Stands on a cylindrical base. Excavatcd 1970 by R . Katinčarov. Archae­ ological Museum o f the Bulgarian Academv o f Sciences, Sofia. 64 Neolithic terracotta figurines vvith exaggerated buttocks from : /, Lepenski Vir. northern Yugoslavia, Starčevo com plex: 273

2, Crete; j , Karanovo I at Stara Zagora, centrai Bulgaria. i, after D. Srejović, Lepenski Vir (1969): Fig. 43; 2, after P. Ucko, Anthropomorphic figurines (196 $): No. 5 5; 3, after G . G eorgiev, ‘Kulturgruppen der jungstein- und der Kupferzcit in der Ebene von Thrazien’ , UEurope a la fin de l'đge de la pierre, Prague (1961), Pl. X X X II, 2. 63

Upper part o f a cult vase on the neck o f vvhich the flattened mask o fa Bird Goddess is portrayed in relief, from Sultana at Olteni^a, !ower Danube, southvvestem Rom ania. Acđdentally diseovered in 1957H. 18.18 cm. Reddish-brown clay. Fine fabric vvith some ixture o f mica and chalk. The original shape o f the vessel vvas roughly biconical. The neck is graphitepainted vvith ‘rain torrent’ and ‘spiral snake* motifs in negative design. The goddess’ arms indicated in relief on the shoulders. Olteni^a Museum. Publ. by S. MarincscuBiicu and B. Ionescu, Catalogul sculpturilor eneoliticedin. Museul raionalOlteni^a (1968).

66, 67 Pots from Tomashevka and Staraja Buda, uppcr Siniukha Valley, Late Cucuteni (Tripolye) sites in the vvestern Ukraine. After ck, Ceramique tripolienne. 68 Decorative motifs on Cucuteni B (Late . TripoIyc) vases, painted in black. Sipintsi (Schipenitz), Bukovina, the upper Dnicstcr Valley. After Kandyba, Schipenitz. 69 Designs painted in dark-brovvn on orange on a footed vasc from the Neolithic settle­ ment o f Anza, central Macedonia. Anza Ili (‘gcometric’ phase) vvhich equates vvith Late Starčevo in central and northern Yugoslavia. Author’s cxcavation o f 1970. Publ. M. Gimbutas, ‘ Excavation at Anza, Macedonia’, Archaeology, 25, 2, 1972; 1976. 70 Beaker from Tsangli, Thessalv. After K. Grundmann, ‘ Figurlichc Darstellungen in der neolithischen Kcramik Nord und Mittelgriechenlands*, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen Institufs, 28 ( 1 9 5 3 ) : Abb. 28. 71 Designs painted in black on a red back­ ground on Late Starčevo vases from Gornja Tuzla, Bosnia. Starčevo at Belgrade and Vinkovci at Vukovar. Based on : S. Dimi-

274

trijević, Starčevačka Kultura u Slavonskosrijemskom prostoru, Vukovar, 1969. 72 Neolithic đ ay stamp seals: 1 , Starčevo cuiture from Grabovac, Southern Yugoslavia. Publ. in Arheološki Pregled, 9, Pl. I; 2y 3, 5, Karanovo I cuiture from Čavdar, 60 km. east o f Sofia, Bulgaria, courtesy G. Georgiev, Archacological Museum in Sofia; 4, R u g Bair at Sveti Nikole, eastern Macedonia, YugosIavia. Author’s excavation (U C L A and Štip Museum) 1970, Archacological Museum o f Štip. 7 j Terracotta lid from Early Vinča settlement at Par^a, district o f Timi§oara, vvestern Rom ania. H. approx. 20 cm. Muzeul Banatului, Timi§oara. Courtesy o f this Museum. 74 Fragment o f a terracotta lid vvith eyes, beak, incised chevrons and ‘vvater streams’. Fine fabric, coloured red. H. 13.5 cm., W . 11 cm. Radacje, MalČa near Niš, Southern Y ugoslavia. Early Vinča settlement, excavated from 1956 onvvards by D. Krstić. National Museum o f Niš, Inv. No. 4 5 11. Publ. in: Les civilisations prćhistoriques de la Morava et de la Serbie orientale. National Museum Niš, Catalogue o f 1971 exhibit, No. 76. 75, 76 Terracotta figurines from the Sitagroi mound. Drama Plain, northeastern Greece. Sitagroi III. East Balkan civilization, Chal­ colithic. M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C. Renfrevv (Sheffield Univ.) excavation 1968. Philipi Museum. 77

Fragment o f a terracotta figurine: head o f Bird Goddess incised vvith chevrons and parallel lines on top. Lozcnge-shaped eycs. Ali incisions vvhite-encrusted. H. 3.5 cm. Fine dark-grcy fabric. R ug-Bair at Sveti Nikole, central Macedonia, Yugoslavia. 1960 excavations. Archaeological Museum o f Skopje, Inv. No. 90. Publ. by National Naroden Museum in Štip: Les civilisations prehistoriques de la Macedoine, Catalogue o f the cx hi bit 19 71. N o. 71.

7 8 T erraco tta fi g ur ine p ro babi y pa rt o f a sm a! I cult vessel. Grey fabric. H. 5.3 cm. Incised. white-encrusted. Found 8.5 m. deep in the Vinča site. Earlv Vinča. Vasić's excavation.

N M Belgrade. Vasić, Vinča, II: 159, Fig. 330. 79 Terracotta double-headed štand vertically perforated, from the Early Vinča settlement at Cm okalaćka Bara near Ražanj, south­ eastern Yugoslavia. H. 5 cm. Light-brovvn fabric. Polished. Shovvs contours o fa mask. White-cncrusted incisions. Kruševac Mu­ seum excavations 1959-60. Tasić-Tomić, Cmokalaćka Bara: Pl. X IV . 80 Terracotta seal from Predionica, Priština. Diam. 6.9 cm. Brick-red, fine fabric. 1955 excavations o f Priština and N M Belgrade. National Museum Priština, Kosovo M eto­ hije, Yugoslavia. R . Galović, Predionica: Pl. 79: i, 2. 81 Terracotta lid vvith anthropomorphic features and incisions. H. approx. 20 cm. Fine fabric, grcy in colour. Early Vinča settlement at Par{a, south o f Timi§oara, vvestern Rom ania. Approx. 1 :2 . Museul Banatului, Timi$oara. 82 Terracotta head o fa Classical Vinča figurine decorated vvith incised and vvhite enerusted meanders and parallel lines. H. 10:0 cm. Kremcnjak at Potporanj, south o f Vršac, northeastern Yugoslavia. Excavated 1957 by R . Rašajski o f the National (Narodni) Museum o f Vršac, Inv. No. 81223. Publ. in Praistorijska nalazišta Vojvodine! Catalogue o f the exhibit in N ovi Sad. 19 7 1: No. 7. 8 1 Upper part o f erude terracotta figurine o f grey fabric, shovving masked head tilted upvvards. Large meander incised over neck. mask. arm stumps and chest. Potporanj at Vršac. Early Vinča settlement. Vršac mu­ seum exeavation. Courtesv o f this Museum. 84 Terracotta figurine o fa bird vvith meander incised on the back and vvings. Starting belovv the beak, a hole runs through to the back. Found 6.2 m. deep in Vinča mound. Classical Vinča. H. 3.8 cm. Grev fabric. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection. 614 (1279). Vasić. Vinča. III: PL C X X X I . Fig. 614. 8$ Stylized Early Vinča terracotta figurine vvith incised eyes, meanders and necklaces. Light-brovvn fabric. H. 4.2 cm. Z. Torma

Collection from Tur da 5, Murc§ R iv er valley, vvestern Rom ania. Archaeological Museum o f the Institute o f History, Cluj, M. Roska, Torma Coll.: PL C X X X I X : 4. 86 Fragment o f cylindrical terracotta figurine. Light-brovvn fabric. Vinča site at Agino Brdo, Grodska, near Belgrade. Belgrade C ity Museum, Inv. 3829. Courtesy o f this Museum. 87 Terracotta figurine from Vinča. Bottom part o fa female figure on a throne. H. 6.5 cm. Broken offat vvaist. Vasić’s cxcavation. N M Belgrade, Inv. 9232. 88 Terracotta lid decorated vvith design o f meanders, chevrons and parallel lines; vvhite-encrusted incisions. Lovver part broken off. H. 9 cm. Fine grey fabric. Early Vinča. Aiud, Transylvania. Courtesy o f History Museum, Cluj. 89 Ellipsoid plaquc vvith a flat base. Meander design surrounded by chevrons and semicirclcs. L. 15.5 cm., W. 9.1 cm. Lightbrovvn fabric. One end reconstructed. Vinča settlement at Banjica near Belgrade. Excavation o f Belgrade C ity Museum by J. Todorović. Belgrade C ity Museum. Inv. 1944.6. Publ. j. T od orović-A Cerm anović, Banjica: PL X III: 5. 90 C lay tablet vvith a !abyrinth design (Cn 1287.V) from Pylos, vvestern Greece. After L. J. D. Richarđson, ‘The labyrinth\ In Palmer, Chadvvick. eds. Cambridge Colloqttiuni on Mycenaean studies (1966): 286. 91 C iay model o f a temple dedicated to the Bird Goddess. Excised. vvhite-encrusted meander pattern over entire front part. Rectangular gate in centre has a polished surface. Necklaces indicated in relief. H. vvith the head (not preserved) about 38 cm., W. 28 cm. Vadastra, dist. o f Corabia, southeast o f Oltenia. Rom ania. Publ. C. N. Mateesco. 'U n maestru .ii đescmilui arheologic Dionisie pecuraru*. Studii
-275

cuteni A -B Iayer o f the settlement in north­ ern M oldavia, northeastern Rom ania. After Hortensia Dumitrescu, Dacia, N .S. IV (1960): 34, Fig. 2. 9 j Upper Palaeolithic figurines o f bone vvith engraved meanders and chevrons from Mezin on the R iver Desna, vvestern Ukraine. After A. Salmony, ‘Some Palae­ olithic ivory carving from Mezine’, Artibus Asiae, 12, N o. 1/2 (1949): *07. Figs. 1 and 2; and 1. G. Shovkopljas Mezinskaja stoj an ka, Kiev (1965), Pl. 48.

100 Cycladic figurine o f vvhite marble vvith a massive phallus-shaped head. Protruding nose, but no eyes. Breasts slightly indicatcd and held by hands. Almost conical legs. Rounded, vvell proportioned buttocks. H. 12.9 cm. After Marie Luise and Hans Erlenmeyer, ‘ Von der fruhen Bildkunsc der Kykladen’, Antike Kunst, VIII, 2 (1965): Pl. 18 :6 and 7.

94 Proto-Sesklo terracotta figurine in form o f a bird-phallus hybrid. Hole on top. Birdlike vvings and tail indicatcd. Broken ac bottom. Light-brovvn fabric. H. 10 cm. Tsangli, Thessaly. Excavated and published by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly (1912). Archaeological Museum in Volos, Thessaly.

101 Fragments o f seated marble figurine vvith folded arms from the settlement o f Ruse, northern Bulgaria. Gumelni^a comp!ex (Karanovo VI). Excavaced betvveen 1948 and 1953- Publ. by Georgiev-Angelov, 107, Fig. 64.

95 Large vase from Anza, central Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Anza IV period, Early Vinca. H. 92 cm. The pithos vvith bird's face indicatcd on the neck (24 cm. high) vvas diseovered broken into many small fragments. The body o f che vase except for the bottom p3rt is decorated vvith bands painted altcrnately in cream and red. A red band slants dovvn on either side o f the beak. Necklace vvith tvvo pendants ac the ends shovvn in relief. U C L A (auchor’s) and Šcip Naroden Museum excavacion o f 1970. Housed (unreconstructed) in Naroden Mu­ zej. Štip. Publ. M. Gimbutas ‘Exeavacions at Anza, Macedonia'. Archtieology, 25. 2. 1972. Also 1976.

102 Marble figure vvith folded arms from near the village o f Blagoevo, region o f Razgrad, Bulgaria. H. approx. 32 cm. Found in frag­ ments in the area o f che settlement mound. O val head vvith nose, cyes (pupils shovvn vvith little pics), and ears. The ears have four perforations each, to vvhich copper earrings vvere attached. Other features inciude an arm-band 011 the right arm, a small pit for the navel. a pubic triangle, depressions for trigonum tumbale on the butcocks and back of the knees. Traces o f red colouring on the eyes and ears. Afcer cuccing vvith flint. che figure vvas smoothed vvith sandseone. and the pits vvere made vvith a bone tool, sand and vvater. Publ. bv G. Georgiev, 'Eine Marmorscatuecce aus Blagoevo, Bezirk Razgrad’ . Izrestija. 19 (1955), 1 1 - 1 3 .

96 Terracotta figurine o fa vvoman seated on a cabouret holding a babv. Head broken olf. Painted in brovvn on cream in horizontal, vertical and spiral bands. Dimini period ac Sesklo near Volos, Thessalv. Excav.ued and published bv Tsountas, 1908. Athens National Museum: 36. Inv. 5937. Zervos. .\aissancc, Vol. II: 305, Fig. 395. 97 Painted figure ofa Snake Goddess on the leg o f an altar-table from Phaistos, Southern Crete. H. 18 cm. Proto-palatial period. Heraklion. Archaeological Museum, Gal!cry III. Case 42. No. 10576.

276

42.5 cm. high and its lid (noc recovered) probab!y portrayed the Goddess’ face. A gold pendanc vvas found on her chest bccvveen the breasts. Gumelnita B (or 114-116 Gumelnita III in D. Berciu’s classificacion). Incised lines, circles and lozenges enerusted vvith vvhite colour. D. Rosetti’s 1934 excavation. Publ. Rosetti, Vidra; Idem, ‘Sceinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem Wohn1/7 h ii gel bei Bucharest’, IP E K , 12. Bucharest Cicy Museum.

98, 99 Terracotta figurines from Hacilar, Konya Plain, central Anatolia. 98, H. (reconstrueted) 10.2 cm .; 99, 9.2 cm. After J. Mellaart, ‘Excavation at Hacilar’, Anatolian Studies, X I (1961): Figs. 11 and 14.

106 Pottery dish from Pietrele, county Giurgiu, district o f Ilfov, area o f Bucharest. Graphitepainted. Diam. 46.3 cm. Gumelnifa complex. East Balkan civilization. Excavated 1943-48 by D. Berciu. N A M Bucharest. Publ. by D. Berciu in Materiale Cercetari Arheol. 2 (1956): Fig. 42. 107 Pottery dish from Petreni, vvescern Ukraine. Painted in chocolace-brovvn on oehre-red. Diam. 51 cm. Afcer ek, Cćramiqtte tripolienne. 108 Double-egg (or buttock)-shaped poctery bowl. Pietrele. Gumetnifa complex. Diam. 15.8 cm. Graphice painted on outsiđe. Source as 106. 109, n o Figurines vvich che upper pare broken otf. shovving double-eggs in the inside o f the bclly. N o vye Rusesluy I setclemenc. Classi­ cal Cucuteni (Tripolye). After V. I. Markevich. ‘ Mnogoslojnoe poselenie N ovye Rusesluv I'. K S IIM K . 123 (1970): 64.

/<>5 Anthropomorphic vase. knovvn as ‘God­ dess o f Vidra', from the Gumelnija settle­ ment at Vidra, district o f Giurgiu south o f Bucharest, lovver Danube basin. The vase is

petiitz: 57. Figs. 41 and 42Late Minoan decorative dravvings. Afcer Evans, Palače o f Minos. 1 1 4 : Vol. II, b, Fig. 456; 1 1 5 : Vol. IV, 1, Fig. 2 9 1 , 1 1 6 : Vol. Ih b, Fig. 368. Vessel in che shape o f a dog. H. 8.2 cm. Found 7.8 m. deep at the Vinča site. Shoulders have perforations for a scring or ehord to be drawn chrough. Vasić’s excavation. B U Colleccion. Publ. by Vasić, Vinca, 11: Pl. X C L 347-

. 1 1 8 Lid handle o f a poc in che shape o f a masked dog. H. 4.5 cm., L. 5 cm. Diseovered dur­ ing che excavation o f 1952-53 in Goljamata Mogila at Gorni Pasarel, central Bulgaria, together vvith graphite-painced poctery. Fiat face vvich a pronounced conical nose obviousIy representing a mask. Notches on the back and on the front legs. East Balkan Karanovo VI. Excavacion o f the Institute o f Archaeology o f the Bulgarian Acađem y o f Sciences, carried out by N. Petkov. Publ. N. Petkov, ‘ Zhivotinski dekorativen ele­ ment v eneoiitnata keramika pri Gorni Pasarel’, Izvestija, X X I (1957): 291-94. 119 Lid o f a sceatite pyxis vvich a handle on top in the form o f a dog. From Mochlos, Earlv Minoan II settlement, eastern Crete. Reprođuccd from R. Dussaud, Les civilisations prehelleniques dans le bassin de la mer Egee (Pariš 1914, 2nd ed.) : 38. Fig. 20.

111

Anthropomorphic vase in shape of female butcocks vvich tvvo small lugs on top. Painted vvhite on red. H. 10. i cm. Cucuteni A phase. Izvoare at Piatra Neam^. district o f Bacim, northeastern Romania. Excavations ofth e Instituce o f Archaeologv ofth e Academv o f Sciences. Bucharest, bv R . Vulpe 1936-48. N A M Bucharest. Publ. Vulpe. Izvihirt". Figs. to6. 107.

120 Stylized dog in a menaeing attitude. painted i 11 black on a very large, oehre-red vase o f Cucuteni B period from che seetlement o f Varvarovka near Kishenev. Soviet Mol­ davia. Excavated 1967 bv V. 1. Markevich. Archaeological Museum o fth e Institute o f Historv ofth e Academv o f Sciences o fth e Moldavian S .R ., Kishenev.

1u

Black-on-rcd painted design on inside o fa bovvl. Koszylovvce. vvescern Ukraine. Late Cucuteni (Cucuceni B) period. After R vbakov. (?osw(>i*ony: Fig. 24.

12 1 Black-on-rcd painted vase from Krutoborodintsi. vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucuceni civilization. Reproduced from R vbakov, Cosmogony (1965).

1 i i Exploded dravvings o f shoulder decoration motifs 011 large amphoras from the Cucu­ teni B settlement o f Sipintsi (Schipenitz).

122 Painted vase trom-Valea Lupului, northern Moldavia. Rom ania. 11. 52.8 em. Black and red on cream background. Cucuceni B

ii\i Fiat figurines o f bone from the settlement of Ruse on the lovver Danube. norehern Bulgaria. Diseovered in the settlement area. Kxcavario»s o f 1950 53 bv GeorgievAngelov. Ruse. 104 Invemorv from a single grave in the cemeterv o f Vykhvacintsi, Soviet Mol­ davia. See ref. 149. 150 (half-tone plates).

northvvest o f Chernovitsi, Bucovina in vvestern Ukraine. After Kandyba, Schi-

277

period. After M . Petrcscu-Dimbovifa, S C IV , V I : 704, Fig. 14, 1.

5730 from this level range from 5850 ± 94 to 5781 ± 96. After Meilaart, Qatal: 127, Fig. 40.

123 Potsherds vvith representations o f a tree in association vvith dogs, from Sipintsi, 15 km.

130 Figure incised on a globular vase from the

northvvest o f Chem ovitsi, Bukovina. After

settlement at Borsod, Biikk cuiture. Mis-

124

Kandyba, Schipenitz: 75.

kolc, Hermann Otto Museum. Excavation

Patterns on large conical bowls, betvveen

by A. Leszik, J. Hillebrand and F. Tom pa 1926-48. F. Tom pa, Die Bandheramih in Ungarn, Budapest (1929): PL X V III, 3.

30 and 50 cm. in diameter, from Cucuteni B settlements in the vvestern Ukraine. Black or chocolate-brovvn painted on ochre red. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 after ek, La ićramique tripolienne (1935): V II; 3, 6, 8 after Kandyba, Schipenitz: 84-87. 125 Orange-coloured bovvt shaped like a modern salad bovvl, vvith abstract design on inside. D og, inner crescents and leavcs around the cdge painted red, rest o f design black. Diam. 41 cm. Bilcze Zlote, south o f Tarnopol in vvestern Ukraine. Late Cucu­ teni. Courtesy o f Archacological Museum, Cracovv. 126 O val containers vvith stylized zoomorphic design. Sipintsi, Late Cucuteni site betvveen the upper Prut and upper Dniester. R ep rođuced from Kandyba, Schipenitz: 89, Figs. 123 and 124.

129. Shrine from (,!atal Hiiviik. Konva Plain, central Anatolia. Reconstruction b v j. Mcllaart, Level VI A. shovving restored north ,md vvest vvalls. C 14 dates.vvith half-life o f

27*

209. Terracotta hedgehog from

O scioarcle,

13 1 Anthropomorphic figure engraved on a sherd from the base o f a dish o f early Lincar Pottery cuiture. Settlement o f Kolešovice, district o f Rakovnik, Bohemia, Czecho­ slovakia. After H. Quitta, Forschttngen zur Vor- und Fri'ihgeschichte, Leipzig (1957), 2, 81. 2. Pot from the Linear Pottery settle­ ment o f Prague-Bubenec, after A. Stock^, La Boheme Prćhistorique, I, L'age de Pierre, Prague (1929): 183. 132 Painted amphora. H. 12.5 cm. First Palače o f Phaistos, Southern Crete. Middle Minoan I. After Zervos, Crete: Fig. 346. 133

Bronze toad. L. 8.2 cm. Peloponnese. Exact proveniencc not knovvn, but Corinth is highly probable. Inscription Afiiov Lcovdov Bodcovi, as reconstructed by Frankel, is connected vvith the name o f the vvorshipper. Datcd ‘not later than the early part o f the fifth century b c ’ . Berlin, Museum o f the Archaeological Institute. After M. Frankel, 'Gevveihter Frosch’, Jahrbuch des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Bd. I (1887): 48-53-

134 Terracotta figurine o f a toad. A face, breasts and vulva are indicated on the underside. Found in a crcmation grave in the ccmetcry o f Maissau, lovvcr Austria. After Gulder. Maissau: 10 1. Abb. 56. 2. t j3

Amber toad from Vetulonia. diseovered by I.Falehi in 1894. L. 3.5 cm. After Gulder. Maissau: 53. Reproduced from I. Falehi. Not. d. stari 1895: 316, Fig. 33.

t jć

Ivorv figurines from the sanctuary at Orthia at Sparta. After R . M. Davvkins, 'Excavation at Sparta'. Annual ofthe British School at Athens. No. XIII, Session 1906-7, and H. J. Rose. 'The Sanetuarv o f Artemis Orthia .u Sparta’, J H S 1906-10: Pl. G X V .

Gold ring from a grave at Isopata, north o f Knossos. Diam. 2.6 cm. Redravvn from the photograph in C . Zervos, Crete: Fig. 632. Mycenaean gold chrysalis and Minoan seal impression. Reproduced from Arthur Evans, ‘The R in g o f Nestor’, J H S , X L V , Part I (1925): Figs- 45. 47-

Gumelni^a layer, Southern Rom ania. H. 6.1 cm. N M Bucharest. Publ. Dumitrcscu, U art Roumanie: Pl. 109.

127 Terracotta figurine-from Hacilar, Konya Plain, central Anatolia, north o f Kizilkaya. L. 7 cm. Found in House Q s o f the Late Neolithic village (early sixth millennium b c ) . Hacilar VI period. After J. Meilaart. ‘Excavations at Hacilar'. Anatolian Studies, XI (19 6 1); 59, Fig. 20.' 128 Female figure in relief on'a potsherd o f a large vase o f Starčevo type from SarvaS, Vlastelinski brijeg, district o f Osijek, R iver Drava basin, northvvestern YugosIavia. Found in the iovvest laver o f this stratified site knovvn for its Lcngvel and Vućedol settlements above the Starčevo, during R . R . Schmidt’s excavation o f 1942-43. Osijek Museum. Publ. by R . R . Schmidt. Dic Bi trg Vućedol (Zagreb 1945). Dravving after author’s photograph in 1968.

146 tf 7 Modern ‘folk’ toads made o f wax from the Austrian Alpine region. j, 2, after R . Kriss ‘ Die O pferkrote’, Bayerischer Heimatschutz (1930): 10 7 ; 3, after K. Spiess, ‘ Die Krote, 1 4 7, i 48 ein Bild der Gebarmutter’ , Mitra (19 14):

O nyx gem from Knossos, c. 1500 b c . Reproduced from Zervos, Crete: Fig. 629. 140 Design on one face o f three-sided bead seal from Kašteli Pedeada, southeast o f Knossos, Crete. After Evans, Palače oj' Minos, vol. III: R 4 , Fig. 93 A, d. 141 Design on a painted Boeotian amphora. After Efemeris Archeol. (1892): PL 10, /. 142 Masked figure painted in chcrry-ređ on vvhite Proto-Sesklo vase (shovvn in black; other similar figures reconstructed). Lovvcr layer o f the Otzaki Magula, 8 km. north o f Larissa, Thessaly. £xcavated 1954 by Vladi­ mir Milojćić. Larissa Museum. Publ. by V. MilojČić, ‘Ausgrabungen in Thessalien’, Nette deutsche Ausgrabungen in Mittelmeergebeit und in Vorderen Orient: 226, 228—29, Abb. 2. Typological relationships to other Proto-Sesklo sites (Argissa, Nea Nikomedeia) place the Proto-Sesklo phase at Otzaki vvithin the period o f6 5 0 0 -6 3 0 0 b c . 143 R elief o f a schematized Bee Goddess on a Linear Danubian potsherd from Holašovice. After V. Karger. Publ. by Gulder. Maissau. 144 Potsherd vvith a relief portraying a figure

vvith upraised arms and outspread legs flanking a triangular protuberance. Classieal Cucuteni (Cucuteni A 2 phase) settlement o f Tru$c$ti-Tuguicta, northern Moidavia. Rom ania. Publ. by M. Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a, ‘ Einigc Probleme der Cucuteni-Kultur im Lichte der ncucn archaologischen Grabungen’ . Študijne Zvesti, No. 17 ( f 9^9) ; 368. 143 A Mycenacan gem. after G. E. Mvlonas. Mycenae and the Mycenaean age (1966): 125. No. 27.

149 Rresentation, on a mould, o f goddess holding butterfiies (double-axes). Zervos, Crete: 451, Fig. 746.

After

130 Butterfly signs engraved on inside and outside o f jars and dishes from the Linear Pottery sites o f B ylan y and elsevvhere in Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. After B . Soudsky and I. Pavlu, ‘ Interpretation historique de l’ornement lin<5aire’, Pamdtky Archeologiclte, LVII, 1 (1966): 9 1-12 5 . 13 1 Myccnacan krater from Salamis, Cyprus (Enkomi). British Museum. First publishcd by Arthur Evans in J H S , X X I (19 0 1): 107, Fig. 3. 132 Detail o f a Middle Minoan III vase from Knossos, painted vvith a zone o f doubleaxcs. After Zervos, Crete: 304, Fig. 440. 133 Painted m otif on a Late Minoan 1 vase from Mochlos. After A. B. C ook, Zeus, vol. II, 1: 527, Fig. 395 (republished from G. B. G(ordon), ‘The doubIe-axe and some other symbols’ , University o f Pcnnsylvania: The Museum Journal 1916 , VII, 48: Fig. 38). 134 Terracotta rattles containing clay balls, in shape o f a pregnant goddess, found in a grave. The rattles are perforated through the neck. Painted black on red. Cucuteni B period. Vykhvatintsi cemetcry in Sovict Moidavia, child’s grave No. 13. Attcr T . S. ek, K S IIM K . 56 (h ;54): 94- 95133 Broken-off lovvcr portion o f terracotta figurine, vvith a clav bali vvithin the bellv. N ovye Ruseshty I settlement near Kishe­ nev. upper Dniester region. Sovict M oi­ davia. After A. P. Kusurgasheva, ‘ Anthropomorfnaja plastika iz poselenija N ovye Ruscshty*. K S IIM K , 123 (1970): Fig- 7413 0 Terracotta figurines vvith grain impressions. Luka-Vrublevetskaja, Proto-Cucuteni (Early Tripolyc) settlement in Dniester 279

valley. After B ibikov, Luka-Vrublevetskaja, M IA , 38 (1958): Pls. 77, 7#, 82. 1,57 Lower part o f terracotta figurine from Luka Vrublevetskaja, Proto-Cucuteni (Early Tripolye) site, vvestern Ukraine. H. 8 cm. Light-brovvn fabric, vvhite-filled incisions. Quadripartite lozenge vvith a dot in each section incised above belly, snake spirals on buttocks. Tapering legs totally schematized and incised with horizontal lines. Museum o f Ethnology, Leningrad. Publ. Bibikov, M IA , 38 (1958): 400, Pl. 108. 158 Schematic terracotta figurine from Vidra, Southern Rom ania. Gumclni{a A phase. Bucharest C ity Museum. After D. Rosetti, ‘ Steinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem Wohnhugelbci Bukarest’ , IP E K , 12 (1938): Pl. 12. 159 , 160 Schematic terracotta figurines from the Sitagroi mound, Macedonia, Greece. H. approx. 5 cm. Period II o f this mound (fifth millennium b c ) . Light-brovvn fabric. 159: SF 313 0 ; 160: SF 498. Philipi Museum. 161 Terracotta plaque vvith incised and vvhiteencrusted lozenges and spirals. Vinca settle­ ment at Potporanj (upper layer o f this site) near Vršac, northeastern Yugos!avia. 13,4 x 7.9 cm. Narodni Muzej Vršac, Inv. No. 1233. After Praistorijska nalazišta Vojvodine, Novi Sad (1971), Fig. 6. 162 Fragment o f a terracotta figurine. R edslipped, and vvith black-painted design. Period III o f Sitagroi teli: Gum elnip cuiture. Excavated 1968 by A. C. Renfrevv (ShetHelđ University) - M. Gimbutas (U C L A ), Philipi Museum. /6? Fragment o f a figurine comprising abdominal area and part o f a thigh. Geometrical patterns o f vvhite-encrusted incised lines and dots. Gumelnifa A (or 1) phase from che Tangiru mound, lovver Danube region. Max. dimension9.4 cm. Excavation by the Institute o f Archaeology o f the Academy o f Sciences o f the Romanian P .R . by D. Berciu. N A M Bucharest. After D. Berciu, ‘ Sur les resultats du controle stratigraphique a Tangiru et a Petru Rare§\ Docia, 1959: 65. Fig. 5. 71 64 Black polished disc vvith vvhite enerustation.

280

D iam . approx. 4 cm . T eli o f Ploskata M ogila, Z la ti trap near P lo v d iv , central B ulgaria. Gumelni^a cuiture. P lo v d iv M u ­ seum. Publ. P. D etev, Izvestija, Scries 2, V ol. 18 (19 5 2 )' 337 . Fig- 333 -

165 Fragmentsofterracotta figurinesportraying pigs impressed vvith grain from the ProtoCucuteni (Early Tripolye) settlement o f Luka Vrublevetskaja, uppcr Dniester basin. After Bibikov, M IA , 38 (1958): 406, Fig. 114 . Leningrad, Museum o f Ethnology o f the Academy o f Sciences. 166 Phallus-shaped clay artifacts, possibly used as stems for ‘ vvine cups’ , as reconstructed by Š. Batović. Danilo settlement at Smilčić near Zadar. Excavated 1958 by S: Batović. Archaeological Museum in Zadar. After Š. Batović, ‘Problem kulta phallosa u Danilskoj kulturi’, Diadora, 4 (1968): Fig. 3, Pl. IV, 3. 167 Cylindrical terracotta figurine vvith pinehed-up nose, incised eyes, and breasts. Incisions around the top. Widening ba$e. H. 5.5 cm. Cmokalaćka Bara at Rujište near Ražanj. Found in Starčevo layer ofthe stratified settlement. Excavated 1959 by R . Galović. N M Belgrade. Publ. R . Galović, ‘ Die Starćevo-kultur in Jugoslaw ien\ Die Anfange des Neolithikums von Orient bis Nordeuropa, U: Pl. 13. 4. 1 68 Phallus-shaped terracotta štand vvith male genitals. Broken at neck and at arm stumps. Pavlovac (locality called ‘Čukar’), upper Morava basin. Southern Yugoslavia. Early Vinča. H . 5.2 cm. Fine )ight-grey fabric. NM Belgrade and Archaeological Institute excavationof 1955. N M Belgrade, Inv, No. 14923. Publ. M. and D. Garašanin in Starinar (1956-57): 398. 169 Terracotta figurine from the habitation sire o f Tru$e$ti-Tuguieta. district o f Ia$i, northern Moidavia. Rom ania. ‘Cucuteni A' phase. Light brovvn fabric. H. 3.2 cm. Excavated 1953 by M. Petrescu-Dimbovifa and Adrian C. Florescu. Archaeological Museum Ia$i. Publ. A. and M. Florescu, ’ Santierul arheologie Tru$e$ri\ Materiale si Cercetari Arheologice. V II: 8 1, 82. Figs. 2 and 3. 170 Srvlized buli o f red baked elav. burnished and vvell fired. Probably used as a lamp.

Perforations above each leg and through nose and tail for suspension. Painted black on red. H. 10,6 cm., L. 16.44 cm. Sitagroi mound, Drama Plain, eastern Macedonia, Greece. Period III o f Sitagroi. Dikilitash (Gumelni{a) variant o f East Balkan civiliza­ tion. Diseovered in 1968 during M. Gim ­ butas (U C L A )-A . C. Renfrevv (ShefTield Univ.) excavations. Philipi Museum, SF 1207.

H A L F -T O N E

17 1 Terracotta figurine o f a nude seated ‘Thinker’ vvearing a large mask vvith six perforations for attachments. Fine brovvn fabric. H. 7 cm. Vidra, Gumelni^a settle­ ment, lovver Danube. 1934 excavation by D. Rosetti. Bucharest C ity Museum. Publ. V. Rosetti, IP E K , 12 (1938): 29-50.

PLATES

1 Bird Goddess from Achilleion, near Farsala, Thessaly, Greece. H. 6.1 cm. Orange-pink clay, originally vvhite-slipped. Incised ‘coffee-bean’ eyes. The head is that o f a beaked bird but the hair-do is human and made. to resemble a bun. The cylindrical neck damaged during recovery. Excavated 1973 by M . Gimbutas. 2 Terracotta schematized figurine found in the lovvcst layer o f the Vinča mound. Starčevo comp!ex. Hair incised on top o f cylindrical upper portion. Fine brovvn fabric. Excavated 1931 by Vasić. H. 10.6 cm. B U Collection, No. 856. Publ.: Vasić, Vinča, II: Pl. 22, Figs. 54/7,6; III: Fig. 36; N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 44. ShefTield Catalogue (1969): 48. 3, 4 Early Vinča schematic figurine found 8.4 m. deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s cxcavations. H. 12.4 cm. Baked clay, pale red. Normal breasts, conical belly, pronounccd buttocks. Stumps for arms. Triangular head indicates mask. B U Collection, 885. Publ. Vasić, Vinca, I: Pl. X V III, Fig. 92. ^ Marble figurine from the site o f Gradac, near Leskovac, Southern Yugoslavia. H. 6.5 cm. Excavated 1909 by Vasić. N M Belgrade, 861. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1955), 1: 22, II, Pl. 17. Fig. 5. 6 Bone figurine. No head, globes for arms. Emphasized abdominal area. Legs reduced to a cone. H. 4.8 em. Diseovered in a grave

o f the cemetcry o f Cernica - Cildžraru, distr. o f Ilfov, near Bucharest, Rom ania. Early Boian complex. Excavated 1961-6 7 by Gh. Cantacuzino. N A M , Bucharest. Publ. Gh. Cantacuzino, ‘The prehistoric necropolis o f Cernica and its place in the neolithic cultures o f Rom ania and o f Europe in the light o f recent điscoveries’, Dacia, N .S. XIII (1969): 53, Fig. 5, jo . 7, 8 Terracotta figurine o f a seated nude female from Thessaly, assigned by D. R . Theo­ charis to the Sesklo period. Isolated fmd. H. 8 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Three s o f hair indicated in relief. ‘Coffeebean’ eyes. Pronounced nose. Pointed buttocks. Archaeological Museum Volos, Thessaly. Publ. D. R . Theocharis, Bakalakis’ Festschrift (1971). 9 Classical Vinča terracotta figurine vvith flattcned upper, and rounded lovvcr part. Pentagonal (masked) head. Tvvo perfora­ tions in each arm stump. From the site o f Selevac near Smederevska Palanka, south­ east o f Belgrade. Fine grey fabric. H. 12 cm. 1969 excavations o f N M Belgrade and Smederevska Palanka Museum by R . Galović. National Museum, Smederevska Palanka. Courtesy o f this museum. 10 Terracotta squatting figurine vvith a smooth grey surface. Incisions and punetate design indicate dress. Late Vinča. Found 5.1 m. deep in Vinča mound. H. 7.9 cm. B U Collection, 1197. Vasić, Vinča, II: 150, Fig.

281

3 i }a,b,c; HI: Fig. 499; N M Catalogue (1968): N o . 154. 11,12

Belgrade

Terracotta figurine o f a squatting man. Hands on tightly drawn-up knees. Fafos I at Kosovska M itrovica. Early Vinča period.

published by N . Slavković-D jurić: Clasnik Muzeja Kosova i Metohije, VII—V III: Fig. 3. Regional Museum Priština, B a-S N /i. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 105; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): PI. 15.

H. 6.8 cm. Fine dark-grey fabric. £xcavatcd 1959 b y J.G li5ićand B.Jovan ović. Regional Museum Priština, Inv. F-I-7c~d/2250. N M

18, 19 Terracotta figurine from Late Vinča settle­ ment o f Crnokalaćka Bara at Rujište near RaŽanj, north o f Niš, Yugoslavia. H. c. 14

Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 62; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 66, Pl. 13.

cm. Head missing. B row n fabric, burnished, vvhite-encrusted incisions indicating dress. Tvvo perforations in each shoulder. Navel indicatcd by depression. N M Belgrade excavations o f 1959 by R . Galović. Courtesy o f N M Belgrade.

13, 14 Terracotta figurine from the Cucuteni B period ofthe Sipintsi (Schipcnitz) settlement 15 km. northwest o f Chernovitsi in the upper Prut Valley, Bukovina, U S S R . Orange-red fabric, polished surface. H. 11 cm. Female body schematically rendered. Perforations for eyes. Head flat at the back, protruding nose, no arms, a cone for legs. Breasts and navel indicatcd. White-filled incisions for necklaces, belt and fringes in front. On the back. a lung-shaped design, probably symbolic. Excavated 1893 by J. Szombathy et al. Naturhistorisches M u­ seum, Vienna. Publ. O. Kandyba, Schipenitz: 15 1, Fig. 5 1. 15 Terracotta figurine. H. 12 cm. Impressed dots form necklaces and hip-belt and border pubic triangle. Arm stumps and hips per, forated. Head broken off. Legs shown.as a cone. End o f skirt indicated by two rovvs o f circles. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Burnished. Bilcze Zlote. Late Cucuteni settiement, upper Dniester basin. Courtesy Craco.vv Archaeological Museum. 16 Upper part o f a large terracotta figurine. H. 28.7 cm. Fafos II, at Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo Metohije. Yugoslavia. Late Vinča. Fine dark-grey fabric. Incisions over mask and body. Eyes and medallion ih raised relief. Hands on hips. Excavated 1959 bv J. Glišić and B. Jovan ovič. Regional Mu­ seum. Priština, F-II-2B/263. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 97: Sheffield Catalogue: • 104. 17 Tcrracotta figurine. originallv seated on a throne (novv lost). Orange-red fabric with \v hi te- filled incisions. H. 25 cm. Surface • find from Bariljevo near Gazimestan. district o f Priština. Kosovo Metohije province o f Ytigoslavia. Late Vinča, First

282

cm. Contours o f rough!y triangular mask with large nose and plastically modelled eyes clearly indicated. The figure leans forward slightly. Protruding belly and but­ tocks indicate padded knickers. Knickers and V-nccked blouse rendered by incision. Hands broken off. Excavated 1959 by J. Glišićand B .Jovan ović. Regional Museum, Priština, F -I-i7 0 / 12 5 1. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 60; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 64 (misleadingly called a ‘wom an’). 26 Terracotta figurine from the Vinča mound. Grey fabric, Arms broken. Hump on the back. O riginally part o f a large vessel. Pentagonal mask considerably larger than head. N o facial features. Vasić’s cxcavation. B U Collection, 4403. Museum: Kosovska M itrovica (H 1-V0-80). Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 178, Pl. 13.

20 Terracotta seated figurine from Čaršija at Ripen, central Yugoslavia. Fine grey fabric, polished surface. H. 16.1 cm. Head, arms and feet broken off. One side and buttocks damaged. Otherwise vvell preserved. Breasts, navel, hip-belt, apron, and leg bindings indicated by white-encrusted in­ cisions. Excavatcd 1906 by Vasić and pub­ lished by him in Glas Sprske Kraljevske Akademije, L X X : Pl. X and X I, Fig. 14. N M Belgrade, 765. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 14 1.

27 Masked head found 5.7 m. deep in Vinča mound. Ears are indicated protruding from belovv the mask. Dark-red terracotta. R e ­ mains o f red paint on top o f head and over the ears. H. 9.6 cm. Vasić’s excavation. BU Collection, 4956. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, III: Pl. X X V III, Fig. 139.

21 Lovver part o f terracotta statuette from Late Vinča settlement o f Crnokalaćka Bara at Rujište near Ražanj, north o f Niš. Light brovvn fabric vvith vvhite-encrusted inci­ sions, polished surface. H. 13 cm. N M Belgrade. inv. 20945. Galović, Archeološki Pregled (1960).

28 Masked head o f fine dark-grey fabric on cvlindrical neck. Late Vinča. H. 7.7 cm. Surface find during 1955-56 N M Belgrade excavation by R . Galović. Regional Mu­ seum, Priština, inv. 162. Publ. R . Galović, Predionica: Pl. 16: /; NM Belgrade (1968): 100; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): Pl. 13 : 107.

22 Legs o f a large tcrracotta statuette found 5.1 m. deep in Vinča mound. H. 6.9 cm. Diagonnl incisions over calves. Toes indi­ catcd by incision. R ed paint on toes. Black fabric. smooth. lustrous surface. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection. 4 .12 13 . Publ. Vasić. Vinča, I: Pl. XI. Fig. 36. 23 Upper part o f a Late Vinča figurine o f a masked man from Pločnik near Prokupljc, YugosIavia. H. 18 cm. Incised and redpainted bands 011 chest and neck. Fine darkgrcv fabric. Excavatcd 1927 by M. Grbić. NM Belgrade, 2257. On display. Publ. M. Grbić. Pločnik: 80, Pl. 7. 24. 25 Terracotta figurine o f fine dark-grey fabric from Fafos at Kosovska Mitrovica. dis­ eovered in laver lb. C'lassical Vinča. H. 20

29 R ed terracotta head from Crnokalaćka Bara at Rujište near Ražanj. north o f Niš. Southern YugosIavia. Large semicircular cyes. ridge nose and rovvs o f incisions on the cheeks. Spiraliform ears are cut on the mask. Hair indicated in relief. H. 9 cm. N M Belgrade occavation bv R . Galović. Courtesv o f N M Belgrade and the excavator.

3 1 Terracotta animal head o f grey fabric from Vinča site at Gradac, upper M orava Valley. H. 5.5 cm. Excavatcd 1909 by Vasić. N M Belgrade, inv. 783. B. Stalio: N M Belgrade Catalogue (19 5 5 ), 1: 22, II Pl. X V III. 5. 32 Stvlized animal mask o f terracotta from Pločnik near Prokupljc. Late Vinča. Fine grey fabric. Scmi-globular eyes shiclded by brow ridges. Fiat cheeks vvith three radial incisions. Vertical incisions along the upper part o f forehead. Excavatcd 1927 by M. Grbić. N M Belgrade cxhibit. Publ. Grbić, Pločnik. 33 Large figurine o f dark grey fabric, bur­ nished, vvith pentagonal mask made in a mould. Beaked nose, raised semi-spherical eyes and bovv-shaped brovv ridges. De­ pression belovv nose. Ears and hair indi­ cated. Perforations through shoulders. Navel and hip-belt indicatcd. Crovvn o f head and nape painted red. Protruding buttocks in imitation o f bird’s body. H. 30.6 cm. Classical Vinča. Found 6.2 m. (7.445 m.) deep in Vinča mound. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection, No. 999. Publ. Vasić. Vinča, II: Pl. L X X IX and L X X X , Fig. 301 a~d\ III: r. 33, Fig. 203 : D. Srejović, 1965: PI. 18. j . 34 Cylindrical model o f a masked goddess, originally attached to the roof o f a sanctuarv. Hollovv inside. H. 20.8 cm. Fine brovvn fabric. Porodin mound near Bitola, Southern Yugoslavia. Radiocarbon date from Porodin: 5300 bc. True age: end o f the seventh millennium b c. Excavation by M. Grbić, et al., 1953. Archaeological Museum Bitola, 68. Publ. Grbić. Porodin: N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 19. 3 š Terracotta masked and crovvned head on a cvlindrical neck from the Porodin mound near Bitola. Southern Yugoslavia. Exca~ vated I953~54 bv M. Grbić. et al. Archaeol­ ogical Museum. Bitola. Publ. Grbić. Poro­ din, Pl. X X X : 2.

30 Neck ofpottery vessel o f fine brovvn fabric from Gladnice bv ihe monasterv ofG raćanica. Kosovo Metohije. Yugoslavia, Star­ čevo. Large ears at sides o f vvell delineated contours o f mask. ‘Coffee-bean’ eves. H. 10.4 cm. E\cavated t<;r)0 bv j . (Jlisić.

36 Terracotta masked Vinča head, black polished vvith vvhite-fllled incisions. Redpainted at corners and centre. Perforations at upper corners. Medvednjak near Sme­

Regional Museum. Priština G -2E (1246 a). NM Bei grade ('atalogue (1968): 2(k Publ. Sheffield. Caiulogue (1969): PI. 5.

derevska Palanka, southeast o f Belgrade. Hxcavation o f NM Belgrade bv R . Galović 1969, Smederevska Palanka Museum.

37 Head and shoulders o f dark-grey burnished terracotta figurine vvith perforations through mask and shoulders from Crnokalačka Bara near Ražanj, north o f Niš, Southern Yugosiavia. Late Vinča. H. 10 cm. Excavation by R . Galović, 1959. N M Bel­ grade, inv. 16009. R . Galović, Arkheološki Pregled 2 {1960): 24; NM Belgrade Catalogue(i<)6S): 12 4 ; ShefTield Catalogue (1969); PL 17, 13138 Ornamented Vinča mask from Predionica at Priština, Kosovo Metohije, Southern Yugoslavia. Fine dark-grey fabric, bur­ nished. H. 10 cm. Excavated 1955-56 by R . Galović sponsored by Kosovo Metohije Museum in Priština and N M Belgrade. Regional Museum Priština (157). Publ. R . Galović, Predionica: Pl. 16. 39 Monumental Vinča head vvith almondshaped eyes from Predionica, near Priština. White-encrusted incisions above and belovv eyes. Fine light-brovvn fabric, burnished. H. 17.5 cm., W. 15 cm. Surface fmd. Kosovo Metohije Regional Museum Priš­ tina {158). Publ. Galović, Predionica: Pl. 1. 40 Clay model o f a sanccuary from Vadastra (II), southeastern Oltenia, 14 km. northvvest o f Corabia, above the Danube. H. approx. 15 cm. Grey fabric deeply enerusted vvith vvhitc. R am and buli heads on roofs o f tvvo temples painted red. 1959 exeavađon by Corneliu N. Mateesco. N A M Bucharest. Publ. C N . Mateesco: ‘Sapaturi arheologice la Vadastra', Materiale $i Cer­ cetari Arheologice VIII (1962): 189, Fig. 2; Idem. Acta VI Intern Congress of Pre- and Protohistoric Sciences, R om e (1962). 41 CIay model o f a sanctuary vvith T-shaped entrance and hole for a ehimnev-shaped figurine o f the type shovvn in Pl. 34. God­ dess’ necklace indicated in relief. Protuberances at each corner o f roof. H. 17.1 cm., L. 25.6 cm. Fine dark-brovvn polished sur­ face. Porodin mound near Bitola, Southern Yugos!avia. Radiocarbon date for Porodin (grain sample) 5300 bc: (Berlin Lab.). Excavated 1953 by M. Grbić, et al. Bitola Arch. Museum, inv. i, Publ. Grbić, Poro­ din : Pl. X X X IV , /; N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 10: ShefTield Catalogue (1969): u .

28 4

42 Baked clay model o f edifice, coloured red vvith originally vvell polished surface, H. 24.2 cm., L. (max.) 51 cm., W . 13 cm. Temples on top are approx. 8 cm. vvide and 9 em. high, forming a superstrueture 49.8 cm. long. Diseovered at Cascioarcle, an island settlement o f the Gumelni^a cui­ ture, 20 km. west o f Olteni^a north o f the lovver Danube in Southern Rom ania by Hortensia and Vladimir Dumitrescu. H. Dumitrescu, ‘ Un modčle dc sanetuaire dćcouvert dans la station enćolithique de Cascioarcle’ , Dacia, N .S. XII (1968): 3 8 1943—45 Terracotta altarpieces from Tru§e§ti, Classi­ cal Cucuteni settlement in the district o f Boto$ani, northern Moidavia, excavated 19 5 1-6 1 by M. Petrescu-Dimbovii;a. 43: H. approx. 150 cm.; 44: H. 65 cm .; 45: 73 x 70 cm. N A M Bucharest. Publ. PetrescuDimbovi^a, Tru$e$ti: 172-86. ', 47 Seated masked male figure holding a sickle, from Szegvar-Tiizkoves. Arm-ringsshovvn in relief. Legs broken offbelovv knees. Nose damaged. Belt indicated by incision o f chevrons. Fine brovvn fabric. Tisza cuiture. H. 25.6 cm. Koszta Jo zscf Museum in Szentes, southeastern Hungary. Czalog Collection, 5 9 .1.1. Publ. Czalog, J., ‘ Die anthropomorphen Gcftisse und Idolplastiken von Szegva'r-Tuzkoves’ , Acta Archaeol­ ogica (1959), 7-38 ; Kalicz, N, Dieux: 32-34. 48 Copper sickle from Zalaszentmiha'ly, vvestern Hungary. L. 54 cm., W . 5.7 cm. at top, 2.5 cm. at perforation. Balaton M u­ seum. Keszthely. Publ. F. Czalog, *Das Krummschvvert des Idols von SzegvarTiizkoves’. Acta Archaeologica, 12 : 58-59. Štip, Naroden Muzej. SF 14 21. Publ. M. Gimbutas, ‘ Excavations at Anza, Macedonia'. Archaeo!ogy, 25. 2, 1972. 49 Polvehrome dish. Dark-brovvn and vvhite on orange-red. Diam. 29 cm. Vale a Lupului, 5 km. vvest o f ln§i. northern Moidavia. northeastern Romania. Cucuteni B settle­ ment. Excavated 1953-57 by M. PetrescuDim bovija et al. la§i Museum. Moidavia. Publ. V. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: 50. 50 Polvehrome Classical Cucuteni vase. Painted in red bordered vvith dark-brovvn

on cream. Cucuteni A phase. H. 32 cm. Tru§e§ti settlement, district o f Boco$ani, northern Moidavia. Excavation by M. Petrescu-Dimbovi^a 19 5 1- 6 1. N A M Bu­ charest, Inv. N o. II. 2285. Publ. Dumitrescu, L ’art Roumanie : 49.

group o f Linear Pottery cuiture. Snake application inside. Nitra Archael. Museum o f the Institute o f Archaeology, Publ. J. Pavuk, ‘Grab des Želiezovce-typus in D vory nad Ž itavou’, Slovenska Arheologia, X II—1 (1964): Figs. 5, 6.

51 Vase from Podei at Targu Očna, northern Moidavia. Rom ania Cucuteni B settlement. H. 33 cm. W . (max.) 29 cm. Painted in dark-brov/n on vvhite background. Bull’s head and horns in relief. Archaeological Museum o f Piatra Neam{, Inv. 2790. Publ. C . Matasa, ‘ Asezarea eneolitica Cucuteni B de la Tirgu Ocna-Podei (raional Tirgu Očna, rcg. Bacau)’ , Arheologia Moldouei, II—III (1964): 11-6 6 .

60 Detail o f a Late Cucuteni piriform orangered vase vvith dark-brovvn painted design. Bilcze Zlote. Courtcsy o f Archaeological Museum in Cracovv.

52 Terracotta figurine in the shape o f a horned štand vvith female breasts. One horn broken. Has a deep hole in the middle. H. 5.2 cm. Mcdvednjak, Vinča site at Smederevska Palanka. N M B excavation o f 1970 by R . Galović. National Museum, Smederevska Palanka, No. 126. Courtesy o f this museum.

6 1 ,6 2 Terracotta snake protomes: fragments o f cult vessels. 6 1, approx. actual siže; 62, L. 5 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Porodin near Bitola, Southern Yugoslavia. Archae­ ological Museum Bitola, Inv. 5 6 2 .17 5 , 353, 6 31, 635. 63,64 Pottery vessel vvith a horned head and snakes shovvn in relief. Brovvn fabric. H. 6.9 cm. Teli Azmak at Stara Zagora. Neoli­ thic Karanovo I complex. Excavation by G. I. Georgiev 1962-65. Stara Zagora Museum. Publ. Georgiev, Beitrage.

relief. vessel. CourBitola.

65 Seated terracotta figurine vvith folded legs from Kato Ierapetra, Crete. Unusual for its state o f preservation in the Aegean area. H. [4.5 cm. Triangular head vvith a prominent nose, crovvned by a triangular cap or eoitTure vvhich flares out around the head. Massive cylindrical neck. Stubby arms, held close to sides o f protruding, angular abdo­ men. Exaggerated buttocks. Hair indicated on the crovvn and the back ofthe neck. Eyes, fmgers and toes rendered by incision. Lips shovvn plastically. Decoration or dress indicated above breasts. front shoulders, and along the spine at the back by tvvo parallel lines o f incision. Surface is o f ashen colour tinged vvith red. vvell burnished. The ćore darker red vvith some impurities. Surface fmd at the Neolithic settlement presumed to belong to a period coinciding vvith the Middle Neolithic at Knossos. The collection o f Dr Giamalakis in Heraklion. Publ. bv S. S. Weinberg, ‘ Neolithic figurines and Aegean interrelations’, A JA , vol. 55, No. 2 (April 19 51); Pl. IA. Also bv P. J. Ucko. Anthropomorphic figurines, London (1968): 246-48.

, 59 Thin-vvalled polished dish from the ceme­ terv o f D vorv nad Žitavou. Zeliezovce

66 Zoom orphic lid found 7.2 m. deep in Vinča mound. Early Vinča. Fine liglu-

53 Terracotta figurine o fa buli vvith exaggeratedly large horns, broken at each side. L. 13.5 cm. W. (acrosshorns) 8.5 cm., H. 9 cm. Fafos settlement at Kosovska M itrovica: phase lb (Mid-VinČa period). Archaeo­ logical museum o f Kosovska Mitrovica. Source same as Pls. 24, 25. 54 Pottery snake o f fine dark grey fabric decorated vvith zigzag incisions and puncturings. Diam. (max.) 3.7 cm. Predionica. Early Vinča settlement. Excavated 1955 by R . Galović. Regional Museum Priština, 76. Publ. R . Galović, Predionica (1959): Pl. 5. , 56 ’ Snake bovvT vvith holes betvveen raised design on inside from Kukova Mogila (Duvanli) near Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Grey fabric. Diam. 20 em. Excavated 1928-30 bv B. Filov. Found associated vvith Karanovo Ili-jasatepc tvpe finds. Plovdiv Museum. Courtesy o f Plovdiv Museum. S7 R im sherd vvith a horned-snake Brovvn, medium thiek, unpainted Dibel at Šuplevee. north o f Bitola. tesy o f Archacological Museum in

28>

brovvn fabric. 12 X 10.5 cm. T ip o f nose broken. Tvvo holes belovv the nose indicate repair. B U Collection, 399. Vasić’s cxcavation. Vasić, Vinca, II: Pl. X L V .

ni Muzej Leskovac, Inv. 139 1. Publ. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 113 . 77 FunncI-shaped vaše found 4.3 m. deep in

on orange-red. The cosmogonical (snake,

the Vinča mound. Divided by vertical and horizontal incisions into s vvith clusters o f vertical zigzag lines, dots, or a

egg, plane) design covers the entire surface. Bilcze Zlote, vvestern Ukraine, upper

meander motif. H. 16 cm. Brovvn fabric. B U Collection, Inv. 744. Vasić, Vinča, II:

Dniester Valley.

Pl. CII, Fig. 367; IV, Pl. LVI.

67 Late Cucuceni vase painted in dark brovvn

68 Egg-shaped stone sculpture vvith an en­ graved design vvhich probably portrays a vulva. Found at the corner o f the hearth in house N o. $ 1 at Lepenski Vir, northern Yugoslavia. In the classification o f D. Srejovič it belongs to the lc phase o f the site. L. 16 cm., W . 13 cm. D. Srejovič, excavation o f 1968. B U Collection, No. 19. Publ. D. Srejovič, Lepenski Vir (1969): Pl. ' 48. 69, 70 Ornithomorphic vase found 2.3 rn. (4.1 m.) deep at Vinča site. Late Vinča. Fine red fabric. L. 20.7 cm., H. 14 cm. Opening in the tail. Ova) body. Channelled decoration. Head modelled in detail and shovving zoo­ morphic features. Ears broken. Stands on a ring base. Classical Vinča. Vasić’s cxcavation. B U Collection, Inv. 19 13 . Publ. Vasić. Vinca II: Fig. 356. 71 Ornithomorphic vase from Cascioarele, an island settlement in the lovver Danube region, 20 km. vvest o f Olteni^a, Gumelnita Iayer. Excavation by H. and V. Dumitrescu (see 42). H. 13.2 cm. Fine fabric. burnished. N A M . Bucharest. Publ. Dumitrescu. L'art Roumanie: Fig. 109. 7 2 .7 3 .7 5 . Sandstone sculptures from Lepenski Vir. 76 northern Yugoslavia. 73, Brovvn, 22 cm. ■ 14 cm. From House 40: 76, brovvn, H. t’. 50 cm., lovver pnrt damaged. From House n/5; 75, brovvn. H. 50 cm. From House 44: 72, grey, H. 40 cm. From House 44, near the sculpture reproduced in PI. 75. D. Srejovič excavation 1965-68. BU Collec­ tion. Publ. D. Srejovič. Lepenski Vir( 1972): Pls. 24, 26, 3 1. 52. V. VII. 74 Potsherd in form o f a fish from Mala Grabovnica near Leskovac, central Yugoslavia. Fine dark-gretf fabric. L. (>.3 cm. Excavation 1953 bv M. Garašanin. Narod-

286

78 Zoom orphic tcrracotta lid found 8.2 m. dcep at the Vinča site. H. 17 cm. Fine fabric, grey colour. Decorated by incision filled in vvith vvhite paste. Reconstructed portions plain vvhite. Vasić’s excavations. B U C ol­ lection, N o. 410. Publ. Vasić, Vinca, II: Pl. LX I, 110 . 79 Red tcrracotta lid found 4.2 m. deep at the Vinča site. Decorated by bands o f incised parallel lines filled in vvith vvhite paste. H. 5.5 cm. N M Belgrade, No. 1489. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, II: Fig. 154. 80, 8 1 Bear-shaped cult vessel from the settlement at Smilčić near Zadar, Adriatic coast o f Yugoslavia. H. 10 cm. Archaeological Museum, Zadar. Excavated and published by S. Batović: ‘ Neolitsko nalezište u Smilćicu’, Radovi Instituta Jtigosl. Akad. Znanosti i Umjestnosti u Zadru, X : 8 3-138 . 82 Tcrracotta pavv o f a bear vvith bands o f incisions. Obre II, Sq. V, 2, depth 1.20j.40 m. H. 9 cm. U C L A (M. Gimbutas)Sarajevo Zemaljski Muzej (A, Benac) exca vat ion o f 1968. Publ. A. Benac. Obre II (19 7 1): Pl- X X V III. 2. 83. 84 Sesklo terracotta bust o f a female figurine from M. Vrysi. Archaeological Museum o f Volos. Publ. by Zervos, Naissance: 166, Fig. 104. <s‘5 Upper part o f a figurine vvith cylindrical head and bird's beak. Perforated ears. Deep hole for mouth. Three bosses applied belovv the hole on the neck. One breast and per­ forated arm stump preserved 011 the lcft side. H. 13 cm. Brovvn fabric. Porodin at Bitola. Southern Yugoslavia. M. Grbić et al. excavation o f 1953-54. sponsored by the Archaeological Institute o f the Serbian Academv o f Sciences, Belgrade. Archae­ ological Museum. Bitola. Publ. M. Grbić, Porodin: Pi. X X IX . J.

86 Upper part o f Early or M id-Vinča doubleheaded figurine from Rastu, southvvestern Rom ania, district o f Dolj. H. 7 cm. Per­

92 Altar table in form o f seated vvoman vvith arms around a vessel, decorated vvith in­ cised meandering bands alternately painted

forations through shoulders. V ’s and mean­

in red. Fafos I at Kosovska M itrovica, southem Yugoslavia. H. 17.6 cm. Exca-

ders incised belovv breasts. Heads damaged. Originally had prominent semicircular eyebrovvs and noses (beaks). Round holes belovv the noses. Fine grey fabric. Traces o f red colouring ali over. N A M Bucharest, Inv. N o. 4833. 87 Vase from Kenčzlo belonging to the Bukk group. OriginaIly in the Archaeological Museum o f Nyiregyhaza, northeastern Hungary, lost during W orld War II. Publ. F. Tom pa, Ober einige ungarische Denkmaler der prahistorischen Kunst (192&), 23, Pl. II, 3 ; idem, ‘D ic Bandkcramik in U ngarn’, Ar­ chaeologia Hungarica, 5/6 (1929): 4 1, PI. 3 1, i . 88 Jar vvich breasts and incised parallel-line decoration on central band. H. 8 cm. Painted vvhite. Early Cucuteni (‘ PreCucuteni III’) settlement o f Negre§ti at Vaslui, northern Moldavia. History Mu­ seum o f M oldavia, Ia$i. 89 Terracotta head o f a Bird Goddess figurine vvith incised and vvhite-encrusted chevrons above the beak. Eyes indicated by incised semicircular lines. W . 6 cm. Kalojanovcc, 18 km. southvvest o f Stara Zagora. East Balkan civilization. Karanovo IV Period. Archaeological Museum o f Stara Zagora, Inv. No. 18 1. 90 Terracotta figurine o f a double-headed goddess found 6.1 m. deep in the Vinča mound. M id-Vinča. H. 4.5 cm. Grcy fabric. Incised on front and back. Remains o f red paint over side s o f the larger head, around the neck. over the inside o f V-sign in front, in the back o f the neck and 011 the back o f masks (contours o f masks as thcv appear from the back). Vasić. Vinča, II: Pl. 86, Fig. 323. 91 Terracotta altar table o f fine grey fabric, painted red, vvhite-encrusted. Female figure broken o ff at vvaist. Cylindrical vessel partly damaged. H. 9 cm. L. 10.2 cm. Found 5.8 m. deep in Vinča mound. Mid-Vinča. Vasić’s excavation. N M Belgrade. Inv. 1295. Vasić. Vinča III: 108. Fig. 512.

vated 1959 by J- Glišić and B .Jo v a n o v ić. Regional Museum Priština, F-I-3B-502. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 54; Sheffielđ Catalogue (1969): 58. 93 Slightly tapering spoutcd pot. Whitcenerusted incisions. Settlement o f Borsod, province of Borsod-Abauj-Zcm plćn, northeastern Hungary. Tisza-Biikk border. Excavation by A. Leszik, J. Hillebrand and F. Tom pa, 1926. F. Tom pa, Die Bandkcramik in Ungarn (1929): Pl. X L IV , 5. 94 Terracotta figurine o f a seated vvoman holding a shallovv basin, from Bordjoš near Bečej, northern Yugoslavia. Fine red fabric. Surface find. N M Belgrade, Inv. 16281. M iodrag Grbić, ‘ A neolithic statu­ ette from Bečej in Banat’, Archaeologia Yugoslavia, I (1954): 16 - 17 , Figs. 1-4. 95 Tcrracotta head o f a figurine from Crnoka­ laćka Bara at RujiSte near Ražanj, north o f Niš. Clear representation o f a pentagonal mask decorated vvith vertical incisions and meanders above the righc cye. Raised semicircular eyes, large nose, no mouth. Grey fabric. H. 6.8 cm. N M Belgradc cxcavations o f 1959. N M Belgradc, Inv. 16006. Publ. R . Galović, ArkheoloŠki Pregled, 2 (1960): 24. Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 124, 96 Terracotta masked head o f fine grey fabric incised vvith meanders above and spirals belovv large raised eves. H. 5.6 cm. Med­ vednjak near Smederevska Palanka. R . Galović (N M Belgrade) excavation of 1970. Courtesy o f Smederevska Palanka National Museum. 97 Terracotta figurine vvith vvhite-encrusted incisions found 2.5 m. deep in Vinča mound. Late Vinča. She vvears a bird’s mask. Arms broken off. Small breasts, betvveen vvhich is a raised medallion. Perforations through hips, sides o f mask and crovvn o f the head. 1-1. 1 5.8 cm. Vasić's excavation. N M Bclgrade Vasić. Vinča. I: Pl. X X X I . Fig. 14 1: III: 94. Fig. 4(17.

98 H a]f o f a terracotta disc vvith incised spiral and meander patterns. T w o broken projections in the middle. Light-brovvn fabric. Found 5.4 m. deep at the Vinča site. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 537. Vasić, Vinca, IV : Pl. LIV , Fig. 14 1.

110 Details o f vase decoration and a decorated vase from Traian (Dealul Ftntinilor), Cu­ cuteni A -B layer o f the settlement in north­ ern Moidavia, northeastern Rom ania. After Hortensia Dumitrescu, Dacia, N .S. IV (1960): 34, Fig. 2.

99 Upper part o f a Vinča terracotta figurine. Settlement o f Medvednjak. Smederevska Palanka Museum excavations o f 1969. National Museum Smederevska Palanka. Courtesy o f this Museum.

1 1 1 Crude cylindrical terracotta figurine vvith female breasts and male genitals. Conical abdomen and sharply protruding buttocks. Eyes indicated by deep incision. Painted nose. H. 5.5 cm. Light-brown fabric. Vinča. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 5.76. Publ. Vasić, Vinča.

100, 101 Double-headed terracotta figurine. Fine dark-grey fabric vvith vvhite-encrusted in­ cisions. Three perforations through each arm, four through each crown and one through the sides o f the masks. Legs broken off. Vinča layer o f the Gom olava mound on the R iv e r Sava, district o f Sremska M itro­ vica, northern Yugoslavia. 1965 excavation by Vojvodjanski Muzej, N o vi Sad. Courtesy o f this Museum. 102, 103 Seated goddess from Szegvar-Tiizkoves at Szentes. Tisza cuiture. Head and legs broken off. H. c. 22 cm. Light-brovvn fabric, Decoration in form o f incised s o f meanders and zigzags. Excavated 195657 b y j. Czalog. Czalog, Szegvar-Tiizkoves, Koszta Jozsef Museum, Szentes, Hungary. 104 Vessel on a pedestal from SzegvarTiizkoves. H. 11 cm. Szentes, Koszta Jđzsef Museum, Inv. 59.1.58. J. Czalog, ‘ Das Wohnhaus “ E ” von Szegva'rTtizkoves’, Acta Archaeologica Hungarica, 9 (1958): Pl. I, Fig. 1. Kalicz, D ieux: 48. 10 5 -10 7 Vase in the form o f a seated goddess. Kdkćnydom b, Tisza cuiture. H. 33 cm. Light-brovvn fabric. Excavation b y j. Ban­ ner, 1942. Tornyai Janos Museum, Hodmezova'sa'rhely. Inv. 762/42. Banner: Kokćnydomb: 14 -3 5 ; Kalicz, Dieux: 37. 108, 109 Altarpiece o f clay, 46 cm. high, 53 cm. \vide at base, 18.5 cm. deep, from the settlement at Kokćnyđom b southeastern H ungary. Tisza cuiture. Excavated 1942 by JL Banner. TornyaiJanos Museum Hodmczovasarhely, Inv. 1089/42. J. Banner and J. Korek, ‘ Les campagnes IV et V des fouilles pratiqućes en K£5kenydomb de HtSdmczovasarhely\ Archacologiai lirtesito, 76 ( 1949)- 9-23. 24-25, Pl. VIII, Fig. S-9. Kalicz. D icux: 3S-39.

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1 12 Marble figurine from Attica, Greece. H. 22.5 cm. Typologically early Sesklo. Exact provenience not knovvn. Museum o f Eleusis. After Zervos, Naissance: 210, Fig. 203. 1 1 3 - 1 1 5 Terracotta figurine from Anza, eastern Macedonia, found above house vvall built o f convex bricks and associated vvith a barbotine sherd and a sherd vvith floral Central Balkan Neolithic II design. Beaked nose, slanting excised eyes, slight protru-. sions for vvings, vvell modelled buttocks. Legs merge together ending in a conical tip. Buff-orange burnished. Rem ains o f redpainted hip-belt. H. 4 .11 cm. Author’s excavation 1969. Naroden Muzej, Štip, SF21. Publ. M. Gimbutas, ‘ Excavation at Anza, Macedonia’, Archaeology, 25, 2: 120. 116 , 117 Cult vase in the shape o f a crovvned duck vvearing a human mask found 7.05 m. deep at the Vinča site. Terracotta vvith very thin vvalls o f light-brovvn fabric. Hollovv. Has an opening in the tail. Rippled, polished surface. Decorated vvith bands o f bituminous material. L. 36 cm., H. 20.8 cm. B U Collection, Inv. 2005. Vasić, Vinča, I: Pl. X X IV . 1 1 8 Vase in the likeness o f Bird Goddess. Fine light-brovvn fabric, channelled surface, Mask shovvn in relief. Eyes and nose plastically rendered. Breasts and knees indicated. Tvvo perforations in each arm stump. H. 32.5 cm.. W. 15.5 cm. Vinča, Vasić’s excavation. N M Belgrade, Inv. 1481. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, I {1932): 43, Pl. XV II. 119 Head o f Bird Goddess modelled on the neck o f a polychrome painted Cucuteni

vase. Eyebrows and beak form a letter T. Circular plastic eyes. Most o f left side re­ constructed. H. 11.4 em. Classical Cucuteni (‘Cucuteni A ’), Ruginoasa, district o f la§i. N A M Bucharest, II, 4681. Publ. V. Dumi­ trescu, U art Roumanie: N o. 80.

slender, fat hips and buttocks. Decorated vvith incisions. Six stabbings in front o f neck. Female breasts slightly indicated. Short stumps for arms. H. 16.3 cm. Bernovo Luka site, vvestern Ukraine. After P. P. Efimenko and I. G. Shovkoplias, ‘ Arkheologicheskie otkrytja na Ukraine za

120 Terracotta female figurine vvearing bird’s poslednie go d y\ X IX (1954): 5- 4°mask from the Vinča mound. Surface find. In standing position vvith stump arms and 129, 130 Terracotta figurine decorated vvith vvhiteencrusted incisions ali over the body. tvvo perforations in each. Small breasts. Forvvard-leaning posture. Fine fabric. Large eyes, V-neck and skirt indicated by Classical Cucuteni (‘Cucuteni A ’) period, incision. Neck and upper top corner o f the found in Moidavia, locality unknovvn. mask painted in red. Fine dark-grey fabric, N A M , Bucharcst, Inv. N o. 573°- Publ. V. burnished. H. 16 cm. N M Belgrade, 4654. Dumitrescu, ‘La civilisation de Cucuteni’, N M Belgrade Catalogue 1968: 146. Berichten van de rijksdienst voor het audheid12 1 Terracotta figurine from Supska near kundig Godemonderzoek, 9 { 1 959) • Fig- 10« Ćuprija, central Yugoslavia. Surface find. 2. Fine rcddish-brovvn fabric. H. 15 cm. 13 1 Terracotta female figurine from the early National Museum, Ćuprija, Inv. 300. N M Lengyel settlement at Strelice at BoskovBelgrade (1968): 129. štejn, district o f Znojm o, Moravia. Fine 122, 123 Terracotta masked head in shape o f a duck. light brovvn fabric. H. 15.5 cm. Five neck­ Four perforations, one through each eheek laces indicated by horizontal incisions and one above each eye. Deep and vvide around the neck. Eyes incised. Beak-nose. incisions for eyes and decoration. H. approx. Hair rendered by application and incision. 5 cm. The Vinča mound. Late Vinča. NM N o indication o f dress. Stumps for vvings. Belgrade, Inv. 1443F. Vildom cc’s excavation and collection. Moravian Museum, Brno, Czechoslovakia. 124 Miniature bird-shaped head o f a terracotta Publ. by W. and B. Forman an d j. Pouh'k, figurine. Tvvo incised channels round the Prehistoric Art (in Czechoslovakia), London neck. Peaked crovvn. Exciseđ dots for eyes. (undated, c. 1955): Fig. 47. H. 1.9 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Sitagroi mound, northeastern Greece. Early Gumel132 Baked clay figure o f mother and ehild ni^a cuiture. M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C. vvearing bird masks attached to a burnished Renfrevv (ShefTield Univ.) excavation o f pottery fragment found 4.7 m. deep in the 1968. Philipi Museum, Sitagroi, SF 412. Vinča mound. Fine dark-grey fabric. H. 14.4 cm. Lovvcr part damaged, child’s mask 125 Upper torso o f a terracotta figurine. H. 4.8 broken of}'. Eyes, decoration o f masks, dress cm. Fine grey fabric. Exđsed and vvhiteand nccklace indicated by vvhite-encrusted encrusted decoration, forming spiral and incisions. Small stumps for arms. probablv meander designs. Fiat head indicates a mask symbolizing vvings. Masks are pentagonal. vvith representation o f Bird Goddess’ face: Mothcr's mask has tvvo perforations on eyebrovvs connected vvith the beak. Vadas­ either side. Small breasts indicated. Vasić’s tra dist. ofC orabia, Oltenia. Rom ania. MF excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 1233. 1948. N A M Bucharest. Publ. Vasić. Vinča. II: Pl. L X X X V , Fig. 126, 127 Heads o f terracotta bird-headed figurines 322. vvith double spiral curls. Three holes in ^33* *34 Terracotta head o f a ram, broken o ff at the front. Sitagroi mound, East Balkan civiliza­ neck. Painted bright red vvith traces o f ■vvhite tion, as 124 above. around eyes and betvveen the lines o f the horns. Fine fabric, orange clav. H. 3.9 cm. 12S Early Tripolye (Proto-Cucuteni) terracotta Anza. eastern Macedonia, Yugoslavia. Anza figurine. Siightlv forvvnrd-leaning posture. IV. Earlv Vinča. Found 1970 above the top Cvlindrical neck. upper part ot bodv

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floor o f Vinča house during author’s excavation o f site. Štip Museum, SF 1691. 135 Terracotta head o f a he-goat or ram that formed part o f a vase. Horns broken off. R ou gh ly triangular head vvith ridge down middle. Raised and slit’eyes. Deep parallel lines incised round neck, encrusted vvith white. Red-painted neck betvveen and below incisions. Black burnished surface. L. 10 cm., W . (of head) 5.4 cm. Sitagroi mound, eastern Macedonia, Greece, Period III. East Balkan civilization, Dikilitash compIex. Diseovered in the stratigraphic area during the 1968 excavation by C. A. R en frew (Sheffield U niversity)-M . Gimbutas (U C L A ). Philipi Museum, SF 203. 136 Terracotta cult vessel in the shape o f a ram. Horns connected vvith the rim. Fine light— grey fabric. H. 5.8 cm. Incisions o f V ’s and chevrons encrusted vvith vvhite paste. Traces o f red paint. From the Vinča mound, Classical Vinča. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 117 5 . Publ. Vasić, Vinca. II: Pl. L X X V IH , Fig. 335. 137 Zoom orphic ritual vase, rectangular vvith a horned ram ’s head at one end. H. 10.5 cm., L. 16.5 cm. Grey fabric. Decorated vvith incised and vvhite-encrusted concentric or ■parallel lines. Banjata at Kapitan Dim itrievo, district o f Pazazdzik, central Bul­ garia. Gumelni^a compIex. Excavation by P. Detev 1947-48 o f the • Archaeological Museum Plovdiv. Publ. P. Detev, 'Le teli Baniata pres de Kapitan Dim itrievo’ , Godishnik, Plovdiv (1950) II, iC. 13.8 C lay sculpture o f a female in standing posi­ tion vvith cylindrical neck and folded arms. H. 17.5 cm. Grey fabric. Made in sections (head. torso and tvvo legs) and then pegged together before thcy hardened. Inciscd eycs. pinehed-up nose. Small breasts. Found vvithin the house o f the early phase o f the Neolithic settlement o f Nea Nikomedeia at Verroia, vvestern Macedonia, Greece. Central Balkan Proto-Sesklo comploc. 19 61-6 3 excavations o f Cam bridge and Harvard Universities. Excav. and publ. by R . J. Rodden, ‘ An carly neolithic villagc in Greece’, Scientific American. Vol. 212 , No. 4, April 1965. 29O

139 Cylindrical head o f a terracotta figurine vvith prominent pinehed-up nose and slit eyes. Deep incisions near upper end. Canal ends in a hole on top. H. 4.7 cm. Fine grey fabric. Rudnik Kosovski near Prizren, Kosovo Metohije, Southern YugosIavia. Central Balkan Starčevo com p!ex. Found in 1966. Later this settlement vvas excavated by J. Glišić. Regional Museum in Priština, R U -A 3-V III-IC . N M Catalogue (196S): 32. 140 Standing tcrracotta figurine vvith pillarneck, phallus-shaped massive breasts, large abdomen and folded arms. Back is flat. H. 15 .7 cm . Fine brovvn fabric. Cem etery o f Cernavoda on the lovver Danube, northvvestofConstanta. I9 5 7 c x c a v . by D. Berciu, sponsored by the Archaeological Institute o f the Academy o f Sciences, Rom anian P. R . N A M Bucharest, Publ. D. Berciu, Cultura Hamangia (1966), I: Fig. 53. 141 Marble figurine found in the nincteenth century in the vicinity o f Sparta. Publ. in Athenische Mitteilungen X V I: 52, Fig. 1. Later by Tsountas, Diminiou ha i Sesklou: Fig. 3 1 1 , and Zervos, Naissance: Fig. 114 , 142 Marble figurine. Athens Nat. Museum, inv. 8772. H. approx. 13 cm. 143 Upper part o f a terracotta figurine cupping breasts. From Sesklo, Thessaly. Sesklo complcx. Tsountas excavation. Publ. 1908 Tsountas, Diminiou kai Sesklou: Fig. 14. Courtesy o f Athens National Museum, inv. 5942. 144 White marble figurine. H. 7 cm. Teli Azmak, central Bulgaria. Karanovo I. Stara Zagora Museum. 1960-63 excavations by G. I. Georgiev and P. Detev. Publ. by G. I. Georgiev Bcitrage: Abb. 12. 545 Tcrracotta torso vvith folded arms. Head and lovver part not preserved. Fine brovvn fabric. H. 3.5 cm. Settlement o f Pianul de Jos near Alba. Transylvania. 1962-63 excavation by Iuliu Paul. Pctrc$ti group vvith strong Gumelni^a influcnces. Sibiu Mu­ seum. Publ. Paul, I, ‘ Der Forschungsstand iiber die Petrc$ti-Kuitur\ Studijnć z vesti. 22: 3 3 1. Abb. 2: 10. I don. ‘ Asezarea neocneolitica de la Pianul d ejo s (Podei), Jud. Alba*. Studii fi cominunicari (Sibiu. 1967): Pl. VI. 8.

fired and compact. Burnished. Fine fabric: light pink/buff surface, grey ćore. Floor o f Late Neolithic house, Level 17. Argos Museum. Excavation by J. L. Caskey (University o f Cincinnati) 1956. Publ. J. L. Caskey and M. A . Elliot, ‘ Neolithic figurines from Lerna’ , Hesperia, X X V (1956), 17 5 -7 7 ; Idem, ‘ Where Hercules slevv the H ydra: a neolithic sculpture o f

146 W eli preserved figurine from the teli o f Sulica near Stara Zagora. Local grey marble. H. 13 cm. Wide head, semicircular eyes, pronounced nose. Five round depressions belovv the mouth, three in each ear. Breasts slightly indicated. Left hand covers the right. Short tapering legs. Stara Zagora Museum. Publ. Gaul, Neolithic Bulgaria, Pl. L X , 2. 147 Figurine vvith folded arms, no breasts, legs together. Head broken o ff belovv neck. Borets (Topra-Asar) near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. H. iocm . Locallight-grey marble. Accidentally diseovered by farmers in 1908. Plovdiv Archaeological Museum. Assigned to the period o f Karanovo VI on typo!ogical grounds. Publ. Gaul, Neolithic Bulgaria: 189, Pl. L X , 3. 148 C yđ ad ic marble figurine from Syros. H. 2 1.6 cm. Red colouring preserved on chest. After Zervos, Cyclades: 188, Fig. 248. 149. 150 Slender schematized terracotta figurine. Breasts and buttocks emphasized, large incised pubic triangle. Punctate decoration around head, arm stumps and over hips. Holes for cyes, large nose. H. approx. 15 cm. Vykhvatintsi cemeterv, grave No. 29. Cucuteni B - late T ripolyc period. Arch. Museum o f the Institute o f History, Acad. o f Sciences, Kishenev, Soviet Moldavia. Publ. I. G. Rozenfeld, ‘ Vvkhvatinski 1110gil’nik po razkopkam 1951 goda’ , K S IIM K , 56: 98-104. i 51

Fiat figurine o f bone vvith large incised pubic triangle and punetated decoration. Holes for eves. One hole in middle o f neck and tvvo in the back belovv the vvaist. On the side o f the head three pairs o f holes for ear-rings (novv broken). Perforations through arm stumps and feet. Copper plates above legs. H. 15 cm. Northern central Bulgaria. district o f Stara Zagora. Museum o f Stara Zagora. Bulgaria. Publ. M. Dim itrov. ’ Kostena ehoveshka figurka at s. Lovets, Starozagorsko’ . Arkheologija. IV. 1 (1962): 65-68.

152 Terracotta figurine from Lema near Argos. eastern Peloponnese. H. 18.2 cm. Found beneath the debris o f third building level. Worn and slightly chipped. Head and lovver part o f right leg broken otf. Hard

"classic beauty” and the relics ofsom e 2500 years from Peloponnesian Lerna’, Illustrated London Neu/s, January 1957: 6 8 -7 1. 153

Schematized terracotta figurine vvith large, incised pubic triangle. Hole on top for inscrtion o f a cylinder. Legs reduced to protruding feet. Fine greyish-brown fabric. Isolated find from Vinča. N M Belgrade, Inv. N o. 5023. Publ. J. Korošec in Archeoloski Vestniki, 3 ( i952),55f*.and Prehistorijska plastika.

154 Marble figurine in vvhich the child stands on top o f mother’s head. H. 23 cm. Isolated find housed in Badisches Landesmuseum, Karlsruhe. Inv. 64/100, N eg. No. 6275. Publ. J. Thimm e, Antike Kunst, VIII, Taf. 2 1 : 2. Courtesy o f D r Jtirgcn Thimm e, Badisches Landesmuseum, Karisruhe. 155 Anthropomorphic vase, decorated vvith vvhite paint on reddish-brovvn background. Slipped. H. 32.3 cm. Diseovered in the settlement area o f the East Balkan Gumclni^a culture at Sultana on the shore o f Lake Mostistea. Acquired bv Barbu Ionesar, direetor o f the Olteni^a Museum. Publ. by S. Marinescu-Btlcu, ‘ Dic Bedeutungeiniger Gesten und Haltungen in der jungsteinzeitlichcn Skulptur der ausserkarpatischen Gebiete Rumaniens’. Dacia, X I (1967)'

47- 58. 156. 1 57 Squatring vvoman vvith exaggerated but­ cocks and dravvn-up legs. H. 7.6 cm. Face masked. R ight hand at the mouth. left broken off. Fine black fabric, but not burnished. Excised lines encrusted vvith vvhite paste inciude concentric circles vvith a dot in the middle. 011 back and side ofcach buttock and ac knees. Narrovv vvaist. Behind. there is a dot in the middle ofth e back and a lozenge belovv the vvaist. Medvednjak at Smederevska Palanka, central Yugosiavia. Classical Vinča. R . M iioScvić'scxca-

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vation o f 1969. Smederevska Palanka Naroden Museum, Inv. 944. Courtesy o f this Museum. 158 A large pithos, vvith tvvo large supematural hands worked in relief on both sides o f the upper, and two smaller ones on the lovver part o f the jar. The vessel, approx. 1 m. high, has a short cylindrical neck and three lugs. Low cr part in barbotine, uppcr part brovvn burnished. Banjata at Kapitan Dimitrievo near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. Gumelni^a complex. East Balkan civilization, Chalcolithic. Excavations o f the Plovdiv Archacological Museum by P. Detev in 1947-48. Plovdiv. Arch. Museum. Lit.: P. Detev ‘Le teli Baniata pr£s dc Kapitan Dim itrievo’ , Godishnik, Plovdiv (1950); II, 1. 159 Vase from Mulđava, Neolithic settlement near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. H. 11 cm. Karanovo I period. Plovdiv Archaeological Museum excavation by P. Detev. Publ. P. Detev, Godishnik, Plovdiv, III, 3 (1959). 160 Binocular vase. Ochre-red vvith chocolatcrbrovvn decorations. Cucuteni B. Bilcze Zlote, vvestern Ukraine. Courtesy o f Cracow Archaeological Museum. 161 Ređining terracotta animai, half fox, half dog. Fine brovvn fabric. Eyes and mouth vvhite-encrusted. L. 6 cm. Gumelni^a site at Pietrele, districtofllfov. N A M Bucharest I.3472. Publ. by D. Berciu, Conlribufii, and V. Dumitrescu, L'art Romanie: 103. 162 Dog-shaped handle - fragment o f a pearshaped, slightly biconical Cucuteni B vase. Fine fabric, ochre-red vvith traccs o f ornamentation in black paint vvhich through vveathering has lost its original lustre and colour. The animai figure vvas perpendicularly attached to the upper part o f the vessel. The fragment measures 9.5 ' 4.5 cm., the animai itself bcing 6.5 cm. long and 2.5 cm. high. Its firm attachment by legs and tail to the vvall o f the vase suggests that it served as a handle. The anim afs head is rendered schcmatically, but the rest o f the bođy is na tura listić, vvith even the tensed museles shovving. Found at Podei, located on a tcrrace o fth e R iv e r Trotus near the small tovvn o f Targu-O cna, northeast o f the Carpathian Mts in Moidavia. bv I. lacobovici, profcssor o f the medica! faeultv at 292

Bucharest. First donated vvith other fmds to the local museum o f Targu-Ocna and later taken over by N A M Bucharest, Inv. 5714. The object vvas first published by R . Vulpe, ‘Figurine theriomorphe de la civilisation Cucuteni B ’, IP EK , 12 (1938): 57-65, Pl. 33. 163 D og’s head carved from rock crystal. H. 4.3 cm., L. 6 cm. Crnokalačka Bara near Ražanj north o f Niš, Southern Yugoslavia. N M Belgrade (R . Galović) excavation o f 1960. N M B Inv. No. 16071. Publ. N M Belgrade Catalogue 1968: 125. 164 Cucuteni B 2 vase from the settlement o f Valea Lupului 5 km. west o f Ia§i, northern Moidavia, Rom ania. H. 3 1.5 cm. Lovver part o f the vase is reconstructed. The design, cxccuted in dark red, bordered vvith black on vvhite, is applied to the cylindrical neck and extends over the shoulder (seen only on the other side o f the photographed object). Betvveen the metopes vvith a flying dog and catcrpillars, winding snakcs are to be seen. On the shoulder, belovv the toothcd line, large eggs are painted in black bands (not visible in the photograph). Excavated 1953-57 by M. Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a et al. History Museum o f Moidavia, Ia$i. Publ. S C IV V (1954) and VI (1955). Also: V. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: 52; R ybakov, Cosmogony: 4.2. [65 Detail o f large ochre-red, pear-shaped vase shovving frieze vvith black-paintcd design on the bulging upper part. This design ineludes large discs betvveen tvvo spiralling bands above vvhich fly dogs stvlized in Late Cucutenian fashion. The top ofthe frieze has a border o f three parallel lines and a rovv o f triangles. H. 36 cm., W. 33 cm. Animai figures 5 cm. long. Bilcze Zlote settlement. upper Dniester Valley. formerly Polish Galicia. novv vvestern Ukraine. Archaeological Museum in Cracovv. Poland. Courtesv o f this Museum. 166 Fragment o f a storage vessel vvith figure o f a stag in relief. H. 18 cm., W. 29 cm. Csepa, southeastern Hungarv. An isolated find o f the Starčevo (Koros) complex. Tesscdik S.imucl Museum. SzarvaS. Publ. by Krecsmarik in Archaeologiai Ertesito, 32 (19 12 ); 366-68; I. Kutzian. The Koros Cuiture (1944): l'l- II. /• N. Kalicz. DiVi/.v: Pl. 8.

167, 168 Terracotta vase in the shape o f a doe. L. 64 ♦ cm., H. 39 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric, painted in vvhite on red. Carefully modelled head and neck. Slit-eyes in raised relief. Round opening at mouth. Cyiindrical neck to opening 011 back. Muldava mound, central Bulgaria. Found associated vvith the Neolithic pottery o f Karanovo I type. Plovdiv Archaeologica! Museum. Excavated and published by P. Detev, ‘Praistorichestoto Selishche pri selo M uldava’ , Godishnik, Plovdiv, VI (1968): 33, Fig. 26. 169 Vinča figurine ofan erect toad found 7.1 m. deep in the Vinča mound. Vasić’s excava­ tion. B U Collection, Inv. 12 8 1. Vasić, Vinča, vol. III: Fig. 616. 170 White marble figurine o f a toad. H. 7.5 cm. H alf o f conical head missing. Starčevo layer o f the stratified Neolithic settlement at Anza (Anzabegovo) near Štip, southeastern Yugoslavia. Narođen Muzej Štip, SF 2221. M. Gimbutas (U C LA )-N aroden Muzej Štip (M. Garašanin) excavation 197017 1 Toad carved out ofgrecnish blue serpentine from Nea Nikomedeia. Courtesy o f the excavator, R . J . Rodden. See 138. 172 Part o f Late Vinča vasc vvith human figures and snakes in relief. 15.7 •< 24.6 cm. Gom olava teli at Sremska Mitrovica, northern Yugoslavia. Red-brovvn fabric, polished surface. Found on the floor o f Vinča house. Excavation o f 1955 by Vojvodjanski Mu­ seum, N ovi Sad. Vojvodjanski, N ovi Sad. northern Yugoslavia, Inv. A 2185. Publ. S. N agy, Rad vojvodjanskikh muzeja, 9 (1960): 119 , Pl. IV, 2. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 89. 173 Neck o fa pithos, H. 11 cm. Diam. 20.5 cm. Handles in the shape o f human arms. Incisions round rim. Designs inelude a face vvith eves, mouth and raised nose above an M-sign. and dclv incised snake and meander patterns. Diseovered at SzentesJaksorpart, eastern Hungarv. Szaka'lha't com plex o f the Linear potterv cuiture. Houscd in Koszta Jozsef Museum in Szentes. 54. >56. 3 1. Publ. G. Csallany, ‘ Gcsiehtsdarstellungen auf Gefassen der TheissKultur*. (/{THiiJHitj. 23 (1939): IJ1. X V . Fig. 2; Kalicz, D ieux: Pl. 25.

174 Terracotta figurine o f a tortoise found on the surface at the Vinča site. L. 6 cm., W. 3.9 cm. Fine grey fabric. N M Belgrade, Inv. N o. 4334 (bought by N M Belgrade from a farmer in 1934). N M Belgrade Catalogue, 1968: 72. Publ. Garašanin, Reli­ gija: 2 5 1, Fig. 23. 175 Terracotta head ofa hedgehog from a classi­ cal Vinča site at Crnokalačka Bara, north o f Niš, Southern Yugoslavia. H. 6 cm. N M Belgrade by R . Galović 1969. N M Bel­ grade, Inv. 20195. .Unpubiished. Courtesy o f the cxcavator. 176 Terracotta lid in the form o f a hedgehog vvith an anthropomorphic face. Gumelni^a B settlement at Vidra, south o f Bucharest, lovvcr Danube basin. H. 5 cm. D. Rosetti’s cxcavation o f 1934. Bucharest C ity Mu­ seum. Publ. by D. Rosetti, ‘ Steinkupferzeitliche Plastik aus einem W ohnhugel bei Bukarest’, IPEK, 12(1938): 29-50. Repeatcd by V. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: Pl. 100. 177 Terracotta hedgehog from Cascioarcle, Gumelni^a layer, Southern Rom ania. H. 6.1 cm. N M Bucharest. Publ. Dumitrescu, L'art Roumanie: Pl. 109. 178 Buli’s head vvith large horns cut out o f a flat piece o f bone. Image o f the goddess in the centre o f the head is geometrically rendered by means o f punetate lines. The figure is composed o f two triangles mceting vvith their tips at the vvaist. Legs narrovv dovvn to a point. Head and navel portraycd by larger dots. Raised arms bifurcate halfway up. Punetate line also runs dovvn middle o f horns and along top o f head. Perforations at each o f the four corners and on top o f the head probablv vvere used for attaching it to some other object. Bilcze Zlote (Polish), BilcheZolotoe (Ukrainian).south ofTarnopol. on the Seret (N.) basin in the vvestern Ukraine, upper Dniester. a Cucuteni (TripoIye) cave site excavated in the ninctcenth and earlv tvventicth centuries by G. Ossovvski and W. Demetrykiewicz. Early Cucu­ teni B (Tripolyc C II in the classification by T. ek, 1949). Archaeological Museum, Cracovv. 179 Bee Goddess on a gold plaque from Cam ir o s , Rhodes. Seventh centurv b c . Courtesy

293

o f Museum o f Fine Arts, Boston (Neg. No. B2578). Publ. Ransom , The Bee, 1937: Pl. V. 180 Pottery fragment showing Bee Goddess in relief (part only). Kocaart at Hodmezovas^rhely, southeaster'n Hungary, a Star­ čevo (Koros) site. Museum o f Tornyai Janos at Hodmezovasrfrhely, Inv. N o. 748/ 32. Publ. by J. Banner, ‘ Die neolithische Ansiedlung von Hćdm ezovasarhely-Kopancs und Kocaart und die III periode der Theiss-Kultur’, Dolgozatok, VIU (1932): 1. 32-48, Pl. X V III, 2. Also in I. KutziAn, The Koros culture (1944): Pl. X L l, 1. In both publications the figure appears upside down. 181 Fragments o f a bowl from Ilonapart at Szentes, southeastem Hungary, with a figure ofthe Bee Goddess painted in red on a white baekground. Diseovered b y j. Czalog ‘ Szentes-Ilonapart’, Acta Archacologica (Szeged 1966). Courtesy o f Szentes Mu­ seum. 182 Brown-on-eream painted vaše from a Cucuteni B settlement o f Podei near TirguOcna, district o f Bac5u. H. 19 cm. Diam. 22.5 cm. Piatra Neam{ Museum, Inv. 1514 . 183 Animal-headed female figurine seated on a scool o f red baked terracotta, dccorated vvith dcep incisions filled in vvith vvhite. Navel indicatcd by hole vvithin an encirđed raised bclly. Tvvo perforations through arm stumps, hips and mask. Four perforations at back ofcrovvn. Found 4.1 m. deep in the Vinča mound. Vasić’s excavation. NM Belgrade cxhibit. Publ. Vasić, Vinča, I: 12 1, Figs. 139a,/;,c; and III: 1 1 4 ,-Figs. 541 a,h.c. 184, 185 Tcrracotta figurine o f a masked goddess, painted in black and red diagonal bands. Eves, nose, centre o f forehcad and ehin painted black. Perforations through the shoulders and arms and through the corners o fth e pentagonal mask. Lovver part missing. Was originally seated on a throne. Lefc arm broken belovv che shouldcr: right hand 011 left breast. H. 15.1 cm. Luscrous surface. Found 4.38 m. deep in Vinča mound. BU Colleccion. Inv. No. 1222. Vasić’s excnvation. Publ. Vasić. Vinča, I: PI. X X X V I. 1X6, 1X7 Terracotta figurine (cylindrical srand) vvich head o fa bear cub from Pavlovac (localicv -9 4

Čukar), upper Morava Valley, southeastem Yugoslavia. Small stumps for arms. H. 16.6 cm. Fine dark brovvn fabric. 1955 excavation o f N M Belgrade and Archae­ ological Institute o f Serbian Acadcmy o f Sciences. N M Belgradc, Inv. 15369. Publ. M . Garašanin in 39. B R G K (1958): Pl. 1, a, b. Assumed to be o f Late Vinča (VinčaPločnik) period. 188 Terracotta figurine in half animal, half human form. Applied ears, pinehed-up nose, cyes and mouth exeised. Left arm and left breast broken off. Right hand on the abdomen. Lovver part missing. H. 9.5 cm. Fine brovvn fabric. Starčevo comp!ex. Porodin near Bitola, Southern Vugoslavia. Excavated 1954 by M. Grbić et al. Archae­ ological Museum Bitola, Inv. N o. 14. Publ. Grbić, Poroditi, Pl. 39; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): Pl. 6. i, 190 Terracotta sculpture o f a seated mother holding a large child 011 her lap. V ’s, meanders and crcscents incised on the back. Both heads missing. Legs and right arm o f the mother broken off. H. 12.4 cm. Fine light-brovvn fabric. Early Vinča settlement at Rastu near Dolj, southvvescern Rom ania. N A M , Bucharest. Publ. V. Dumitrescu, Raport asupra activitdfii $tiin{ijice a Muzeului National de Anrichitafi in anii 1942 $i 1943 (Bucharest 1944); 84-87, Fig. 16. 1. 192 Terracotta figurine o f fine dark-grcy fabric from Supska near Ćuprija. H. 9.2 cm. Lovver part and lefc arm missing. Pcrforations through shoulders and elbovvs. Inci­ sions indicate eves, blouse lines, constricted slecvcs, fingers, navel and notehed cord by vvhich pouch on back vvas atraehed. Central section at front and back (betvveen incisions) painted in black. Surface find. N M Bel­ grade 20196. NM Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 128. 193 Terracotta figurine o f a bear-masked vvoman in a seated position holding a bear cub. Light-grey fabric. Itnpure clay. H. 5.7 cm. Excavated 1959 by J. Glišić and B. Jovanović. Fafos factorv in Kosovska Mitrovica, Kosovo Metohije, YugosIavia. Found in later horizon o f the settlement, labellcd Fafos II. National Museum, Kosov­ ska Micro vica. Inv. 2090. N M Belgrade Catalogue (1968): 96.

194 Terracotta figurine o f mother holding baby. Head and legs missing. Was originally seated on a throne. Tvvo perforations through each shoulder. Massive arms, fingers crudely incised. Dress indicated by vvhite-encrusted incisions. H. 8 cm. Fine grey fabric. Vinča site at Gradac near Zlokučani, Morava Valley, excavated by M . Vasić in 1909, but the figurine is a surface find. N M Belgrade, Inv. 775. Publ. M. Vasić in Glas Serb. Kralj. Akademie

199 Hamangia-type standing terracotta figurine v/ith hands on the abdomen. Pillar head, feet and left shoulder reconstructed. Large breasts, very wide hips. H. 2 1.7 cm. Cernavoda cemetery, Dobruja. Light brovvn fabric. N A M Bucharest, Inv. V .22003. Excavation o f 1957 by D. Berciu o f the Institute o f Archaeology, Academ y o f Sciences, Rom anian P .R . Publ. D. Berciu, Cultura Hamangia (1966).

200, 201 Lovver half o f terracotta seated figurine, broken at vvaist and end o f legs. Accentated abdominal part vvith vvide hips and pregnant 195 Mother and child plastically rendered on a belly. Incised vvith vvhite-encrusted lines, pottery fragment from early Lengyel vilspirals and dots: double spiral on the belly, lage o f Zengov£rkony near Pćcs, province triangles vvith a dot inside each forming o f Baranya, Hungary. Holes for eyes. band on the back. Diagonal lines above the Schematized animal-shaped head. Massive legs suggest skirt or trotisers. Upper back arms and hands. H. 5 cm. Excavation b y j. plain except for tvvo holes marking TrigoDom bay in 1939. Janus Pannonius Mu­ num lumbale and tvvo holes at the back o f the seum in Pćcs, Inv. 5.187.1939. Published neck. Brown/grey fabric. H. 3.5 cm. M ax. by D om bay, Zengovdrkony: 2 17 , Pl. 87, width 3.1 cm. 1968 excavation o f Sitagroi Fig. 6; PI. 114 , Fig. ^a-b. mound by C . A. Rcnfrevv (Sheffield) and 196 Terracotta standing figurine from MedM. Gimbutas (U C L A ). Period III, equivavednjak near Smederevska Palanka, south­ lent to the East Balkan Gumelni^a civilizaeast o f Belgradc. H. 15.7 cm. One arm tion. Philipi Museum, Macedonia, Greecc, stump and head broken off. Fine dark-grey SF 1276. fabric. Black polished vvith vvhite-encrusted 202 Schematized figurine o f pregnant female incisions indicating both dress and magical vvith band o f inciscd snakes around che signs - a snake on the abdomen and mean­ belly. Orange/buff fine baked c!ay. Whiteder on the back. Snake and meander bands enerusted incisions. H. 5.15 cm. M ax. are painted in red. Excavated 1970 by R . diam. 3 cm. Sitagroi mound (Period III), Milosjević, direetor o f the Narodin Muzej Greek Macedonia, Philipi Museum, SF Smederevska Palanka, Inv. 112 . Courtesy o f 4489. this museum. ( 19 11).

197 Terracotta figurine o f a seated pregnant vvoman vvith hands above the abdomen. Legs like cones. Head missing. H. 2.5 cm. Fine rcddish-brovvn fabric. Porodin near Bitola as above, Inv. 1306. Publ. Grbić, Porodin: Pl. X X X I : 7.

203 Terracotta figurine in a squatting position. H. 3.9 cm. Schematically rendered. Head broken off. Incised lines mark legs. Lozenge vvith a dot in the middle on bclly. Gladnice, . site at Gračanica near PriStina in Kosovo Metohije, Southern Yugoslavia, a Neolithic Starčevo settlement. j. Glisić’s cxcavation o f 1960. Regional Museum Priština, Inv. No. G-2E/1205. Belgrade 1968 Catalogue:

198 Terracotta torso o f a nude and pregnam vvoman holding her hands above the belly. 3*■ Lefc arm broken. Head and lovver porcion missing. H. 5.25 cm. Fine reddish-brovvn 204, 205 Terracotta figurine o f a standing female inciscd ali over vvith lines and magical signs. fabric. Porodin mound near Bitola. vvestern In front. in the vcry centre, a quadripartite Macedonia. Excavated 1953 by M. Grbić lozenge vvith a dot in each section and a rt al. Central Balkan Neolithic. Starčevo snake design above it 011 chest. Breasts not com plex. Bitola Archaeological Museum. indicated. Arm stumps incised on front and Inv, 470. Publ. Grbić, Porodin, but objccc back vvith parallel lines. V-line belovv the mu illustrated.

295

schematized head vvith pinched-up nose. Hair indicated by application o f small lumps o f clay. Fine reddish-brovvn baked clay. Polished surface. H. 15 cm. Cucuteni, northern Moidavia. Cucuteni A phase. N A M Bucharest. 206 Terracotta figurine in seated position, placcd on a terracotta throne (not found together). The figurine, vvith a multiple lozenge design incised above the pregnant belly, from Selo Kalekovets near Plovdiv, central Bulgaria; the chair (throne) from Kapitan Dimitrievo. Both are o f Karanovo VI-Gumelni^a type. H. approx. 10 cm. Plovdiv Archaeological Museum. 07-209 The seated goddess o f Pazardžik at Plovdiv, central Bulgaria. H. approx. 15 cm. Polished surface, fine fabric. White-encrusted in­ cised lines. Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. Publ. by M . Hoernes, Urgeschkhte Europas, p. 204. Republished by E. Neumann, The Great Mother (1955), Pl. 6. Courtesy o f Naturhistorisches Museum, Prahistorische Abteilung. 10, 2 1 1

Anthropomorphic red-painted vessel in the form o f an enthroned goddess. Fine reddishbrovvn fabric. H. 23 cm. N o head. Legs broken o ff below the knees. Small breasts. Schematic folded arms each vvearing tvvo bracelets and one arm-ring. Navel indi­ cated by a semi-globular protuberance vvith a dot in the middle. Incised geometric design, originally vvhite-encrusted, covers lovver part o f the body. Kokćnydom b at Hodmezovasa'rheIy on R iv er Tisza in southeastern Hungary. Tisza cuiture. T om yai Ja'nos museum. Hodmez6vasa'rhely, Inv. No. 761/42. Publ. J. Banner, Kokvnydomb.

Dumitrescu, Raport asupra activitafii ftiintifice a Muzeului National de Antichitati in anii 1942 si 1943 (Bucharest 1944): 84-87. 214 Terracotta head o f a pig from Vinča. Leskavica near Štip, Macedonia. Fine lightbrovvn fabric. H. 19 cm. Surface fmd in the area o f Vinča settlement. Naroden Muzej, Štip. Publ. N M Belgrade catalogue (1968): 93215 Naturalistically rendered terracotta pig from the Nea Makri mound, Attica ProtoSesklo cuiture. Volos Museum. L. 6.5 cm. Fine reddish-brovvn fabric. Excavated 1954 by D. R . Theocharis. Publ. Theocharis in Athenische Mitteilungen, 71 (1956): iff. 216 Fragment (snout) o f a life-size sculpture o f a pig. Unbaked clay. From the Vinča layer o f the stratified site o f Anza betvveen Titov Veles and Štip in eastern Macedonia. Dis­ eovered by the author during the season o f 1970. With the exception o f one leg, ali other parts o f the pig had completely disintegrated. Made o f local orange clay vvith chaflf temper and ineluding some large quartz grains. Rough, buff-coloured, unpolished surface. Vertical cross-section o f snout 3.9 cm. Test pit X IX , 5. Naroden Muzej, Štip. 2 17 Terracotta head o f a pig. It has large cars vvith three perforations in each and deep holes in the snout. Plastically rendered eyes. L. 9.1 cm. Light-brovvn fine fabric. Dalbaki, 15 km. east o f Stara Zagora, central Bulgaria. Marica-Gumelni^a cuiture. Courtcsy o f Stara Zagora Archaeological Museum.

213 Uppcr portion o f terracotta figurine o f goddess vvith pig’s head or mask. Fine grcy fabric. H. 9 cm. Rastu, lovver Danube

2 18 Pig’s head and neck o f red baked terracotta, vvith polished and rippled surface. Hollovv. Black-painted bands around the neck and eyes. Face (mask) sharply outlined. Per­ forations on both sides. Probably part o f the cult vase (or a rhyton) found 7.6 m. (5.8 m.) deep in the Vinča mound, during Vasić’s cxcavarion. L. 7.8 cm. B U Collection. Publ. Vasić, I'VmV, I: Pl. 27 and Figs. 118 đ,/>; II: Pl. X C V II and Fig. 363. Vasić:

region, vvestern Rom ania. Early Vinča settlement. N A M Bucharest. Excavation by V. Dumitrescu in 1942 and 1943: V.

Illustratvd London Nvws, 1930, October 18 as ‘a rhvton of red clay in the form o f a goat’.

212 Enthroned goddess from Predionica, Vinča site at Priština Kosovo Metohije, Southern Yugoslavia. H. 18.5 cm. Fine red fabric. Surface fmd during excavation. Regional Priština Museum, Inv. 16 1. Publ. by R . Galović. Predionica, Priština (1959): Pl. 3.

296

219 One o f the terracotta phalli found in the Proto-Sesklo compIcx in the Tsangli mound, Thessaly. Excavation by A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thom pson: Prehistoric Thessaly (19 12), cf. Figs. 74b, 76b, 77c, e, 9 1a, 109b, h, i, k, i4 ia -c . This phallus has a cream colour thickly applied and is painted vvith horizontal reddish-brovvn bands. The rounded top has a slit. H. 9 cm. Volos Museum, Thessaly, Greece. c. 6000 b c . After Zervos, Naissance, I (1962): 250, Fig. 283.

ments o f a belt (?) on vvaist. H. 12 cm. Fine light-brown fabric. Later layer o f Fafos (Fafos II) at Kosovska M itrovica, Southern Yugoslavia. Mid-Vinča phase. Excavated 1959 by J . Glišić. Kosovska Mitrovica Archaeological Museum, 7-B-850. Publ. by R . Galović in Reuiew magazine 1968. 228 Terracotta sculpture from Sesklo, Thessaly. H. approx. 9 cm. Tsountas excavation. Publ. by Kh. Tsountas, Dimeniou kai Sesklou (1908); repeated by Zervos, Nais­ sance (1962): Fig. 276. National Museum Athens, Inv-. 5945. Photo: Courtesy o f National Museum Athens.

220 Bone phallus from Bohuslavice, a Lcngycl settlement near Znojm o. The dotted snake pattern is vvhite-encrusted. Brno Archae­ 229, 230 Masked ithyphallic and horned (horns ological Museum, Inv. N o. 2.637. Courtesy broken off) man vvith the right hand over o f this museum. the left shoulder. Left hand holds penis vvhich is painted red. H. 8 cm. Bracelets 22! Phalli from the Cucuteni B settlement o f indicated by incision. Eyes incised. Light Frumu§ica, Moidavia, northeastern R om a­ brovvn fabric. Late Vinča settlement o f nia. H. 13 and 7 cm. In both, a canal runs Crnokalačka Bara at Rujište near Ražanj, from top to bottom. Excavation by C. . north o f Niš, southeastern Yugoslavia. N M MatasS. Publ. MatasS, C. Frumuftca (Bu­ Belgrade, Inv. 20.942. Excavated 1959 by charest 1946). Archaeological Museum in R . Galović. Publ. R . Galović Archvološki Piatra Neam{, Moidavia, Inv. 9081296. Prvgled (1960). 222 Phallus-shaped clay artifacts, possibly used as stems for ‘wine cups’, as reconstructed by 231 Crude terracotta figurine o f an enthroned Š. Batović. Danilo settlement at Smilćić male figure in an irhyphallic position. near Zadar. E.veavated 1958 by Š. Batović. Cylindrical head vvith no facial features. Archaeological Museum in Zadar. After Arms broken off. H. 5.3 cm. Grey fabric. Š. Batović, ‘Problem kulta phallosa u From the Porodin mound. E,xcavated 1954 Danilskoj kulturi’ , Diadora, 4 (1968): Fig. 3, by M. Grbić et al. Archaeological Museum, Pl. IV. 3Bitola. Porodin 629. Publ. M. Grbić, Porodin: Pl. X L. 23-225 Mushroom-shapcd studs or stands o f light green marble. H. a 3.5 cm .; b 3 cm .; c 2.3 232 ithvphallic man seated on a stool from cm. Vinča sire. Vasić’s excavarion. Belgrade the area o f Larisa. Thesaly. Terracotta. Univ. Collection, 500. 543. 708. Raised right arm touching right car. Mouth 226 Butm ir vase. Butmir settlement, Bosnia, Yugoslavia. Fine dark grev fabric. H. 20.5 cm. Exeavations o f 1893-96 by V. Radim skv. F. Fiala and M. Hoernes. Sarajevo Zemaljski Muzej. Publ. V. Radim sky and M. Hoernes, Div nvolitischv Station t'on Butmir, I (1895). Dare bv analogv to Obre setrlemenr near Kakanj: r. mid-fifth millen­ nium BC. 227 Terracotta masked figurine o fa nude ithvphallic man in a jum ping or dancing posture, Hands on rhighs. Legs broken off. Top o f head rounded. Confours o f mask visibJe. Eves indicated bv deprcssion. Frag-

indicated by incision. nose broken off. Left arm on left knee. Tense posture. Engraved necklace around the neck. Radtal incisions and rvvo semicircles above the genitals. Penis broken. H. approx. 50 em. National Museum Athens. Inv. 5894. -33 Irhvphallie rerracotra figurine o f a sranding male vvith horned animai head (mask). Caretullv modelled horns. Semi-spherical cves. Folded arms vvith arm-rings on the upper arms indicated in clay. Legs fused into a narrovv base. H. 4.3 cm. Fine brovvn fabric. Earliest laver o f Fafos (Fafos la) ar Kosovska M itrovica, Southern Yugoslavia. 297

Excavated 1959 by J . Glišić. M id-Vinča period. Regional Museum, Priština, Inv. F— I—1 7 C / 1 2 5 1. Publ. by R . Galović, Review 1968. 234 Schematized terracotta figurine o f an ithy~ phallic man vvith animal head. Horns slightly indicated. Applied large circular eyes and a conical phallus. Left hand hold­ ing phallus. R igh t arm and horn damaged. Fiat base. H. approx. 7 cm. Found 6.7 m. deep at the Vinča site. Vasić’s excavation. B U Collection, Inv. 12 5 1. Vasić, Vinča, III:

585. 235 Masked head o f a terracotta figurine portraying a horned animal, painted in red and black, with incised vvhite-encrusted lines. Large semicircular eycs. Horns broken. H. 7 cm. Crnokalaćka Bara south o f Niš, Southern Yugoslavia. Excavated 1959 by R . Galović. N M Belgrade, Inv. No. 19 110 . Unpublished. Mentioned in Arheološki Pregled (1960) by R . Galović. 236 Terracotta figurine o f a masked man in a seated position. Head (mask) and shoulders disproportionally large, the lovver part compressed. Legs broken o ff belovv knees. Ornament by incision and vvhite enerustation. Fine grey fabric. H. 22 cm. W. (across shoulders) 15.4 cm. Valač near Kosovska Mitrovica, Southern Yugoslavia. Excavatcd 1957 by N. Tasić. Publ. N. Tasić, Kosmet Glasnik, 2 (1957): 44, Pl. 1 }a sb. Museum o f Kosovska M itrovica. 237 Tcrracotta figurine o fa buli vvith a human head (mask) from later Fafos layer (Fafos II). Late Vinča. L. 12.3 cm., H. 5.6 cm. Fine grey fabric. Excavated 1959 by J. Glišić and B .Jovan ović. Regional Museum, Priština, F 11-2A -160. N M Belgradc Catalogue (1968) : 95; Sheffield Catalogue (1969): Pl. 16. 238 Human-headed buli. Tcrracotta figurine from the site o f Valač near Kosovska Mitrovica. Body and hind legs missing. Fine brovvn fabric, incised decoration vvhiteenerusted and painted dark red and black. Eycs and middle parts o f forelegs painted black. H. 10.5 cm. National Museum Kosovska Mitrovica V a -113/2 . N. Tasić excavation: publ. N. Tasić, Kosmet Glasnik ,(1960): Fig. 4. N M Belgrade Catalogue (i 96.x): ro4. Sheffield Catalogue (19 6 9 : 11 1.

29S

239 Bull-legged pottery tripod from Med­ vednjak near Smederevska Palanka. Fine red fabric. H. 11.5 cm. Vinča culture. Diseovered by R . Milošević before the systematic excavations in 1969-70 together vvith tvvo other tripods, one larger, another smaller, and a figurine (female, in festive attire and wearing a pentagonal mask, in a standing position). Narodni Muzej, Sme­ derevska Palanka, M V III48. Publ. Sheffield Catalogue (1969): 181-8 4. 240 Vase in shape o f a crouching buli vvith a half-human, half-bull mask attached to the neck. The mask has very large perforations. Opening at the top o f the head. H. z i .4 cm. Decoration by graphite painting: five con­ centric circles belovv the head, three on each side o f the body and tvvo spirals on either side o f the raised ridge representing the spine. Gumelni^a mound, lovver Danube district o f Ilfov, Southern Rom ania (Walaehia). Excavations by V. Dumitrescu o f the Institute o f Archaeology o f the Academy o f Sciences, Bucharest, 1925-60. Gumelni^a B period. N A M , 13451. Publ. S. Marinescu, ‘Doua vase zoomorfe din cultura Gum elni{a\ S C IV , X II, 2 (1961): 345-56; Dum i­ trescu, L ’art Roumanie: 107. 241 Head o f a buli broken o ff at the neck. Pentagonal, flattened face suggesting a mask has large diamond-shaped cyes and line o f incisions along the nose ridge and eyebrows. Tvvo incised lines round neck, originally painted red. Reddish~brown burnished surface. H. 4.4 cm. W . (of mask) 4.6 cm. Sitagroi mound, Period III. Dikilitash variant (equals Gumelni^a). Diseovered 1968 during M. Gimbutas (U C L A )-A . C. Rcnfrcvv (Sheffield Univcrsity) excavation. Philippi Museum SF 1286.

perforated ears (female, two holes; male, Vulkaneshti’, K S IIM K , N o. Hi (1967): one hole) and the female has three holes in 38 -41. the mouth area. H. 6.8 cm. Fine light247-250 Male and female gods from the cemetery o f brovvn fabric. Gumelni^a mound, district Cernavoda, northvvest o f Constan^a, in the o f Ilfov, lovver Danube. Final Gumelni^a A, area o f the Danube delta. Hamangia culture. found at a depth ofo.90 m. belovv the present Fine brovvn fabric, polished dark-brovvn ground level. Excavated by V. Dumitrescu. surface. H. (male) 11.5 cm., (female) 11.3 Olteni^a Archaeological Museum. Publ. cm. Completely preserved. Both wear Antiquity (1964): PI. X X X V III a (note by masks. Flatnecksandbacks. i957excavation V . Dumitrescu); V. Dumitrescu 'N ew by D. Berciu sponsored by Archaeological discoveries at Gumelni(a’ , Archaeology, X IX Institute o f the Academ y o f Sciences o f the (1966), 3 : 16 2 -7 2 ; Idem, Vari Roumanie: 90. Rom anian P. R . N A M Bucharest, Inv. 244, 245 Terracotta figurine o f an enthroned male V 6496. Publ. by D. Berciu, ‘Neolithic god. Head, right leg and tvvo legs o f the figurines from Rom an ia’, Antiquity, throne broken off. Hands on knees. H. 7 X X X IV , N o. 136 (1960): 283-84. Ibid., cm. Painted red on back and front. The ‘Mamifcstation d ’art nćolithique en R o u ­ Pyrasos mound at the modem village o f manie. Le “ couple” de Cernavoda', IP EK , Nea Anchialos, m idway betvveen Volos 2t (1964/65): 42-45and Alm yros. Found in second Neolithic 2 5 1,2 5 2 Terracotta seated man vvith hands to his stratum (from the bottom) from the Sesklo head from Tirpejjti, district o f T g. Neam?, end o f the Proto-Sesklo period. Excavated region o f Bacau, Moldavia, Rom ania, an 1956 by D. R . Theocharis. Volos Archaeo­ early Cucuteni (‘ Pre-Cucuteni III") settle­ logical Museum, Inv. 2429. Publ. D. R . ment. H. 7.7 cm. Fine oehre-red fabric. Theocharis 'Pyrasos\ Thessalika (1959): Polished surface. Flattened back. Legs 29-68, Pl. III, b. broken off. Long cylindrical neck and upper 246 Terracotta torso ofa seated man vvith a wcll arms. Fiat head, suggesting a mask. Excamodelled back. Vulkancshti, Soviet M ol­ vatcd by V. Dumitrescu and S. Marinescudavia. Excavated by T . S. ek. Archae­ Bilcu. N A M Bucharest. Publ. by S. Mariological Museum o f the Institute o f History nescu-Bilcu, ‘ Reflets des rapports entrc les o f the Acadcmy o f Sciences o f the Moldacivilizations de Hamangia et de Precucuteni vian S .R ., Kishenev. Publ. by T . S. ek dans la p!astiquc Prćcucutenicnne de T irand M. M. Gcrasimov, ‘ Novaja statuetka iz pe$ti\ Dacia, VIII (1964); 3 0 7 -12 .

242 Head o f a buli that formed part o f a cult vessel. Horns missing. Ears indicatcd. Well modelled semi-globular eycs. Distinct nose ridge. Brovvn burnished. H. (of face) 4.6 cm., W. 2.7 cm. Sitagroi mound, Period III. Philippi Museum SF 210. 243 The Gumelni^a ‘lovers’ : concd female and male tcrracotta statuette. The male (ithvphallic) embraces the female, vvho is characterized by a large pubic triangle and small breasts. Both have pinehed-up noses, 299

Index Abri M čge 1 17 Achilleion 6 1, 241 Acrotiri 200 Aglauros 235 Agrotera 198 Aischylos 198 Alfold cuiture 27 Am orgos 157 Anthesteria 227, 228 Antigonos o fK arystos iSt Anza 24, 74, 85, 1 13 ,1 3 6 ,16 3 ,1 9 0 ,2 1 4 . 241 Aphrodite 95, 149 Argissa 241 Argos 149 Ariadne 149 Aristophanes 148 Aristotle 179 Ariu$d 241 Arkalokhori 79 Artemis 158, 163, 172, 182, 183, 196-200. *35 Aszod 241 Athena 95, 14 7 -9 . - 34-5 Athena Aithuia 148 Athenagoras 102 Azmak 29, 30. 32, 10 1, 157, 241-2

Bilcze Zlote 182, 242 Bird Goddess 81, 85, 95, 107, 112 -5 0 , 152, 2 i i , 236 str also Snake Goddess birds 106 see ako water birds bisexualism 135-6 Blagoevo 242 Bodrogkeresztur 28, 242 Boian 32, 242 Bordjoš 83, 242 Borets 242 Borsod 242 Brane 67, 74. 243 Britomartis 198 Biikk cuiture 27, 94. 117 , 125, 176 Buli God 227 bulls and buli images 91--3, 176, 18 1- 3 , 224 Butmir 25, 43, 44, 93. 116 , 243 butterflies and butterflv images 18 1-19 0 Bylany 243

Daden 146

Callimachus 183 Calomfire$ti 243 Ca marino 214 C'apri 243 Caria 197 Ciiscioarele 32, 68, 7 1. 7N, 88. u>6. 228-9.

Biinilkcrtnnik see Linear Potterv cuiture Banja ta 242 Banjica 24. 242 Bariljevo 45 bears and bear images 1 13 - 1 6 . 134, 190-5 Boe Goddess 110 bees and bee images 181-9 0 belts, ritual costume 45 Bcrcsfti 242 Bernovo Luka 242

-43 Catal H i i v i i k 56, 1 1 6 . 152. 176. 1 N6. 205 Cavdar 29. 243 Cernavoda 30, 243 Cernica 32. 39, 243 Chaeronca 243 Chalcolithic cultures in Adriatic 25 7 in Aegean and Central Balkans 22-5

300

19 0 .

in East Balkans 30-3 in Middle Danube Basin 27-9 in M oldavia-W est Ukraine 33-5 chevron symbols 1 1 3 - 1 7 , 132, 135 Chikalenko, Levko 135 childbirth, goddess o f 79 Chotnica 32 coiffure, ritual costume 54-5 Colophon 197, 198' Corinth 177, 243 cosmic egg 10 1- 7 cosmic vvaters 124-32 cosmogonical images 8 9 - 111 costume, ritual 44“ 5^> creation, the 10 1- 7 Crete 18, 66, 74. 93. *0 » see also Minoan cuiture Cri§ 19-22 Crnokalačka Bara 22, 50, 6 1, 74, 243 cross symbols 89-91 Crvena Stijena 244 Csepa 244 Cucuteni cuiture 32, 33-5, 44» 244 Bird and Snake Goddess in 112 , 125, 132, 142 Great Goddess in 158, 166, 168, 169, 17 1, 172. 179. >82, 184. 187 male sculptures 234 masks 57 Pregnant Goddess in 205, 208. 211 ritual costume 43, 50, 5 1, 54 symbols 9 1, 93. 95. 101 temples and shrines 72-4, 80, 82. 83 Cuina Turcului 244 Ćuprija 45 Cvbele 197. >99 Cvprus 149 Danilo cuiture 114 , 116 . 244 dating. radiocarbon and dendroehronologicai 13 - 15 deer and deer images 1 7 1 4 Demeter 82, 163. 214-20 đendrochronologieal dating 14 -15 Diana 198 Dikili-Tash 32, 244 Diktynna 198 Dimini 177. 220. 244 Dionvsus 95. 220. 227-30. 236 Divine Child 234- 5 Divostin 24, 74, 244 doe, and the Goddess ol Regeneration

171 .1

dog, and the Moon Goddess 169-71 Dončova M ogila 244 Donja Branjevina 244 dot symbols 20 1, 205-8 D ove Goddess 146 Drenovac 22, 195 dresses, ritual costume 45-51 Dude§đ 244 Dumitrescu, Hortensia 68 D vory Nad Žitavou 244 egg, primordial 10 1-7 eggs, Great Goddess and 163-8 Eileithyia 79 Elateia 245 Enodia 197, 198 Ephesus 183 Erichthonios 234-5 Eros 102 Euripidcs 227 Europa 198 Evans, Sir Arthur 75, 186 Fafos 43, 51. 60. 66, 83, 190, 195, 220, 245 fertilitv, Pregnant Vegetation Goddess and 20 1-35 Fcrtility Goddess 152-200 figurines costume 44-56 inscriptions on 85-7 role o f 67-8S fish and fish images 10 7 -11 footvvear, ritual costume 51 four corners o fth e vvorld 89-91 Frumu§ica 82, 245 Gaia 102 Gazi 146 Ghelaesti 245 Gladnice 6 1, 245 Glaucus 184 Goddess o f Fare 158 Goddess o f Regeneration 152, 17 1-4 . 18 1-19 0 Goddess o f Transformation 181 -90 Goljamo Delchevo 245 Gomolava 124. 245 Gorni Pasarel 169. 245 Gornja Tuzla 24 Gorza 245 Gournia 75 Gradac 39, 195 G radosnica 86. 245-6 Great Goddess ot Life and Death So. 91, 152 200. 2 t t . 230, 234, 236-7 Greater Dionvsi.i 227

30 1

Grivac 22, 13 7 , «77 Grotta Scaloria 79, 246 Gumelni^a culture 32-3, 50, 125, 158, 163. 174, 208, 246 Haba§c§ti 246 H acilar 56, 152, 153, 163, 174

Hagia Triadha 66, 79, 146 hair, ritual costume 54-5 Hamangia culture 30-2, 153, 230 hedgehogs and hedgehog images 179--S1 Hekate 163, 17 1, 196-200 Hera 149-50 Heraion II 150 Herakles 102 Herodotus 150, 214 H erse 235

Hippocrates 178 Hir§ova 32 Hluboke M ašuvky 246 Homer 149, 150 horns 9 1, 93, 176 Hurbanovo 246 Hvar 246 Hyakinthos 234, 235 'H yde vase’ 1 36 Ilonapart 184, 246 Impresso culture 25, 186 Iphigeneia 199 Isopata 185, 197 Izvoarele 69, 246 Jakovo-Korm adin 80 j asa tepe 246 Kakanj 246 Kalicz, Nandor 83 Kallisto 198 Kalojanovec 246 Kamares 79 Kapitan Dim itricvo 246 Karanovo 24, 28-30, 32, 87, 174, 246-7 Karbuna 247 Kašteli Pcdcada 182 Kato Ierapetra 247 Kazanlik 29, 30, 157, 247 Kcnezlo 117 , 247 Keos 22N K h v o jk a . V . V. 34

Khronos 102 Kishenev 69 Knossos 75, 78. So. 93. 125. 168. 1X7. 197 K odžadcrm en 32, 247 K 6 k ćnydom b 125, 13 1.2 4 7

Kokenydom b Lady 208 Kolomijshchina 73, 247 Kopanes 184, 247 Kore 163, 214-20 Koros 19-22 Kostcnki IV 132 Koszylowce 168, 247 Kotaart 185, 247 Koumasa 78 Krannon-Duraki 69 Krynichka 247 Kubaba 197 Kukova Mogila 94, 247 Kurgen W ave N o 2 34 Kybebe 197 Iabyrinth symbols see meander symbols Lakedemonia 199 Lang-Enzersdorf 247 Laphria 198 Larga-Jijiei 247-8 Lenaia 66, 227, 228 Lengyel culture 27-8, 32, 44, 116 , 125, 342, 169, 248 Tengyel Madonna’ 195 Lepenski Vir 102, 110 , 163, 248 Lerna 157, 248 Lesbos 149 Let 248 Linear Pottery culture 27, 30, 94 Lipari 25 Lipovac 248 Lisičići 248 Lortet cave i 10 Lovets 248 lozenge symbols 201, 205-8 Luka-Vrublcvetskaya 248 Lykosura 82. 215 Maissau 177. 179 M akkay,J. 83 Mallia 79. 166. 183 Marica culture 32 Marshack. AIexander 107 Masceria de la Quercia 186 masks 57-66 Matera 248 meander symbols 124-32, 135, 147 Medvednjak 22, 24, 74. 8 1, 248-9 Megara 148 Megara Hyblaea 249 Mezin 132. 135 Minoan culture 87 Bird Goddess and Snake Goddess in 14 5 50

Great Goddess in 108, 197 masked figures 66 shrines 74-80 Minos 184 M ochlos 146, 169 Mohelnicc 249 Molfetta 249 moon and moon symbols 9 1, 169-71 M oon Goddess 9 1, 152, 169-71 M other Goddess 152-200 mother symbo!s 142, 190-5 M uldava 172, 249 Murgecchia 249 Murgia Timone 249 mushroom symbols 220 musical Instruments 85 M ycenac 146, 186 Myccnaean culturc Bird Goddess and Snake Goddess in 147 Great Goddess in 168 shrines in 75-80 Naxos 157 Nea Makri 2 1 1 , 249 Nea Nikomedeia 39, 106, 153, 174, 249 N ebo 2^9 Neolithic culture in Adriatic 25 in Aegean and Central Balkans 19 in East Balkans 29-30 in Middle Danube Basin 27 in Moldavia-West Ukraine 32 N ezvisko 83 Ninkhursag (Nintiuugga) 196 Nitra 249 Nitriansky Hradok 249 Nosa 249 N o vyc Ruseshty I 249 nurse symbols 142-5, 190-5 N y x 102 Obre 116 , 250 Otzaki 184, 250 Ouranos 102 O vcharovo 250 O vid 181 Padina 250 Paestum 149 Palaikastro 146, 235 Pandrosos 235 parallel line syrnbols 1 1 3 - 1 7 . *45 Par{a 117 . 250 Pasiphae 1X4, 19H

o di C orvo 27, 186 Patso 147 Pausanias 198 Pazardžik 250 Pazardžik Lady 208 Perachora 149 Perieni 250 Pcrsephone 163, 198, 214 -2 0 Petreni 166 Petrcscu-Dimbovi^a, M . 34 Petrcjti culture 28-9, 81 Phaistos 79 Pianul d ejo s 81, 250-1 Pietrele 251 pigs, Vegetation Goddess and 2 1 1 - 1 4 Plato 150, 179 Pločnik 22, 251 Plutarch 227 Podei 169 Popudnia 69 Porodin 6 1, 67, 95, 116 , 190, 251 Poros 93 Porphyry 382 Porto Badisco 74, 101 Potporanj 94 Predionica 24, 60, 64, 94, 251 Pregnant Vegetation Goddess 2 0 1-3 5 , 236 Preller, Ludwig 150 primordial egg 301-7 Priština 208 Proto-Sesklo culture 19-22, 163, 174, 176, 184,220 Psychro 79 PyIos 125 Pyrasos 251 Radingrad 251 radiocarbon dating 13 - 1 5 rain, invocation of' 1 1 3 - 1 7 Ram ad 95 Rastu 195 Rhodcs 182 Ripoli 251 Roszke-Ludvar 67, 251 Rudnik Kosovski 251 Rug Bair 251 Ruginoasa 251 Ruse 32, 69, 157, 251 Sabatinovka II 72, 251 ‘Sacred Marriage' 228 Sa kuta 251 Samos 149 Sa rvaš 176, 2 5 1-2

303

Scaloria period 2 5 ; site 252 Schliemann 1X6 Schmidt. Hubcrt 34 scripts 85-7 Selevac 22, 43, 252 Scrra d'A lto 25, 252 Sesklo 19-22, 114 , : 16, 152, 153, 163, 220,

252 Shmaglij, N . M . 34 shrines 67-88 Sluivkovka 70 Sipintsi (Schipenitz) 252 Sitagroi 32, 116 . 2 S2 Smilćić 252 Snake Goddess 80. 85. 10 1. 112 -5 0 , 2311 Si'C also Bird Goddess snakes and snake symbols 9 3-10 1 Sophoeles 198, 199 ‘sorrowful god’ 230-4 Souphli 253 Sparta 177 Srejovič, Dragoslav 60, 110 Stachelkugel 181 Sca raj a Buda 253 Starčevo 19-22, 1 14, 152. 163, 17 1. 174, 176. 184, 220, 253 steatopygia 106-7 Stentinello 253 Strelice 169, 253 Sukoro 87 Sulica 254 Sultana 32, 163. 253 Suša 68 Suvodol-Dibel 94 Svetozarevo 166 Szegvar 83. 125 Szegvar-Tiizkoves 253 T al’noe 34 Tangiru 32. 253 TartSria tablets 14. 24, 87 Taygete 19« Tecić 253 Thcra 182 Tirpejti 234, 253 Tisza cuiture 27, 95. 1 17. 125, 131 Tiszapolgar eomplex 28, 32 Tiszapolgar-Basatanya 28, 253 toad symbols 174-v Traian 132. 253 T ri pol ye 34. 254 Tripolvc cuiture scc Cucuteni cuiture T rov 146

304

Tru$e$ti 8 i, 9 1, 254 Tsangli 254 Tsani 254 Tsviklovtsi 74 Turda$ (Tordoš) 254 turtle symbols I74~9 Tuzla 24 Tylissos 85, 93 Vadastra 32, 67, 13 1, 137. 254 Valac 22, 64, 254 Valea Lupului 91, 254 Varna 254 Varvarovka 254 vases, ritual 8 1-3 Vasič, M. 22, 23, 54, 60 Vegetation Goddess 9 1, 2 0 1-35 , 236 ‘ Venus o f Vinča’ 136 Veseli novo 254 Vetulonia 177 Vidra 32, 163, 234, 254 Vinča 37, 43, 80, 14S, »77. »79. 2 1 1 , 220, 254-5 Vinča cuiture 22-5, 32 Bird and Snake Goddess in 1 14 - 1 7 , 124, 135-7, 142, 148 Great Goddess in 158, 163, 174. i 77. ' 79. 190. 195 masks 57-66 Pregnant Goddess in 21 1 , 214, 220, 224 ritual costume 44, 45, 50, 51, 54, 55 shrines 67, 74, 81, 85, 87 symbols 94, 101 Vladimirovka 70. 255 Volos, 19 Vorou 93 votive o rterings 85-7 VrSnik 44, 255 Vulkaneshti 230, 255 Vvkhvatintsi 158, 255 Wace, A . J. B. 1S6 \vater and vvater symbols 1 12-50 vvater birds 95. 102. 106, 125. 134-5. >4-- '47 Zaerszentmihaly 83 Zakro 79 Zelenikovo 255 Železovce 94 Zengovarkony 195. 255 Zcrvnthia 197 Zcryntlms 197 Zeus 149, 234, 235 /.hv.mets 255 zigzag svmbols 113 17. 145