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Guidelines to Effective Writing of Historical Research There are certain guidelines to an effective writing of historical research among which are: 1. Mastery of materials Effective modern historical writing shows evidence of scholarship, research, and mastery of materials, presented without ostentation. Historians have a good mastery of their materials before writing their historical report, not necessarily memorizing the facts but a full knowledge of the events they are writing about. May it be added that the materials must be authentic, genuine and adequate. 2. Working Outline Before note-taking has gone far, a preliminary outline is necessary to guide the selection and arrangement of notes; then, as accumulated material is digested, the outline can be revised radically as necessary. Like any other writing activity, a historian must have a good working outline before starting to write. A working outline shows the direction toward which the writing is heading to. A good working outline gives continuity to the writing of the historical report. 3. Progression. Good history has progression; that is, it moves forward, although it does not show in mechanical fashion the original condition, the action, and the results. This movement of progression should employ a thesis or principle of synthesis as a theory of causation to explain the cause-effect relationships. In writing history, there must be logical sequences of events. The causes and their effects; the effects and their causes must be given due emphasis. The why’s of events must be stressed. 4. Emphasis on major elements. The major elements in any place of effective writing, historical or otherwise, stand out in bold relief like the large cities, rivers, bodies of water, and mountain ranges on a map. A good working outline, a guiding thesis, and more detailed generalizations for the major sections of the

work are essential to the accomplishment of this purpose and the subordination of the details. This frequently means that painstakingly gathered data must be discarded to promote condensation off the scene, the main actors and events of the narrative. 5. Art of narration. While the purpose of history is not primarily to entertain or to please, there is no reason why good history should not possess literary excellence. Both the science of research and the literary art of narration are essential for effective historical work. The concept of history as an art, however, should not be pushed to the point of filling in missing details through sheer play of the imagination, merely for the sake of completeness and symmetry, as does the painter or the poet; therefore, certain gaps or missing links may be a characteristic of authentic history. 6. Dramatization, rhetoric and style. A historical composition can be written simply and clearly, without excessive dramatization, exaggerated rhetorical flourishes, or undue appeal to the emotions. In other words, historical writing should possess the characteristic of a good story. Dramatization and rhetoric are frequently overdone when narrating the splendor of kings and the noise of battle in political and military history. Deficiencies in Historical Research Borg has pointed out some typical errors found in historical research conducted by graduate students in education: (Cited by Manuel and Medel, p.31) 1. A research area is selected in which sufficient evidence is not available to conduct a worthwhile study or test the hypothesis adequately. 2. Excessive use of secondary sources of information is frequently found in studies not dealing with recent events. 3. Attempts to work on a broad and poorly defined problem. 4. Historical data are poorly and inadequate evaluated. 5. Personal biased tends to influence the research procedures. 6. The facts are not synthesized or integrated into meaningful generalization.

Characteristics of Historical Research Historical research has five characteristics according to Helmstadter. (Cited by Treece and Treece, Jr., pp. 167-168) 1. Observations in historical research cannot be repeated in the same manner as in laboratory experiments and descriptive surveys. 2. The researcher must find satisfaction in spending vast amounts of time in the library and in pursuing minute details in relation to the topic under study. 3. A historical project is usually conducted by one person. 4. A hypothesis is not always necessary in historical research; inferences are made more often from the bits of information gathered to produce the general description of the event or the situation. 5. The writing style of the written report tends to be more flexible because the researcher wishes to present the facts and information in an interesting manner. 6. In addition, data are often ideas, concepts, and opinions and hence, conclusions, generalizations, and inferences become subjective. No two investigators would reach the same conclusions in a given instance. Importance of Historical Research Historical research is important due to the following: 1. A study of the past makes people understand the present better, especially the factors affecting the present. For instance, the Philippines is a Catholic nation because for more than three centuries she was occupied by Spain, a zealous Catholic propagator, and she will remain Catholic for a long, long time to come. “History has a three-fold purpose: giving us a knowledge of the past, a better understanding of the present, and a means of predicting the future.” (Lacuesta, et al, p. vii) 2. Historical information serves as a preliminary to reform. Mistakes of the past may be avoided if we have a knowledge of them. 3. People become more open to change if they are well informed about the past, especially about tragic events. 4. People are motivated to respect the contributors of the people of the past to the present state of things, especially those of heroes.

When to Use Historical Research Historical research may be utilized when it is desired to write a history of any of the following: 1. Any geographical area or place, say, a historical site, barangay, town, province, region, country, or the world for that matter. 2. Any institution, say, a school, a club or association, courtship and marriage or any other custom, the army, Christmas, government, communism, Christianity, etc. 3. Any important historical event, say, the Battle of Bataan, the Leyte Landing, the Liberation of manila, all of which occurred during the occupation of the Philippines by the Japanese during the World War II, etc.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Meaning of Descriptive Research Although descriptive research has only one meaning, several authors have defined it in their own several ways. Some of the definition are: Manuel and Medel define descriptive research thus: Descriptive research describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how a person, group, or thing behaves or functions in the present. It often involves some type of comparison or contrast. (Manuel and Medel, p.25) Aquino gives this definition. Descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate interpretation. The descriptive method is something more and beyond just data-gathering; the latter is not reflective thinking nor research. The true meaning of the data collected should be reported from the point of view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the project under way. This follows logically after careful classification of data. Facts obtained may be accurate expressions of central tendency, or deviation, or of correlation; but the report is not research unless discussion of those data is not carried up to the level of

adequate interpretation. Data must be subjected to the thinking process in of ordered reasoning (Aquino, pp. 7-8) Descriptive research is defined by Best in the following way: Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevail; beliefs, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering and tabulation of data. It involves the elements or interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is described. Thus description is often combined with comparison and contrast involving measurements, classifications, interpretation and evaluation. (Cited by Sanchez, p.83) In other words, descriptive research may be defined as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and cause-effect relationships and then making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or without the aid of statistical methods.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Descriptive research has the following characteristics: 1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts group or case under study. 2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of the general characteristics of the group or case under study. 3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized. 4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress that took place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives. 5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine their similarities and differences. 6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled.

7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally crosssectional, that is, it studies the different sections belonging to the same group. 8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of verification and comparison. Value, Importance, and Advantages of Descriptive Research Among the value, importance, and advantages of descriptive method of research are the following: 1. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of principles and generalizations in behavioral sciences. This is especially true in causal-comparative and correlation studies. When several inquiries the same findings on a certain subject, then a principle or generalization may be formed about that subject. 2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of standard norms of conduct, behavior, or performance. This is especially true in psychological testing, as for instance, norms in an intelligence test. Normative standards are based on what are prevalent. 3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial measures may be instituted. It reveals to us what we do not want, what we want, and how to acquire what we want. 4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain issues. For instance, the winning candidate in an election may be predicted on the basis of a survey. 5. Descriptive research gives a better and deeper understanding of a phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth study of the phenomenon. 6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making. Business managers often base their decisions upon business researches. Government policy makers usually rely upon descriptive investigations for making the needed policies. In education, the curriculum has been constructed based upon descriptive researches in child and adolescent psychology. 7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with which we do research, such as, instruments for the measurement of many things,

instruments that are employed in all types of quantitative research. These instruments include schedules, checklists, score cards, and rating scales. Descriptive studies contribute to the development of these data-gathering devices in two ways – first through creating directly a demand for them, and second through providing the normative, standardizing procedures by which the scales are evaluated and calibrated. Techniques Under the Descriptive Method of Research There are three techniques under the descriptive method of research: (1) the survey, (2) the case study, and (3) content analysis. Survey otherwise known as normative survey, is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect demographic data about people’s behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments, interests, perceptions, and the like and then such data are analyzed, organized, and interpreted. Case study is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth study and analysis of an individual, institutions, group, or community. Differences Between Survey and Case Study Survey 1. The group surveyed is usually large. 2. The number of aspects or variables in the life of the group surveyed is limited. 3. Cause-effect relationships are not given emphasis. Aim of a study may only be to determine status. 4. Representativeness is important and is given emphasis.

5. Curiosity, interest, or just to determine norm or status may initiate a survey. 6. Only conditions or practices present during the survey are

Case Study Case study may involved and usually involves one person, family, small group, or small community. Usually all aspects or variables in the life cycle of the case under study are included. Finding the causes of certain phenomena is always a part of a case study. Representativeness is not important. The results of a single case study do not provide certainly that the case is truly representative. Abnormalities or undesirable traits or conditions usually initiate a case study. Data about the case from birth or origin or even of the future are considered.

considered except in comparative studies when present conditions are compared with conditions in the past. Advantages of the Survey Approach Over the Case Study Approach There are certain advantages of the survey approach of research over the case study approach among which are the following: 1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the behavior of performance of an individual can be judged or evaluated. For instances, if survey reveals that the typical kind of marriage is monogamy, then a man with two wives deviates from the standard. 2. The results of a survey may be used for prediction. This is especially true in correlation studies or even in status studies. For example, studies show that there is a significant correlation between NCEE percentile ranks and college grades. Hence, a student with a high NCEE percentile rank is expected to have grades in college work. 3. Survey makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the sample has a high degree of representativeness. This is especially true if the sample is adequate and proper sampling procedures are used in the selection of the samples. 4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures may be instituted. 5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey. 6. The instruments for gathering data are easy to determine, construct, validate, and ister. The survey instruments are usually the interview schedule as well as the questionnaire and they are very similar if not the same structure. Disadvantages of the Survey Approach or Technique. Although there are advantages of the survey approach there are also disadvantages such as the following, the first three being given by Simon: (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 150) 1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables. 2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another of the independent variable to get closer to real cause. 3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of several independent variables when there is multivariable causation, especially when two independent variables are themselves highly assiociated. 4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is no control at all over extraneous variables. 5. The instruments of gathering data may lack validity, reliability, or adequacy.

Types of survey technique or approach. The following are the types of survey from which the researcher may select one depending upon the situation, his interest and goal, professional competence to tackle the work; and financial capability: (Treece and Treece, Jr,. pp. 151-154) 1. Total population survey. The entire population is involved in the survey 2. Sample survey. Only a sample or portion of the population is involved in the survey. 3. Social survey. The investigator researches on the attitudes and behaviors of different groups of people. 4. School survey. This is used to gather data for and about schools and to assess educational achievement and education itself. (some or all aspects of the school may be surveyed: qualifications of teachers, methods and techniques of teaching, facilities, achievements of pupils in different subjects, istration and supervision, curriculum, teacher-pupil ratio, and the like) 5. Public option survey. This is used to gauge the reactions of people towards certain issues or persons. (For instance, people may be asked in a survey how much they agree with the way President is running the government) 6. Poll survey. This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if they are voting for a certain candidate in an election. This survey is used to predict the chance of winning of a certain candidate in an election. 7. Market survey. This is aimed in finding out what kinds of people purchase which products, and how packaging, advertising, and displaying affect buying, prices, and so on. Allied to this is the motivation survey in which the subjects are asked why they purchase certain commodities. 8. Evaluation survey. The researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished and, with a critical eye, evaluate the results whether they are satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making improvements. 9. Comparative survey. In this survey, the results from two different groups, techniques, or procedures are compared. This may be used also to compare the effectiveness of a new procedures with an old one or with a standard, or two new procedures may be compared. 10.Short-term survey. In this survey, data are collected over a period of weeks, months, or even years but the period should be less than five years. 11.Long-term survey. Any survey conducted for more than five years is a long-term survey. The best example is the survey made by Terman about exceptional children. It lasted nearly thirty years. Terman studied his subjects during their academic careers on through their academic life to find it gifted children accomplish any more than normal children. The difficulty with this type of survey is the attrition of the subjects through sickness, death, moving to other places, refusal to participate any longer, and other causes. Change of attitude

due to maturation and education has to be considered also as difficulty, plus, the high cost involved. 12.