Tariff And Non-tariff Barriers 2rp4g

International trade International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders. International trade is, in principle, not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade do not change fundamentally regardless of whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or culture. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labour are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of that factor of production and thus embody it. An example is the import of laborintensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor, the United States imports goods that were produced with Chinese labor. One report in 2010 suggested that international trade was increased when a country hosted a network of immigrants, but the trade effect was weakened when the immigrants became assimilated into their new country. International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics. For more, see The Observatory of Economic Complexity. [1]

This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes. Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own countries. Almost every kind of product can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are ed for in acountry's current in the balance of payments.

Increased Efficiency of Trading Globally Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may produce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently produce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.

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Trade barriers Trade barriers are government-induced restrictions on international trade Trade barriers are measures that governments or public authorities introduce to make imported goods or services less competitive than locally produced goods and services. Not everything that prevents or restricts trade can be characterised as a trade barrier. A trade barrier may be linked to the very product or service that is traded, for example technical requirements. A barrier can also be of an istrative nature, for example rules and procedures in connection with the transaction. In a number of areas, special international ground rules have been agreed, which limit the ways in which countries can regulate trade. It means that some barriers are legal while others are illegal. Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition of some sort of cost on trade that raises the price of the traded products. If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a trade war results. Economists generally agree that trade barriers are detrimental and decrease overall economic efficiency, this can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage. In theory, free trade involves the removal of all such barriers, except perhaps those considered necessary for health or national security. In practice, however, even those countries promoting free trade heavily subsidize certain industries, such as agriculture and steel. Trade barriers are often criticized for the effect they have on the developing world. Because rich-country players call most of the shots and set trade policies, goods such as crops that developing countries are best at producing still face high barriers. Trade barriers such as taxes on food imports or subsidies for farmers in developed economies lead to overproduction and dumping on world markets, thus lowering prices and hurting poor-country farmers. Tariffs also tend to be anti-poor, with low rates for raw commodities and high rates for laborintensive processed goods. The Commitment to Development Index measures the effect that rich country trade policies actually have on the developing world. Another negative aspect of trade barriers is that it would cause a limited choice of products and would therefore force customers to pay higher prices and accept inferior quality.

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Some forms of Trade barriers: 

Customs duties

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Customs procedures

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Technical regulations, standards, etc. - for example for the purpose of consumer protection, health protection, protection of the environment, etc

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Veterinary and phytosanitary measures - barriers based on health and safety regulations

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Restrictions on access to primary products - for example in the form of export levies that drive up prices artificially or special export prices that are higher than the price of the same primary products for use in national processing industries

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Insufficient protection of intellectual property rights - both with respect to the scope of protection and with respect to the possibilities of legal protection. This includes, for instance, protection of patents, copyrights, trademarks and geographical indications of origin

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Barriers to trade in services - for example in the form of discriminatory conditions

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Restrictions on access to investment - for example through national participation requirements or restrictions on access to repatriation of profits

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Unfair application of state aid and other forms of subsidies

Trade barriers can be broadly classified in two types: 1. Tariff Barriers 2. Non Tariff Barriers

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Tariff Barriers Tariffs, which are taxes on imports of commodities into a country or region, are among the oldest forms of government intervention in economic activity. They are implemented for two clear economic purposes. First, they provide revenue for the government. Second, they improve economic returns to firms and suppliers of resources to domestic industry that face competition from foreign imports. Tariffs are widely used to protect domestic producers’ incomes from foreign competition. This protection comes at an economic cost to domestic consumers who pay higher prices for import competing goods, and to the economy as a whole through the inefficient allocation of resources to the import competing domestic industry. Tariff barriers are duties imposed on goods which effectively create an obstacle to trade, although this is not necessarily the purpose of putting tariffs in place. Tariff barriers are also sometimes known as import restraints, because they limit the amount of goods which can be imported into a country. Many organizations which promote trade are concerned about both tariff and non-tariff barriers to free trade, and a number of nations have agreed to radically reduce their trade barriers to promote the exchange of goods across their borders. A number of different types of duties can be levied when goods cross international boundaries. With an ad valorem duty, for example, the importer must pay a fee which is calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods being imported. Specific tariffs are set amounts which are levied on products which are imported, regardless of values, while environmental tariffs penalize nations with poor environmental records. For importers, tariff barriers can make it difficult to bring goods into a country. The importer may be forced to import less because the tariff barriers cannot be afforded otherwise, and it may need to charge more for the goods to make importing worthwhile. Tariffs are designed to force importers to do this to level the field between domestic producers and importers, allowing costly domestic producers to compete with importers who may be able to bring in goods at lower cost. Protectionism, in which nations promote the interests of domestic producers by restricting importers, is common in many nations, but it is also frowned upon, primarily by nations which want to be able to export goods for trade in other countries. Organizations such as the World Trade Organization have promoted the lifting of tariff barriers to reduce the burden on

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importers. Non-tariff barriers such as import quotas are also targeted for elimination by organizations which promote free trade. Some tariff barriers are likely to always remain in place, even in nations which are very open to free trade. Changing the structure of tariffs, taxes, and related expenses is a continual project, and nations occasionally push back or lash out by radically altering their tariffs and other barriers to trade. Nations may also use trade barriers to make political statements which are designed to pressure other countries into modifying their behavior. For example, Country A might refuse to import beef from Country B until Country B can demonstrate that its meat supply is free of bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), also known as mad cow disease.

Types of tariff barriers There are different types of tarrif barriers on different basis:  On the basis of Purpose: Revenue Tariff and Protective Tariff  On the Basis of Origin and Destination: Ad Valorem Duty , Specific Duty and Compound Duty  On the Basis of Country-wise Discrimination: Single Column Tariff , Double Column Tariff and Triple Column Tariff

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 On the basis of Purpose Revenue Tariff A tax applied to imported and exported goods in order to increase the revenue of a region or national government. An example of a revenue tariff in a business is the tax applied to all imported oil in the United States.

Protective Tariff A type of customs duty that serves as a barrier against penetration of the domestic market by certain foreign goods and against age of these goods through the country. Protective tariffs also serve to impede the export of domestic raw materials and semi-finished products. They are intended to create optimal conditions for domestic industry. In the formative period of capitalism, protective tariffs were used to protect developing national industry from foreign competition. In the late 19th century, for example, the United States instituted protective tariffs to limit the entry of British goods into the domestic market. Protective tariffs are now used primarily to maintain high domestic price levels and to ensure maximum profit for the monopolies. A modified form of protective tariff has been established by international state-monopoly alliances, such as the European Economic Community (Common Market), in the struggle to dominate the world capitalist market and capture spheres of economic and political influence. This tariff policy has a negative effect on European trade and hurts the developing countries of Africa and Asia. Modern forms of protective tariffs are high anti-dumping and compensatory duties. They are employed by importing countries as a supplement to conventional customs duties in cases where the exporter sells goods on foreign markets at prices lower than those in effect on the domestic market. The size of the antidumping duty is the difference between the price of the article in its country of origin and the export price. The United States introduced this type of duty in the 1920’s and 1930’s. Prohibitive tariffs are a variety of protective tariff with very high rates, which can amount to 30 percent and more of the price of the article and sometimes can even exceed the price of the article. They appeared in the second half of the 19th century as a reaction to the abolition of a ban on the export and import of certain articles and the introduction of the policy of free [7]

trade. Prohibitive tariffs are common in many developed capitalist countries. For example, during the 1960’s about one-sixth of all the items on the US customs list had prohibitive tariffs. In the socialist countries, prohibitive tariffs for a negligible share of customs revenues. Aggressive duties are one of the types of protective tariff that set very high rates for a particular product or group of foreign goods. They are used by the United States, , and the of the Common Market. Examples are the duties established by a law ed in the United States in 1971, which restricts the import of textiles, stereo equipment, television sets, automobiles, footwear, and other goods from Japan and the Common Market countries. In their turn, the of the Common Market have adopted single-schedule tariffs of the aggressive type in trade with other countries. This has enabled the Common Market countries to capture a significant part of the European Economic Community market and the markets of numerous countries in Asia and Africa from foreign rivals, primarily the United States. Aggressive duties are also used within the European Economic Community. In 1974, for example, Italy implemented major protectionist measures, including the introduction of aggressive protective tariffs, and sharply reduced the importation of automobiles, as well as meat, butter, cheese, and other consumer goods, from the countries of the European Economic Community, particularly the Federal Republic of . This policy created better conditions for the development of certain sectors of national industry but led to a new rise in food prices and a drop in the standard of living of the working people. Prohibitive and aggressive tariffs are used as a weapon of super protectionism to overcome tariff barriers and capture markets in the developing and economically underdeveloped countries. The socialist countries use protective tariffs to bolster sectors of their economies. For example, in the first Customs Tariff of the Land of the Soviets (1922), protective tariffs were applied to the products of sectors, such as the leather and cotton-textile industries, that were being rebuilt after the devastation of the war years. In 1924 a new protective tariff was instituted. Protective duties were established for machinery and raw materials in the prewar tariffs of the USSR of 1927, 1930, and 1932. In the new (1961) Customs Tariff of the USSR, a large majority of the duties are no longer of the protective type.

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On the Basis of Origin and Destination

Ad valorem tax An ad valorem tax (Latin for "according to value") is a tax based on the value of real estate or personal property. It is more common than a specific tax, a tax based on the quantity of an item, such as cents per kilogram, regardless of price. An ad valorem tax is typically imposed at the time of a transaction(s) (a sales tax or valueadded tax (VAT)), but it may be imposed on an annual basis (real or personal property tax) or in connection with another significant event (inheritance tax, surrendering citizenship,[1] or tariffs). In some countries stamp duty is imposed as an ad valorem tax.

Specific Duty A specific duty is a tariff levied on imports, defined in of a specific amount per unit, such as cents per kilogram. By contrast, an ad valorem duty is a charge levied on imports defined in of a fixed percentage of value.

Compound Duty Compound duty is an import tax consisting of both ad valorem and specific duties. It is calculated based on both the value of the goods as well as the weight, volume or number.

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On the Basis of Country-wise Discrimination

Single-column tariff A set import duty paid on a specific item received from any country or from any member country of a certain international agreement. The tariff amount is strictly determined by the type of item being imported and not upon the point of origin. [9]

Double Column Tariff: Two different rates of duty have been imposed.

Triple Column Tariff: Two or more tariff rates are levied on each category of commodity

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Who Gain from Tariff? 

Government of the importing country earns in the form of the revenue.

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Industries of the importing country would find market for their products as the imported goods will be expensive.

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Jobs in the domestic markets are saved.

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Business for the ancillary industry, servicing, market intermediation etc. is also protected.

Who are adversely affected? 

Consumers

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Industries of the exporting country.

Other Impacts of Tariff Barriers: Tariff Barriers tend to Increase: 1. Inflationary pressures 2. Special interests’ privileges 3. Government control and political considerations in economic matters. Tariff Barriers tend to Weaken: 1. Balance-of-payments positions 2. Supply-and-demand patterns 3. International relations (they can start trade wars) Tariff Barriers tend to Restrict: 1. Manufacturer’ supply sources 2. Choices available to consumers 3. Competition

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Non-tariff barriers to trade Non-tariff barriers to trade (NTBs) are trade barriers that restrict imports but are not in the usual form of a tariff. Some common examples of NTB's are anti-dumping measures and countervailing duties, which, although called non-tariff barriers, have the effect of tariffs once they are enacted. Their use has risen sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Some non-tariff trade barriers are expressly permitted in very limited circumstances, when they are deemed necessary to protect health, safety, sanitation, or depletable natural resources. In other forms, they are criticized as a means to evade free trade rules such as those of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the European Union (EU), or North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that restrict the use of tariffs. Some of non-tariff barriers are not directly related to foreign economic regulations but nevertheless have a significant impact on foreign-economic activity and foreign trade between countries. Trade between countries is referred to trade in goods, services and factors of production. Non-tariff barriers to trade include import quotas, special licenses, unreasonable standards for the quality of goods, bureaucratic delays at customs, export restrictions, limiting the activities of state trading, export subsidies, countervailing duties, technical barriers to trade, sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, rules of origin, etc. Sometimes in this list they include macroeconomic measures affecting trade.

Types of Non-Tariff Barriers There are several different variants of division of non-tariff barriers. Some scholars divide between internal taxes, istrative barriers, health and sanitary regulations and government procurement policies. Others divide non-tariff barriers into more categories such as specific limitations on trade, customs and istrative entry procedures, standards, government participation in trade, charges on import, and other categories. The first category includes methods to directly import restrictions for protection of certain sectors of national industries: licensing and allocation of import quotas, antidumping and countervailing duties, import deposits, so-called voluntary export restraints, countervailing [12]

duties, the system of minimum import prices, etc. Under second category follow methods that are not directly aimed at restricting foreign trade and more related to the istrative bureaucracy, whose actions, however, restrict trade, for example: customs procedures, technical standards and norms, sanitary and veterinary standards, requirements for labeling and packaging, bottling, etc. The third category consists of methods that are not directly aimed at restricting the import or promoting the export, but the effects of which often lead to this result. The different type of non- tariff barriers are as follows: 

Specific Limitations on Trade:

1. Quotas 2. Import Licensing requirements 3. Proportion restrictions of foreign to domestic goods (local content requirements) 

Customs and istrative Entry Procedures:

1. Valuation systems 2. Antidumping practices 3. Documentation requirements 

Standards:

1. Standard Disparities 2. Intergovernmental Acceptances of testing methods and standards 3. Packaging, labeling and marketing 

Government Participation in Trade:

1. Government procurement policies 2. Export subsidies 3. Countervailing duties 4. Domestic assistance programs 

Charges on imports:

1. Prior import deposit subsidies [13]

2. istrative fees 3. Special supplementary duties 4. Import credit discriminations 5. Border taxes Some of the examples of non-tariffs are as follow:

Licenses The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export) are licenses and quotas. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office) issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import and export commodities included in the lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures. The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation or exportation of goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out. The use of licensing systems as an instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on a number of international level standards agreements. In particular, these agreements include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT). The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export) are licenses and quotas. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office) issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import and export commodities included in the lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures. The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation or exportation of goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out. The use of licensing systems as an [14]

instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on a number of international level standards agreements. In particular, these agreements include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT).

Quotas Licensing of foreign trade is closely related to quantitative restrictions – quotas - on imports and exports of certain goods. A quota is a limitation in value or in physical , imposed on import and export of certain goods for a certain period of time. This category includes global quotas in respect to specific countries, seasonal quotas, and so-called "voluntary" export restraints. Quantitative controls on foreign trade transactions carried out through one-time license. Quantitative restriction on imports and exports is a direct istrative form of government regulation of foreign trade. Licenses and quotas limit the independence of enterprises with a regard to entering foreign markets, narrowing the range of countries, which may be entered into transaction for certain commodities, regulate the number and range of goods permitted for import and export. However, the system of licensing and quota imports and exports, establishing firm control over foreign trade in certain goods, in many cases turns out to be more flexible and effective than economic instruments of foreign trade regulation. This can be explained by the fact, that licensing and quota systems are an important instrument of trade regulation of the vast majority of the world. The consequence of this trade barrier is normally reflected in the consumers’ loss because of higher prices and limited selection of goods as well as in the companies that employ the imported materials in the production process, increasing their costs. An import quota can be unilateral, levied by the country without negotiations with exporting country, and bilateral or multilateral, when it is imposed after negotiations and agreement with exporting country. An export quota is a restricted amount of goods that can leave the country. There are different reasons for imposing of export quota by the country, which can be the guarantee of the supply of the products that are in shortage in the domestic market, manipulation of the prices on the international level, and the control of goods strategically important for the country. In some cases, the importing countries request exporting countries to impose voluntary export restraints. [15]

In the past decade, a widespread practice of concluding agreements on the "voluntary" export restrictions and the establishment of import minimum prices imposed by leading Western nations upon weaker in economical or political sense exporters. The specifics of these types of restrictions is the establishment of unconventional techniques when the trade barriers of importing country, are introduced at the border of the exporting and not importing country. Thus, the agreement on "voluntary" export restraints is imposed on the exporter under the threat of sanctions to limit the export of certain goods in the importing country. Similarly, the establishment of minimum import prices should be strictly observed by the exporting firms in contracts with the importers of the country that has set such prices. In the case of reduction of export prices below the minimum level, the importing country imposes anti-dumping duty, which could lead to withdrawal from the market. “Voluntary" export agreements affect trade in textiles, footwear, dairy products, consumer electronics, cars, machine tools, etc. Problems arise when the quotas are distributed between countries because it is necessary to ensure that products from one country are not diverted in violation of quotas set out in second country. Import quotas are not necessarily designed to protect domestic producers. For example, Japan, maintains quotas on many agricultural products it does not produce. Quotas on imports is a leverage when negotiating the sales of Japanese exports, as well as avoiding excessive dependence on any other country in respect of necessary food, supplies of which may decrease in case of bad weather or political conditions. Export quotas can be set in order to provide domestic consumers with sufficient stocks of goods at low prices, to prevent the depletion of natural resources, as well as to increase export prices by restricting supply to foreign markets. Such restrictions (through agreements on various types of goods) allow producing countries to use quotas for such commodities as coffee and oil; as the result, prices for these products increased in importing countries. A quota can be a tariff rate quota, global quota, discriminating quota, and export quota.

Embargo Embargo is a specific type of quotas prohibiting the trade. As well as quotas, embargoes may be imposed on imports or exports of particular goods, regardless of destination, in respect of certain goods supplied to specific countries, or in respect of all goods shipped to certain [16]

countries. Although the embargo is usually introduced for political purposes, the consequences, in essence, could be economic.

Dumping In economics, "dumping" is a kind of predatory pricing, especially in the context of international trade. It occurs when manufacturers export a product to another country at a price either below the price charged in its home market, or in quantities that cannot be explained through normal market competition. A standard technical definition of dumping is the act of charging a lower price for the like goods in a foreign market than one charge for the same good in a domestic market for consumption in the home market of the exporter. This is often referred to as selling at less than "normal value" on the same level of trade in the ordinary course of trade. Under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement, dumping is condemned (but is not prohibited) if it causes or threatens to cause material injury to a domestic industry in the importing country

Standards Standards take a special place among non-tariff barriers. Countries usually impose standards on classification, labeling and testing of products in order to be able to sell domestic products, but also to block sales of products of foreign manufacture. These standards are sometimes entered under the pretext of protecting the safety and health of local populations.

istrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance Among the methods of non-tariff regulation should be mentioned istrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance, which increase uncertainty and the cost of maintaining inventory.

Government procurement Government procurement, also called public tendering or public procurement, is the procurement of goods and services on behalf of a public authority, such as [17]

a government agency. With 10 to 15% of GDP in developed countries, and up to 20% in developing countries, government procurement s for a substantial part of the global economy. To prevent fraud, waste, corruption or local protectionism, the law of most countries regulates government procurement more or less closely. It usually requires the procuring authority to issue public tenders if the value of the procurement exceeds a certain threshold. Government procurement is also the subject of the Agreement on Government Procurement, a plurilateral international treaty under the auspices of the WTO.

Countervailing duties Countervailing duties (CVDs), also known as anti-subsidy duties, are trade import duties imposed under World Trade Organization (WTO) Rules to neutralize the negative effects of subsidies. They are imposed after an investigation finds that a foreign country subsidizes its exports, injuring domestic producers in the importing country.

Import deposits Another example of foreign trade regulations is import deposits. Import deposits is a form of deposit, which the importer must pay the bank for a definite period of time (non-interest bearing deposit) in an amount equal to all or part of the cost of imported goods. At the national level, istrative regulation of capital movements is carried out mainly within a framework of bilateral agreements, which include a clear definition of the legal regime, the procedure for the ission of investments and investors. It is determined by mode (fair and equitable, national, most-favored-nation), order of nationalization and compensation, transfer profits and capital repatriation and dispute resolution.

Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls occupy a special place among the non-tariff regulatory instruments of foreign economic activity. Foreign exchange restrictions constitute the regulation of transactions of residents and nonresidents with [18]

currency and other currency values. Also an important part of the mechanism of control of foreign economic activity is the establishment of the national currency against foreign currencies.

Impact of NTBs: 

Have emerged as potent Protectionist tool.

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It being less transparent, its difficult to identify and quantify its impact.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-tariff-barriers.htm 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-tariff_barriers_to_trade 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariff 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_barrier 5. http://www.slideshare.net/nbairstow/international-tariffs-and-non-tariff-barriers 6. http://www.economist.com/node/11586026 7. https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&cad=rja &ved=0CHYQFjAJ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.farmfoundation.org%2Fnews%2Fa rticlefiles%2F816sumner.pdf&ei=Ya8gUZSWDJDorQenh4GICw&usg=AFQjCNG_q8LB70htCfjtsDzb 2dYVj2Rv-A&sig2=uTOsWUe0KfxTR1r6dr8q2Q&bvm=bv.42553238,d.bmk 8. http://www.tradebarriers.org/ntb/non_tariff_barriers 9. Google images

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