That-complement Clauses 5n102g

Complementation 1

That-Complementation That-Complement Clauses Introduction

The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English states that there are four main types of complement clauses in English. They are that-complements, wh-clauses, to-infinitive clauses and ing-clauses (Biber et al., 1999, p. 658). The four different types of complementation each have an associated form and a function that affects their meaning and usage. In addition: …Because there are many types of clausal complements and because the relation of verb to complement type often seems arbitrary, the grammar of clausal complementation is somewhat complex to learn. An ESL/EFL teacher may expect many errors here even at the advanced levels of instruction. (Celce-Murcia & Larsen Freeman, 1999, p. 630) So, there is more than one complicated type of complementation and, as Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman suggest, complementation can seem random, and thus pose problems for ELLs. In this paper, the topic of the English that-clause complementation will be examined. I will address both theoretical and pedagogical information that ESL/EFL teachers should know to be able to communicate and teach this topic effectively to English language learners (ELLs). My future goals include working both abroad and domestically as a teacher of English as a foreign/second language at the university level. Since the English that-clause complementation structure is an important syntactical feature that may present problems for students in higher education, I will be examining it in this paper. I will explore that-clauses as well as outline main instructional topics with this type of complementation by using corpus analysis information from the British

That-Complementation

Complementation 2

National Corpus (BNC) and the Longman Corpus of Spoken and Written English. Finally, I will present a broader, deeper perspective on that-clause complements than is offered in most traditional English grammar books used for instruction. I will explore this most common form of complementation clauses (the that-clause) in depth to discuss what an English teacher should be able to communicate to her students so that they can use and understand this syntactical feature at the discoursal level. This paper will begin by considering the theoretical underpinnings of that-clauses through verbs and valency. I will discuss the pedagogical theories about the English thatclause complementation structure. Next, I will address the pedagogical awareness that an instructor must have when teaching that-complementation to ELLs. In the conclusion, I will suggest pedagogical recommendations for teaching that-complementation to ELLs from various L1 backgrounds based on the discussions in this paper. That-complements and valency When considering complementation in the English language system it is important to understand that complements are related to the verbs they are complementing. In other words, teachers can describe that-complements as a “[constituent] needed to complete the meaning of a verb or an adjective” (Celce-Murcia & Larsen Freeman, 1999, p.627). Complement clauses are dictated by what precedes them and, “Many verbs take complements introduced by that”. The type of necessary constituents required to complete a sentence are the complements and the number of complements a verb requires is its valency (Herbst et al., 2004, p. xxiv). In other words, “the valency of a word can be measured in of the number of its complementation patterns” (Liu, 2011, p.208). Since these complements come after verbs “to complete the

That-Complementation

Complementation 3

meaning relationship of an associated verb,” it is useful for both instructors and learners of English to be aware of the kinds of complement-verb relations that occur in English (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 2008, p.495). Complement clauses and their relationship to verbs is called “valency” (Herbst et al., 2004, p. xii). The Oxford Dictionary states that “valency” means “the number of grammatical elements with which a particular word, especially a verb, combines in a sentence” (Oxford Dictionaries). According to Herbst et al. (2004), “The basic assumption of valency theory is that the verb occupies a central position in the sentence because the verb determines how many other elements have to occur in order to form a [grammatically correct] sentence” (p. xxiv). (Another word for the elements that are needed to complete the sentence is “arguments” and will be used later in this paper.) For example, a verb such as run would need only one additional element to be complete, whereas a verb like put might need two or three (Herbst et al., 2004, p. xxiv). Consider the following examples (the asterisks indicate an ungrammatical sentence): 1. (1) It emerged. (At least 1 element required.) (1) It emerged (2) from its hiding spot. *It. 2. I put (1) the money and receipts (2) on the counter. (2 elements required.) *I put on the counter. *I put the money and receipts. It is important that learners of the English language become aware of the valency of a verb and how complementation can complete a sentence grammatically using said verb. ESL/EFL instructors must also be aware of a verb’s valency because it can help

That-Complementation

Complementation 4

highlight which verbs might cause problems for ELLs because if its valency is high (like with a verb such as “get”), it could cause confusion. According to Bybee and Hopper (2001) “the more frequent a verb type, the less predictable the number of [constituents]; a rare verb like to elapse is limited to a single [constituent], whereas a common verb like to get appears in discourse with one, two, or three…[constituents]” (p.5). Therefore, verbs that commonly occur, or the verbs in which learners will come into with most often in their studies and daily lives, should be the focus of instruction in of verbs that require that complementation to complete meaning. In addition to the frequency of occurrence of a verb, a verb that is polysemous (as opposed to a verb with only one meaning) will also have more valency, or complementation patterns, that can be used to complete its meaning (Lui, 2011, p. 220). As a result, there is a need for ESL/EFL instructors to understand the learning burden of complementation structures and their accompanying verbs to better prepare their students. Pedagogical suggestions for connecting valency and that complements will be made in the section “A closer look at verbs and complements” of this paper. A closer look at verbs and complements In his book The Teacher’s Grammar of English: A Course Book and Reference Guide, Cowen (2008) highlights verb-related patterns for recognizing that complements stating that: Main clause verbs that report speech – for example, reply, say and tell…occur with that complements. Also common…are verbs that express mental acts – for example, believe, comprehend, feel, find, guess, know, see, think and

That-Complementation

Complementation 5

understand…Certain of these verbs that take that clauses have been called ‘factive predicates’ because their complement is assumed to be a fact. (p. 495) Cowen (2008) conveys information that illustrates the importance of a verbs’ semantics and if and/or what type of complement should be attached to it. An example that Cowen provides to show the function of a ‘factive clause’ is as follows: 3. She comprehended that this would mean a big change in her lifestyle. (p.495) Cowen (2008) also says that in addition to main clause, mental act and factive predicate verbs, there are some verbs that “are distinguished by the form of the verb in the complement clause,” and that these particular verbs are called “verbs of request or demand” (p.495). In these cases, Cowen (2008) states that “the verb in the that complement is not inflected for tense, and the complement clause is therefore a nonfinite clause” (p.495). Then, that complements can be either finite or nonfinite, however, this is contingent upon the meaning of the verb that precedes them. An example Cowen provides for “verbs of request or demand” to illustrate this nonfinite aspect of that complements is as follows: 4.

We recommend that she accept his offer.

This example contains the base verb form of “accept” within the that complement, therefore the verb in the complement relies on the tense of the “verb of request or demand” (in this case “recommend”) to complete its meaning. This differs from the previous examples such as number 3. where “would” is tensed and the complement is therefore finite and in contrast with the main verb to have a future meaning of consequence.

That-Complementation

Complementation 6

The structure of that-complements in English Diessel (2004) states that, “Complement clauses are commonly defined as subordinate clauses functioning as an argument of the matrix clause predicate…[and] may serve as the subject or object of the matrix clause” (p.80). Diessel (2004) then provides these two examples: 5. That Bill wasn’t in class annoyed the teacher. (subject) 6. The teacher noticed that Bill wasn’t in class. (object) (p.80) That-complements are finite, or tensed clauses, in English (Biber et al., 1999, p.658). This means that these clauses “include tense or modality distinctions and must have a subject” (Biber et al., 1999, p. 658). In addition, Biber et al. (1999) state that, “Finite dependent clauses are regularly marked by a clause link,” in this case, the that complementizer (p. 193). Biber et al. (1999) continue to address complement clauses in the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English through an examination of nominal clauses, which they say are typically introduced by that (or a wh-word) and are “controlled by a preceding verb, adjective, noun or preposition” (p.193-194). An example of a finite (tensed) that-clause is as follows: 7. The people knew that the war could not last forever. In this example, the clause follows the matrix verb knew and is tensed by the usage of the modal could, indicating a past tense function (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.169). There are two forms a that-complement can take in English. There are thatcomplements which use the complementizer that and there are those in which the complementizer, that, is absent (Wu & Lei, 2010, p.58). Although some would argue that

That-Complementation

Complementation 7

omission of that does not change the meaning, others disagree (Wu & Lei, 2010, p.62). According to corpus-based studies conducted by Wu and Lei in 2010, complements that do not make use of that are more frequently found in spoken and less formal s (p.58). Biber et al. (1999) also confirm this finding through their corpus studies stating that, “In conversation, the omission of that is the norm, while the retention of that is exceptional…retention of that is the norm in academic prose” (p. 680). Thus, it imperative that ELLs at the university level learning how to read and write Academic English have knowledge of this aspect of the that complement since this could present problems for ELLs in identifying that-clauses, if the complementizer is not present, especially if the that-clause is functioning as the subject of a sentence, underlined in the following example: 8. That they would succeed in overcoming the difficulties of a multitude of languages, currencies, legal systems, and countless clashes of culture is a formidable demonstration of European willpower. (Lock, 1996, p. 12) Furthermore, the semantics of omission or retention have an effect on the connation associated with the usage (or not) of the complementizer. However, there are some patterns that students and teachers can notice for inclusion or exclusion of that. According to Wu and Lei (2010): Omission of that is favored by the following factors: A) When think or say is the main verb – I think it’s nice, Time says it’s easy. B) When the subject refers to the same entity in the main clause and in the that-clause, as in Tim promised he’d do it. C) When there is a pronoun rather than a noun head in the that-clause - I think I’ll have a cola, She knew he would do it. (p.58)

That-Complementation

Complementation 8

In addition, Cowan (2008) states, “That complements contain overt subjects, which need not be identical to the subject of the sentence [and that]…Except when following verbs from a particular subset…that complements are finite clauses – the verb in the clause is inflected for tense” (p.495). Cowen (2008) also says that that complements may be omitted (particularly when used in informal speech), which he states is the reason that that complements should not be confused with that subject clauses (p.495). Therefore, selected patterns that advanced ELLs can become familiar with to help identify a that-clause when the complementizer is absent. This information should help instructors to anticipate difficulties learners may have when perceiving or producing thatclauses as subjects or complementizers, as well. This information can be used by both instructors and students to help recognize that-clause complementation patterns. Recognition is especially important for those ELLs who are learning and using English in a formal , such as an academic or business one. These are situations in which ELLs would need to be aware of the informal connation that omitting that seems to carry in contrast with the more formal connotation that inclusion of the complementizer allows. An interesting question that can be considered is “why would a speaker of English use the that complementizer if it can be omitted?” Wu and Lei (2010) offer three additional reasons speakers might include the complementizer: 9. Saying that…can give the speaker more time to think about what to say next and organize his speech. 10. With the complementizer, the speaker can clearly tell the hearer that he is going to say something different, important, emphasizing a transition during the speech.

That-Complementation

Complementation 9

11. With the above two functions, the use of the complementizer reduces the comprehension difficulty of the hearer (or reader). (p.64) These three reasons are meaningful objectives for students to consider when learning how to use and understand that-clause complementation, so they can better communicate. Once students grasp the basic form and function of that-clause complements, those structures will become salient in their language studies. The that-complement in English is possibly the most common and well known of the different types of complementation (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.630). Biber et al. (1999) describes that-clauses as complements that can: …[Occur] in post-predicate position…[function] to report the speech, thoughts, attitudes, or emotions of humans. In these constructions, the subject of the main clause refers to the human participant, the lexical verb or adjectival predicate presents the type of reporting [whereas] the that-clause presents the reported speech, thought, or attitude. (p.660) To understand what constitutes a that-complement clause that appears in the postpredicate position, consider these examples (the examples marked with an asterisk are grammatically incorrect, but show that that-clauses cannot function alone): 12. The woman claimed [that there was a bird on the roof]. *That there was a bird on the roof. 13. Teachers know [that students work hard]. *That students work hard. According to Biber et al. (1999), there are three possible grammar patterns that take thatclause complements (p. 661). They are as follows:

That-Complementation

Complementation 10

14. Verb + that-clause She agreed that it was hot outside today. 15. Verb + NP + that-clause The girl showed everyone that she was strong and capable. 16. Verb + to NP + that-clause The man described to the police officer that the thief had taken his bag. In addition, these clauses can also appear in an extraposed position, or “in subject position…[which functions] usually [as] the attitude of the speaker or writer of the text” (Biber et al., 1999, p.661). For example: 17. It is clear [that global warming is caused by pollution.] *That global warming is caused by pollution. In these examples, the that-clause is in brackets. These clauses “cannot stand by themselves as acceptable sequences as long as they begin with that” (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.630). In this sense, the form of that-clauses can be said to be similar to a noun phrase (NP) because of its syntactical positioning (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.630). Furthermore, these complements are, “embedded into larger, independent clauses” and cannot stand on their own (making them “dependent clauses”) (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p.630). However, based on the verb they follow they are necessary to complete the sentence and help to answer the question of “what?” associated with a particular verb’s semantics which require it to have complementation for its meaning to be complete.

That-Complementation

Complementation 11

Recommended pedagogy for that-complements Because that-clause complements are commonly used in academic writing, it is important that students understand how, when and why they are used. Many ELLs will need a comprehensive understanding of that complementation, if they wish to study at an English-speaking university. Therefore, discoursal understandings of this type of complementation are important for ELLs because learners will need to understand how to make use of the that complementizer in pragmatic areas of communication in the academic setting such as when writing academic-level research papers to report speech, request or demand and convey mental acts or opinions of others and themselves. Some pedagogical recommendations for teaching that-clause complementation at the discoursal level can be found in The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course by Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman. They suggest teaching complementation through form, meaning and use activities such as role-playing (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, p. 657). An example they give for practicing that-clauses is for students to get into pairs and debate about a particular topic using statements such as “I propose that…I suggest that…I recommend that” (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999. p. 657). Another activity could involve a “spot-the-difference” exercise in which students have two texts, one that is formal and one that is informal and they must identify the thatclauses in each text, whether or not the complementizer is present (Guse, 2011, p.126). Another activity that would target that-complementation use also comes from CelceMurcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) and suggests providing students with newspaper articles, some which contain that-clauses and some which do not, so that students can perceive patterns for when the complementizer is used or omitted (p. 657).

That-Complementation

Complementation 12

I believe activities that also focus on verb meaning and valency would also benefit students. I propose an activity using real content that students are reading or will need to read for their majors or educational concentrations. Using actual real-world materials that students will need to interact with will help them notice how that complements are used in their field. Therefore, I suggest that instructors as their students to find scholarly articles in their field of interest and bring them to class. Then, students can read those articles and highlight that complements in yellow and the verbs they follow in green. Then the student can make note of the kinds of verbs in their fields that are using these complements and they can model their own academic writing from these articles in their majors. Conclusion There are many intricate parts that make up a that-clause complement that can be confusing or seem arbitrary to ELLs. However, there are patterns and verb associations which can help both instructors and ELLs overcome difficulties associated with learning the that complementation system in English. This paper examined some issues within the complementation system that could pose problems, while also providing a broader understanding of the elements which come together to form a that complement clause. In conclusion, the pedagogical recommendations I suggested should provide a brief introduction to the kinds of activities teachers can use to help teach this complicated structure to their students.

Complementation 13

That-Complementation References

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written English. Essex, English: Longman. Bybee, J. L. & Hopper, P. J. (Eds.). (2001). Frequency and the emergence of linguistic structure. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing. Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The grammar book: An ESL/EFL teacher’s course (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning. Cowen, R. (2008). The teacher’s grammar of English: A course book and reference guide. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. & Aikhenvald, A. Y. (Eds.). (2006) Complementation: A cross-linguistic theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Guse, J. (2011). Communicative activities for EAP. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Herbst, T., Heath, D., Roe, I.F. & Göts, D. (2004). A valency dictionary of English: a corpus-based analysis of the complementation patterns of English verbs, nouns and adjectives. Berlin, : Harper Collins Publishers Ltd. Liu, H. (2011). Quantitative properties of English verb valency*. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 18 (3) 207-233. Lock, G. (1996). Functional English grammar: An introduction for second language teachers. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. Valency. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionaries online. Retrieved from

That-Complementation

Complementation 14

Wu, G. & Lei, L. (2010). Semantic and syntactic analysis of THAT complement in the English language. International Forum of Teaching and Studies 6 (1) 58-66.