Music Theory 4i2e3v
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Christopher Nicholas [Type the abstract of the document here. The abstract is typically a short summary of the contents of the document.]
Music Theory: An Introduction Compiled by Christopher Nicholas
Table of Contents What Is Music? ...................................................................................................... 4 What Is Music Theory? ........................................................................................... 4 Staves and Clefs ..................................................................................................... 5 The Treble Clef .................................................................................................................................................... 6 The Bass Clef ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Movable Clefs (C Clefs) .................................................................................................................................... 8
Tempo ................................................................................................................... 9 Names of Tempos .............................................................................................................................................. 9 Note Length ......................................................................................................... 10 Pitched Note Lengths ..................................................................................................................................... 10 Rest Note Lengths ............................................................................................................................................ 11 Meter/ Time Signatures ....................................................................................... 12 Simple Time ........................................................................................................................................................ 12 Compound Time ............................................................................................................................................... 12 Complex Time ................................................................................................................................................... 12 Flats, Sharps and Naturals .................................................................................... 13 Sharp & Double Sharp .................................................................................................................................... 13 Flat & Double Flat ............................................................................................................................................ 13 Natural .................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Dynamic Marks, Accents ...................................................................................... 15 Key Signatures ..................................................................................................... 16 Sharp Key Signatures ("Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle") .................................. 17 Flat Key Signatures ("Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles's Father") ................................... 18 Intervals .............................................................................................................. 19
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 2
Scales ................................................................................................................... 20 Major Scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 20 Minor Scales ....................................................................................................................................................... 21 Melodic Minor Scales ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Harmonic Minor Scales ................................................................................................................................. 21 Whole Tone Scales ........................................................................................................................................... 22 Major Pentatonic Scales ................................................................................................................................ 22 Minor Pentatonic Scales ................................................................................................................................ 22 Triads ................................................................................................................... 23 Major Triad ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Minor Triad ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Diminished Triad ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Augmented Triad ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Chord Construction .............................................................................................. 24 Seventh Chords ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Extended Chords .............................................................................................................................................. 26 Altered Chords .................................................................................................................................................. 27 Added Tone Chords ........................................................................................................................................ 27 Suspended Chords ........................................................................................................................................... 28 Modes ................................................................................................................. 29 Ionian Mode (I) ................................................................................................................................................. 30 Dorian Mode (II) ............................................................................................................................................... 31 Phrygian Mode (III) ......................................................................................................................................... 32 Lydian Mode (IV) ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Mixolydian Mode (V) ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Aeolian Mode (VI) ............................................................................................................................................ 35 Locrian Mode (VII) .......................................................................................................................................... 36 ing Modes ..................................................................................................................................... 37
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 3
Introduction to Basic Music Theory What Is Music? Music is an art form whose medium is sound. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture.
What Is Music Theory? The theory of music, sometimes called the "rudiments" traditionally concentrates on the study of the elements of the notation of music, in other words, how it is written down. However, it also includes underlying concepts of music such as structure, organization, history and, to some extent, physics. These underlying concepts are included for a number of reasons: Some of the concepts of the notation of music are difficult to understand without knowledge of the underlying concepts; for example, the use of key signatures and accidentals is far easier to understand when the concepts of key and scale are fully understood. Since music and its notation has grown and evolved over many years (and this process is still going on), an understanding of the underlying principles is helpful in understanding the reasons for things, rather than just being told "this is the way it is done". The theory of music therefore includes the following: •
The basic elements of standard music notation such as: Staves, Clefs, Flats, Sharps and Naturals Note Lengths, Note Pitches, Key Signatures, Time Signatures (Meter), Beats & Bars (Or Measures)
•
Basic underlying concepts such as scales, keys, intervals, rhythm, modes etc.
•
More advanced elements such as dynamics, phrasing (notated with slurs) etc.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 4
Staves and Clefs A staff is what music is traditionally written on. It denotes the note pitch and the rhythms of the notes. It is important to know the notes on the staff and the duration of the note symbols. A staff looks like this:
There are three different symbols used for clefs in music:
Treble Clef (G Clef)
Bass Clef (F Clef)
Alto/Tenor Clef (C Clef)
The most common clefs are Treble Clef and Bass Clef. These are what you traditionally imagine when picturing written manuscript. Alto Clef and Tenor clef are used for orchestral instruments such as violas. Each type of clef assigns a different reference note to the line on which it is placed. Different clefs are used because different instruments have different ranges. Below are exactly the same notes written on different clefs. Which one is easier to read?
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 5
The Treble Clef
A treble clef symbol tells you that the second line from the bottom (the line that the symbol curls around) is "G". On any staff, the notes are always arranged so that the next letter is always on the next higher line or space. The last note letter, G, is always followed by another A. Among the instruments that use treble clef are the violin, flute, oboe, English horn, all clarinets, all saxophones, horn, trumpet, cornet, euphonium (and occasionally baritone), vibraphone, xylophone, Mandolin, recorder and guitar. Treble clef is the upper stave of the grand stave used for harp and keyboard instruments. It is also sometimes used, along with tenor clef, for the highest notes played by bass-clef instruments such as the cello, double bass (which sounds an octave lower), bassoon, and trombone. The viola also sometimes uses treble clef for very high notes. Treble clef is used for the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, contralto and tenor voices. The tenor voice sounds an octave lower, and is often written using an octave clef (see below) or double-treble clef.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 6
The Bass Clef
A bass clef symbol tells you that the second line from the top (the one bracketed by the symbol's dots) is F. The notes are still arranged in ascending order, but they are all in different places than they were in treble clef. This clef is used for the cello, euphonium, double bass, bass guitar, bassoon, contrabassoon, trombone, baritone, tuba, and timpani. It is also used for the lowest notes of the horn, and for the baritone and bass voices. Tenor voice is notated in bass clef when the tenor and bass are written on the same stave. Bass clef is the bottom clef in the grand stave for harp and keyboard instruments. The contrabassoon, double bass, tuba and electric bass sound an octave lower than the written pitch.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 7
Movable Clefs (C Clefs) Most music these days is written in either bass clef or treble clef, but some music is written in a C clef. The C clef is moveable: whatever line it centers on is a middle C.
The bass and treble clefs were also once moveable, but it is now very rare to see them anywhere but in their standard positions. If you do see a treble or bass clef symbol in an unusual place, : treble clef is a G clef; its spiral curls around a G. Bass clef is an F clef; its two dots centre around an F. This clef (sometimes called the viola clef) is currently used for the viola, the viola da gamba, and the alto trombone. Formerly, it was used for the alto voice and for instruments playing a middle part (such as oboes and recorders). This clef is used for the upper ranges of the bassoon, cello, euphonium, double bass, and trombone (which all use the bass clef in their lower and middle ranges, and in their extreme high ranges, the treble clef as well). Formerly, it was used by the tenor part in vocal music but its use has been largely supplanted either with an octave version of the treble clef when written alone or the bass clef when combined on one stave with the bass part. The double bass sounds an octave lower than the written pitch.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 8
Tempo The tempo of a piece regulates how fast it’s played (using the measure of beats per minute). This is usually counted using a metronome of using the performers best judgment. The tempo is written at the beginning of the piece using this symbol:
That notes that the piece should be played at 120 bpm (beats per minute).
Names of Tempos Tempos can often be written as words (especially in classical music) leaving it up to the performer to choose a tempo within certain boundaries. Larghissimo Grave Lento Largo
Very, Very Slow Slow And Solemn Slowly Broadly
(20 bpm And Below) (20 - 40 bpm) (40 - 60 bpm) (40
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 9
Note Length Pitched Note Lengths Each note has a duration that is specified by its appearance when it is written down. This duration is not an absolute one (it does not define how many seconds it should last), but is relative to the tempo of the piece. A note of a certain length played at 120bpm would sustain for half the length of the same note played at 60bpm. The duration will always be closely related to the speed of the beats such as: •
a whole number of beats
•
a simple fraction like a half or a quarter of a beat
•
an additive combination of the above two
The notation tends to limit the possible durations that can be written, but in traditional music, this is not a problem. Notes symbols have different names according to their lengths. The first name is the traditional name, the second being the American name. The lengths are according to a piece in common time. The breve is uncommon in popular music.
Breve/ Double Whole Note
1 Notes Per 2 Bars
Semibreve/ Whole Note
1 Notes Per Bar
Minim/ Half Note
2 Notes Per Bar
Crotchet/ Quarter Note
4 Notes Per Bar
Quaver/ Eighth Note
8 Notes Per Bar
Semi-quaver/ Sixteenth Note
16 Notes Per Bar
Demi-semi-quaver/ Thirty-second Note
32 Notes Per Bar
Hemi-demi-semi-quaver/ Sixty-fourth Note
64 Notes Per Bar
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 10
Rest Note Lengths There are signs for rests corresponding to each note length A note indicates a sound will be heard for a specified period of time, whereas a rest indicates that a silence will be heard for the specified period of time. If there is more than one part on a stave, the rest symbol may be moved up or down on the stave. If there is only one part on the stave, the vertical positions below are normally used. Note that a breve rest is pretty unusual, but sometimes also used to indicate a whole bar or measure rest (A semibreve rest is also used for a whole bar or measure rest, even if the bar is not a semibreve long). Also note that a hemi-demi-semi-quaver rest is very rare.
Breve Rest/ Double Whole Note Rest
1 Notes Per 2 Bars
Semibreve Rest / Whole Note Rest
1 Notes Per Bar
Minim Rest / Half Note Rest
2 Notes Per Bar
Crotchet Rest / Quarter Note Rest
4 Notes Per Bar
Quaver Rest / Eighth Note Rest
8 Notes Per Bar
Semi-quaver Rest / Sixteenth Note Rest
16 Notes Per Bar
Demi-semi-quaver Rest / Thirty-second Note Rest
32 Notes Per Bar
Hemi-demi-semi-quaver Rest / Sixty-fourth Note Rest
64 Notes Per Bar
A dotted note (a note or rest accompanied with a dot after the symbol) indicates that the note length or rest length is increased by half the original length of the note or rest. For example; a dotted crotchet (quarter note) would last the same amount of time as a crotchet plus a quaver (a quarter and an eighth note).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 11
Meter/ Time Signatures Time signatures (also known as meter signature) is a notational conventionally used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are in each measure and which note value constitutes one beat. In a musical score, the time signature appears at the beginning of the piece, as a time symbol or stacked numerals immediately following the key signature (or immediately following the clef if there’s no key signature). Below is a time signature showing that the piece is in 3/4 time:
Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the other:
- the lower numeral indicates the note value which represents one beat (the beat unit) - the upper numeral indicates how many such beats there are in a bar.
•
A piece in 4/4 shows that there are 4 beats to the bar, with each beat being a crotchet in length.
•
A piece in 3/4 shows that there are 3 beats to the bar, with each beat being a crotchet in length.
•
A piece in 6/8 shows that there are 6 beats to the bar, with each beat being a quaver in length.
There are various types of time signatures, depending on whether the music follows simple rhythms or involves unusual shifting tempos. The most common are:
Simple Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 2/2, 3/2, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 3/8.
Compound Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 6/8, 9/8, 12/8.
Complex Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 5/4, 7/4, 5/8, 7/8. Not that several time signatures can be present in a piece of music (called syncopation).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 12
Flats, Sharps and Naturals Not all songs are conveniently written in C Major (which consequently has no sharps or flats), therefore sharp and flat symbols are used in music notation.
Sharp & Double Sharp
In music, sharp, dièse (from French), or diesis (from Greek) means higher
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 13
Natural
A note is natural when it is neither flat nor sharp (nor double-flat or double-sharp either). Natural notes are the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, and are represented by the white notes on the keyboard of a piano or organ. On a modern concert harp, the middle position of the seven pedals which alter the tuning of the strings gives the natural pitch for each string.
In musical notation, a natural sign (♮) is an accidental sign used to cancel a flat or sharp from either a preceding note or the key signature. If a bar contains a double sharp or double flat accidental and the composer wishes to denote the same note with only a single sharp or flat, a natural sign traditionally precedes the (single) sharp or flat symbol. Naturals are assumed (by default) in key signatures and mentioned only in key signature changes.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 14
Dynamic Marks, Accents Not only is it essential to know how fast to play a piece but it’s noted how to loud and quiet the piece should be played:
The two basic dynamic indications in music are: • •
p or piano, meaning "soft". ƒ or forte, meaning "loud".
More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by: • •
mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft". mƒ, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".
Beyond f and p, there are also • •
pp, standing for "pianissimo", and meaning "very soft", ƒƒ, standing for "fortissimo", and meaning "very loud",
Velocity defines the steps set on a MIDI interface that control the dynamics notes.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 15
Key Signatures In musical notation, a key signature is a series of sharp or flat symbols placed on the staff, designating notes that are to be consistently played one semitone higher or lower than the equivalent natural notes unless otherwise altered with an accidental. Key signatures are generally written immediately after the clef at the beginning of a line of musical notation, although they can appear in other parts of a score, notably after a double barline. Key signatures are used to make reading music easier. A sharp on the staff line means that any notes on that line are sharp (unless naturalized). For example a sharp on the ‘F’ staff line would result in all F’s being played as F♯ for the duration of the piece. Below is a B Major scale with no key signature at the beginning.
And then with a key signature at the beginning
Key signatures follow rules just as the other elements of music theory. A key signature is not the same as a key; key signatures are merely notational devices. They are convenient principally for diatonic or tonal music. Some pieces that change key (modulate) insert a new key signature on the staff partway, while others use accidentals: natural signs to neutralize the key signature and other sharps or flats for the new key. Key signatures can be placed into two catergories. These are
Sharp Key Signatures
Flat Key Signatures
The key of C Major (which has no sharps or flats) and atonal music are exceptions.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 16
Sharp Key Signatures ("Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle") Relative major:
1 Sharp:
G Major
F♯
Relative minor: E Minor Relative major:
2 Sharps:
D Major
F♯, C♯
Relative minor: B Minor Relative major:
3 Sharps:
A Major
F♯, C♯, G♯
Relative minor: F♯ Minor Relative major:
4 Sharps:
E Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯
Relative minor: C♯ Minor Relative major:
5 Sharps:
B Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯
Relative minor: G♯ Minor Relative major:
6 Sharps:
F♯ Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯
Relative minor: D♯ Minor Relative major:
7 Sharps:
C♯ Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯
Relative minor: A♯ Minor
Sharp key signatures consist of a number of sharps applied in the order: F C G D A E B
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 17
Flat Key Signatures ("Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles's Father") Relative major:
1 Flat:
F Major
B♭
Relative minor: D Minor Relative major:
2 Flats:
B♭ Major
B♭, E♭
Relative minor: G Minor Relative major:
3 Flats:
E♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭
Relative minor: C Minor Relative major:
4 Flats:
A♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭
Relative minor: F Minor Relative major:
5 Flats:
D♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭
Relative minor: B♭ Minor Relative major:
6 Flats:
G♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭
Relative minor: E♭ Minor Relative major:
7 Flats:
C♭ Major (B Major)
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭
Relative minor: A♭ Minor
Flat key signatures consist of a number of flat applied in the order: B E A D G C F
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 18
Intervals An interval is a term used in music to describe the relationship between two notes. These can be shown as:
Number of Semitones
Diatonic Interval
Short
Example
0
Perfect Unison
P1
C
1
minor Second
m2
C♯/ D♭
2
Major Second
M2
D
3
minor Third
m3
D♯/ E♭
4
Major Third
M3
E
5
Perfect Fourth
P4
F
6
Diminished Fifth/ Augmented Fourth
d5/A4
F♯/ G♭
7
Perfect Fifth
P5
G
8
minor Sixth
m6
G♯/ A♭
9
Major Sixth
M6
A
10
minor Seventh
m7
A♯/ B♭
11
Major Seventh
M7
B
12
Perfect Octave
P8
C
A semitone is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). Therefore: - a note of E would be the Major Third in the key of C. - a note of G would be the Perfect Fifth in the key of C. - a note of G♯/ A♭ would be the Minor Sixth in the key of C.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 19
Scales Music can be separated into families. Within a key - some notes sound harmonious together and some sound dissonant. Understanding how notes relate to each other is crucial to writing music. Notes that belong together within a key are called scales. From these scales, chords are constructed.
Major Scales
Above is the C Major scale. The C Major scale uses all the white notes on a piano (no sharps or flats - black notes) This can be calculated using the following interval sequence (where a tone is equal to two semitones and a semitone is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from G to G♯): TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So starting on the note C. A tone up from C is D, a tone up from D is E, a semitone up from E is F. Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a major scale in any key: C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
There are 8 notes in every major scale. These have different names in accordance to their relativity to their position within the scale: 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Tonic C
Supertonic D
Mediant E
- Tonic / Keynote - Supertonic - Mediant - Subdominant - Dominant - Submediant - Leading Tone - Tonic/ Octave
Subdominant F
Dominant G
Submediant A
Leading Tone B
Octave C
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 20
Minor Scales Minor keys are sometimes said to have a more interesting, possibly sadder sound than plain major scales. It’s possible to play in a minor key by playing the relative major key but starting 3 semitones down. For example: An A natural minor scale can be played by playing the C Major scale but starting on A (refer to Aeolian Mode).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
Melodic Minor Scales A melodic minor is essentially a major scale with the third flattened.
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a melodic minor scale in any key:
C
D
E♭
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Harmonic Minor Scales A harmonic minor is the darkest sounding a minor scale with the third and the sixth flattened.
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
3 SEMI TONES
SEMI TONE
Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a melodic minor scale in any key:
C
D
E♭
F
G
G♯
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C E♭
D♯ F♯
E G
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 21
Chord Construction In addition to playing the standard triads, the chords can be inverted. The C Major chord can be played as: C E G
E G C
G C E
1st 3rd 5th
3rd 5th 1st
5th 1st 3rd
By looking at the notes in the major scale, chord families can be discovered. Playing the 1st, 3rd and 5th gives a C Major chord. Playing the 2nd, 4th, and 6th gives a D Minor chord. Therefore C Major and D Minor both contain notes from the C Major scale and can be classed in the same chord family. Using the major scale, it’s easy to understand the different chords used in that key:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 24
Chord Construction In addition to playing the standard triads, the chords can be inverted. The C Major chord can be played as: C E G
E G C
G C E
1st 3rd 5th
3rd 5th 1st
5th 1st 3rd
By looking at the notes in the major scale, chord families can be discovered. Playing the 1st, 3rd and 5th gives a C Major chord. Playing the 2nd, 4th, and 6th gives a D Minor chord. Therefore C Major and D Minor both contain notes from the C Major scale and can be classed in the same chord family. Using the major scale, it’s easy to understand the different chords used in that key:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 24
Seventh Chords The seventh note in a scale is imperative in jazz, blues and funk music (in addition to many other forms). Jazz typically uses the natural seventh (the major seventh). Blues and funk tend to flatten the seventh (the minor seventh - or dominant seventh).
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
Major Seventh (maj7, Δ7, Δ7, Δ7) Minor Seventh (m7,min7, −7, −7)
Root Root
Major minor
Perfect Perfect
Major minor
minor Major Seventh (m maj7) Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
Root Root
minor Major
Perfect Perfect
Major minor
C, E, G, B C, E♭, G, B ♭ C, E♭, G, B C, E, G, B♭
Diminished Seventh (o7, dim7)
Root
minor
diminished
diminished
Half-Diminished Seventh (ø7)
Root
minor
diminished
minor
Augmented Seventh (aug7)
Root
Major
Augmented
minor
Augmented Major Seventh (M7♯ 5)
Root
Major
Augmented
Major
C, E♭, G♭, B♭♭ C, E♭, G♭, B♭ C, E, G♯, B ♭ C, E, G♯, B
Adding the seventh note only causes the chord to become a seventh chord. For it to become a minor or diminished seventh, the third (mediant) HAS to be flatted. In order for a seventh chord to be a major of augmented, the third (mediant) HAS to remain natural.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 25
Extended Chords Jazz relies heavily on extended chords. The basis of all jazz extended chords are seventh chords - whether major, minor or dominant, with the added notes on top.
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Major Seventh (maj7, Δ7, Δ 7, Δ7 )
Root
Major
Perfect
Major
9th
11th
13th
Major Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Major
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
minor Seventh (m7,min7, −7, −7)
Root
minor
Perfect
minor
C, E♭, G, B♭
9th
11th
13th
Major Ninth (maj9, Δ79) Major Eleventh (maj11, Δ11) Major Thirteenth (maj13, Δ13)
Major
minor Eleventh (min11, −11) minor Thirteenth (min13, −13)
Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Major
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Root
Major
Perfect
minor
9th
11th
13th
Major Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
Dominant Ninth (9) Dominant Eleventh (11) Dominant Thirteenth (13)
C, E, G, B
C, E, G, B, D C, G, B, D, F C, G, B, D, A
minor Ninth (min9, −9)
CHORD NAME
EXAMPLE
C, E♭, G, B♭, D C, G, B♭, D, F C, G, B♭, D, A EXAMPLE C, E, G, B♭
C, E, G, B♭, D C, G, B♭, D, F C, G, B♭, D, A
Major
Just like the major scale, chords can be constructed to see which chords fit within the key. This is constructed around the 13th chord quality:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj13
min13
m7♭13
7ø♭9♭13
minor second
maj13♯ 11 Major Fourth
13
Major Unison
m7♭9♭ 13 minor third
Major Fifth
minor sixth
diminished seventh
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 26
Altered Chords Although the third and seventh of the chord are always determined by the symbols shown above, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may all be chromatically altered by accidentals). The augmented ninth is often referred to in blues and jazz as a blue note, being enharmonically equivalent to the flat third or tenth. This chord is more colloquially known as “The Jimi Hendrix Chord” due to his prolific use of it.
CHORD NAME Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Root
Major
Perfect
minor
9th
11th
13th
EXAMPLE C, E, G, B♭
C, G, B♭, D♭, C, G, B♭, D♯, C, G, B, D, F♯ C, G, B♭, D, A ♭
Seventh Flat Nine (7♭9) Seventh Sharp Nine (7♯9) Seventh Aug. Eleventh (7♯11) Seventh Flat Thirteenth (7♭13)
minor Augmented -
Augmented -
minor
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
Seventh Augmented Fifth (7+5)
Root
Major
Augmented
Dominant
C, E, G♯, B♭
Half-diminished Seventh (ø, m7♭5)
Root
Major
diminished
minor
C, E, G♭, B♭
Added Tone Chords An added tone chord is a triad chord with an added, non-tertian note, such as the commonly added sixth as well as chords with an added second (ninth) or fourth (eleventh) or a combination of the three.
CHORD NAME Add Nine (add9) Major Fourth (4, add11) Major Sixth (6) minor Sixth (min6, m6) Six-Nine (6/9)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
ADDED
Root Root Root Root Root
Major Major Major Minor Major
Perfect Perfect Perfect Perfect Perfect
Major 9th Major 4th Major 6th minor 6th Major 6th/9th
EXAMPLE C, E, G, D C, F, G, C C, E, G, A C, E♭, G, A C, G, A, D
Personally I would rather use add9 as opposed to sus2 to describe a chord where the third (mediant) is present and the added note lies above the triad. I would opt to use sus2 when the third (mediant) has been substituted for the suspended second (supertonic).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 27
Suspended Chords A suspended chord, or "sus chord" (sometimes wrongly thought to mean sustained chord), is a chord in which the third is replaced by either the "second" or the "fourth." This results in two main chord types: the suspended second (sus2) and the suspended fourth (sus4). The chords, Csus2 and Csus4, for example, consist of the notes C D G and C F G, respectively. There is also a third type of suspended chord, in which both the second and fourth are present, for example the chord with the notes C, D, F, G.
CHORD NAME Suspended Second (sus2) Suspended Fourth (sus4)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
ADDED
Root Root
-
Perfect Perfect
Major 2nd Major 4th
EXAMPLE C, D, G, C C, F, G, C
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 28
Modes There are seven different modes in music - one for each white note. These are: • • • • • • •
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
The modes were typically used in chant music (Gregorian Chant). Each of the different modes creates a different feel. Various interpretations of the "character" imparted by the different modes have been suggested. Note that the names and mode numbers have been modernized.
Name Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
Mode I II III IV V VI VII
Perfect Serious Sad Mystic Harmonious Happy Devout
Description Of Knowledge Any Feeling Serious Vehement Tender Happy Pious
Very Happy Happy Tearful Inciting Anger Delightful Happy Tearful
Example Ad cenam agni providi Veni sancte spiritus Jesu dulcis amor meus Kyrie, fons bonitatis Conditor alme siderum Salve Regina Ubi caritas
It’s easier to understand modes by applying interval sequences. To show examples, only the white keys will be used:
Name Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
Mode I II III IV V VI VII
Key C D E F G A B
So for example: A C Major scale that begins on E and ends on E an octave higher is E Phrygian mode. A C Major scale that begins on G and ends of G an octave higher is G Mixolydian mode.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 29
Ionian Mode (I) The Ionian mode is the basic major scale. It follows the following interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So for example; the Ionian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
C
Tonic
P1
D
Major Second
M2
E
Major Third
M3
F
Perfect Fourth
P4
G
Perfect Fifth
P5
A
Major Sixth
M6
B
Major Seventh
M7
C
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
C C Major 7 (Cmaj7) G G7
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 30
Dorian Mode (II) The Dorian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
So for example; the Dorian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E♭
F
G
A
B♭
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C♯ E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
D
Tonic
P1
E
Major Second
M2
F
minor Third
m3
G
Perfect Fourth
P4
A
Perfect Fifth
P5
B
Major Sixth
M6
C
minor Seventh
m7
D
Upper Octave
P8
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 31
Phrygian Mode (III) The Phrygian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Phrygian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D♭
E♭
F
G
A♭
B♭
C
E G
F A♭
G B♭
A C
B D
C E♭
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
E
Tonic
P1
F
minor Second
m2
G
minor Third
m3
A
Perfect Fourth
P4
B
Perfect Fifth
P5
C
minor Sixth
m6
D
minor Seventh
m7
E
Upper Octave
P8
The modern minor scale has a minor third, sixth, and seventh. The minor second in addition here makes the scale Phrygian, not Aeolian (natural minor)
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
E minor (Em) E minor 7 (Em7) B diminished (B°) B half-diminished (Bm7♭5/ Bø)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 32
Lydian Mode (IV) The Lydian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So for example; the Lydian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F♯
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A♯ C♯
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
F
Tonic
P1
G
Major Second
M2
A
Major Third
M3
B
Augmented Fourth
A4
C
Perfect Fifth
P5
D
Major Sixth
M6
E
Major Seventh
M7
F
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
F F Major 7 (FMaj7) C C Major 7 (CMaj7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 33
Mixolydian Mode (V) The Mixolydian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
So for example; the Mixolydian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B♭
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
G
Tonic
P1
A
Major Second
M2
B
Major Third
M3
C
Perfect Fourth
P4
D
Perfect Fifth
P5
E
Major Sixth
M6
F
minor Seventh
m7
G
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
G G7 D minor (Dm) D minor 7 (Dmin7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 34
Aeolian Mode (VI) The Aeolian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Aeolian scale for the following keys would be:
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 35
Locrian Mode (VII) The Locrian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Locrian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D♭
E♭
F
G♭
A♭
B♭
C
E G
F A♭
G B
A C
B♭ D♭
C E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
B
Tonic
P1
C
minor Second
m2
D
minor Third
m3
E
Perfect Fourth
P4
F
diminished Fifth
d5
G
minor Sixth
m6
A
minor Seventh
m7
B
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
B diminished (B°) B half-diminished (Bm7♭5/ Bø) F F Major 7 (FMaj7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 36
ing Modes How to the interval sequence (Tone is represented as T, Semitone as s):
Name
Mode
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
I II III IV V VI VII
Interval Sequence T T s T T T s
T s T T T s T
s T T T s T T
T T T s T T s
T T s T T s T
T s T T s T T
s T T s T T T
These are the accidentals within the scale (in accordance to the major scale of that key):
Name
Mode
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
I II III IV V VI VII
Accidentals Flattened Flattened Augmented Flattened Flattened Flattened
3rd & 7th 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th 4th 7th 3rd, 6th, 7th 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th
The modes can be arranged in the following sequence, which follows the circle of fifths. In this sequence, each mode has one more lowered interval above the tonic than the one preceding it. Thus taking Lydian as reference, Ionian (major) has a lowered fourth; Mixolydian, a lowered fourth and seventh; Dorian, a lowered fourth, seventh, and third; Aeolian (Natural Minor), a lowered fourth, seventh, third, and sixth; Phrygian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, and second; and Locrian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, second, and fifth. Put another way, the augmented fourth of the Lydian scale has been reduced to a perfect fourth in Ionian, the major seventh in Ionian, to a minor seventh in Mixolydian, etc.
The first three modes are sometimes called major, the next three minor, and the last one diminished (Locrian), according to the quality of their tonic triads.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 37
Music Theory: An Introduction Compiled by Christopher Nicholas
Table of Contents What Is Music? ...................................................................................................... 4 What Is Music Theory? ........................................................................................... 4 Staves and Clefs ..................................................................................................... 5 The Treble Clef .................................................................................................................................................... 6 The Bass Clef ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Movable Clefs (C Clefs) .................................................................................................................................... 8
Tempo ................................................................................................................... 9 Names of Tempos .............................................................................................................................................. 9 Note Length ......................................................................................................... 10 Pitched Note Lengths ..................................................................................................................................... 10 Rest Note Lengths ............................................................................................................................................ 11 Meter/ Time Signatures ....................................................................................... 12 Simple Time ........................................................................................................................................................ 12 Compound Time ............................................................................................................................................... 12 Complex Time ................................................................................................................................................... 12 Flats, Sharps and Naturals .................................................................................... 13 Sharp & Double Sharp .................................................................................................................................... 13 Flat & Double Flat ............................................................................................................................................ 13 Natural .................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Dynamic Marks, Accents ...................................................................................... 15 Key Signatures ..................................................................................................... 16 Sharp Key Signatures ("Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle") .................................. 17 Flat Key Signatures ("Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles's Father") ................................... 18 Intervals .............................................................................................................. 19
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 2
Scales ................................................................................................................... 20 Major Scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 20 Minor Scales ....................................................................................................................................................... 21 Melodic Minor Scales ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Harmonic Minor Scales ................................................................................................................................. 21 Whole Tone Scales ........................................................................................................................................... 22 Major Pentatonic Scales ................................................................................................................................ 22 Minor Pentatonic Scales ................................................................................................................................ 22 Triads ................................................................................................................... 23 Major Triad ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Minor Triad ......................................................................................................................................................... 23 Diminished Triad ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Augmented Triad ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Chord Construction .............................................................................................. 24 Seventh Chords ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Extended Chords .............................................................................................................................................. 26 Altered Chords .................................................................................................................................................. 27 Added Tone Chords ........................................................................................................................................ 27 Suspended Chords ........................................................................................................................................... 28 Modes ................................................................................................................. 29 Ionian Mode (I) ................................................................................................................................................. 30 Dorian Mode (II) ............................................................................................................................................... 31 Phrygian Mode (III) ......................................................................................................................................... 32 Lydian Mode (IV) ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Mixolydian Mode (V) ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Aeolian Mode (VI) ............................................................................................................................................ 35 Locrian Mode (VII) .......................................................................................................................................... 36 ing Modes ..................................................................................................................................... 37
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 3
Introduction to Basic Music Theory What Is Music? Music is an art form whose medium is sound. Common elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture.
What Is Music Theory? The theory of music, sometimes called the "rudiments" traditionally concentrates on the study of the elements of the notation of music, in other words, how it is written down. However, it also includes underlying concepts of music such as structure, organization, history and, to some extent, physics. These underlying concepts are included for a number of reasons: Some of the concepts of the notation of music are difficult to understand without knowledge of the underlying concepts; for example, the use of key signatures and accidentals is far easier to understand when the concepts of key and scale are fully understood. Since music and its notation has grown and evolved over many years (and this process is still going on), an understanding of the underlying principles is helpful in understanding the reasons for things, rather than just being told "this is the way it is done". The theory of music therefore includes the following: •
The basic elements of standard music notation such as: Staves, Clefs, Flats, Sharps and Naturals Note Lengths, Note Pitches, Key Signatures, Time Signatures (Meter), Beats & Bars (Or Measures)
•
Basic underlying concepts such as scales, keys, intervals, rhythm, modes etc.
•
More advanced elements such as dynamics, phrasing (notated with slurs) etc.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 4
Staves and Clefs A staff is what music is traditionally written on. It denotes the note pitch and the rhythms of the notes. It is important to know the notes on the staff and the duration of the note symbols. A staff looks like this:
There are three different symbols used for clefs in music:
Treble Clef (G Clef)
Bass Clef (F Clef)
Alto/Tenor Clef (C Clef)
The most common clefs are Treble Clef and Bass Clef. These are what you traditionally imagine when picturing written manuscript. Alto Clef and Tenor clef are used for orchestral instruments such as violas. Each type of clef assigns a different reference note to the line on which it is placed. Different clefs are used because different instruments have different ranges. Below are exactly the same notes written on different clefs. Which one is easier to read?
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 5
The Treble Clef
A treble clef symbol tells you that the second line from the bottom (the line that the symbol curls around) is "G". On any staff, the notes are always arranged so that the next letter is always on the next higher line or space. The last note letter, G, is always followed by another A. Among the instruments that use treble clef are the violin, flute, oboe, English horn, all clarinets, all saxophones, horn, trumpet, cornet, euphonium (and occasionally baritone), vibraphone, xylophone, Mandolin, recorder and guitar. Treble clef is the upper stave of the grand stave used for harp and keyboard instruments. It is also sometimes used, along with tenor clef, for the highest notes played by bass-clef instruments such as the cello, double bass (which sounds an octave lower), bassoon, and trombone. The viola also sometimes uses treble clef for very high notes. Treble clef is used for the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, contralto and tenor voices. The tenor voice sounds an octave lower, and is often written using an octave clef (see below) or double-treble clef.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 6
The Bass Clef
A bass clef symbol tells you that the second line from the top (the one bracketed by the symbol's dots) is F. The notes are still arranged in ascending order, but they are all in different places than they were in treble clef. This clef is used for the cello, euphonium, double bass, bass guitar, bassoon, contrabassoon, trombone, baritone, tuba, and timpani. It is also used for the lowest notes of the horn, and for the baritone and bass voices. Tenor voice is notated in bass clef when the tenor and bass are written on the same stave. Bass clef is the bottom clef in the grand stave for harp and keyboard instruments. The contrabassoon, double bass, tuba and electric bass sound an octave lower than the written pitch.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 7
Movable Clefs (C Clefs) Most music these days is written in either bass clef or treble clef, but some music is written in a C clef. The C clef is moveable: whatever line it centers on is a middle C.
The bass and treble clefs were also once moveable, but it is now very rare to see them anywhere but in their standard positions. If you do see a treble or bass clef symbol in an unusual place, : treble clef is a G clef; its spiral curls around a G. Bass clef is an F clef; its two dots centre around an F. This clef (sometimes called the viola clef) is currently used for the viola, the viola da gamba, and the alto trombone. Formerly, it was used for the alto voice and for instruments playing a middle part (such as oboes and recorders). This clef is used for the upper ranges of the bassoon, cello, euphonium, double bass, and trombone (which all use the bass clef in their lower and middle ranges, and in their extreme high ranges, the treble clef as well). Formerly, it was used by the tenor part in vocal music but its use has been largely supplanted either with an octave version of the treble clef when written alone or the bass clef when combined on one stave with the bass part. The double bass sounds an octave lower than the written pitch.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 8
Tempo The tempo of a piece regulates how fast it’s played (using the measure of beats per minute). This is usually counted using a metronome of using the performers best judgment. The tempo is written at the beginning of the piece using this symbol:
That notes that the piece should be played at 120 bpm (beats per minute).
Names of Tempos Tempos can often be written as words (especially in classical music) leaving it up to the performer to choose a tempo within certain boundaries. Larghissimo Grave Lento Largo
Very, Very Slow Slow And Solemn Slowly Broadly
(20 bpm And Below) (20 - 40 bpm) (40 - 60 bpm) (40
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 9
Note Length Pitched Note Lengths Each note has a duration that is specified by its appearance when it is written down. This duration is not an absolute one (it does not define how many seconds it should last), but is relative to the tempo of the piece. A note of a certain length played at 120bpm would sustain for half the length of the same note played at 60bpm. The duration will always be closely related to the speed of the beats such as: •
a whole number of beats
•
a simple fraction like a half or a quarter of a beat
•
an additive combination of the above two
The notation tends to limit the possible durations that can be written, but in traditional music, this is not a problem. Notes symbols have different names according to their lengths. The first name is the traditional name, the second being the American name. The lengths are according to a piece in common time. The breve is uncommon in popular music.
Breve/ Double Whole Note
1 Notes Per 2 Bars
Semibreve/ Whole Note
1 Notes Per Bar
Minim/ Half Note
2 Notes Per Bar
Crotchet/ Quarter Note
4 Notes Per Bar
Quaver/ Eighth Note
8 Notes Per Bar
Semi-quaver/ Sixteenth Note
16 Notes Per Bar
Demi-semi-quaver/ Thirty-second Note
32 Notes Per Bar
Hemi-demi-semi-quaver/ Sixty-fourth Note
64 Notes Per Bar
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 10
Rest Note Lengths There are signs for rests corresponding to each note length A note indicates a sound will be heard for a specified period of time, whereas a rest indicates that a silence will be heard for the specified period of time. If there is more than one part on a stave, the rest symbol may be moved up or down on the stave. If there is only one part on the stave, the vertical positions below are normally used. Note that a breve rest is pretty unusual, but sometimes also used to indicate a whole bar or measure rest (A semibreve rest is also used for a whole bar or measure rest, even if the bar is not a semibreve long). Also note that a hemi-demi-semi-quaver rest is very rare.
Breve Rest/ Double Whole Note Rest
1 Notes Per 2 Bars
Semibreve Rest / Whole Note Rest
1 Notes Per Bar
Minim Rest / Half Note Rest
2 Notes Per Bar
Crotchet Rest / Quarter Note Rest
4 Notes Per Bar
Quaver Rest / Eighth Note Rest
8 Notes Per Bar
Semi-quaver Rest / Sixteenth Note Rest
16 Notes Per Bar
Demi-semi-quaver Rest / Thirty-second Note Rest
32 Notes Per Bar
Hemi-demi-semi-quaver Rest / Sixty-fourth Note Rest
64 Notes Per Bar
A dotted note (a note or rest accompanied with a dot after the symbol) indicates that the note length or rest length is increased by half the original length of the note or rest. For example; a dotted crotchet (quarter note) would last the same amount of time as a crotchet plus a quaver (a quarter and an eighth note).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 11
Meter/ Time Signatures Time signatures (also known as meter signature) is a notational conventionally used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are in each measure and which note value constitutes one beat. In a musical score, the time signature appears at the beginning of the piece, as a time symbol or stacked numerals immediately following the key signature (or immediately following the clef if there’s no key signature). Below is a time signature showing that the piece is in 3/4 time:
Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the other:
- the lower numeral indicates the note value which represents one beat (the beat unit) - the upper numeral indicates how many such beats there are in a bar.
•
A piece in 4/4 shows that there are 4 beats to the bar, with each beat being a crotchet in length.
•
A piece in 3/4 shows that there are 3 beats to the bar, with each beat being a crotchet in length.
•
A piece in 6/8 shows that there are 6 beats to the bar, with each beat being a quaver in length.
There are various types of time signatures, depending on whether the music follows simple rhythms or involves unusual shifting tempos. The most common are:
Simple Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 2/2, 3/2, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 3/8.
Compound Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 6/8, 9/8, 12/8.
Complex Time Time signatures include but aren’t limited to: 5/4, 7/4, 5/8, 7/8. Not that several time signatures can be present in a piece of music (called syncopation).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 12
Flats, Sharps and Naturals Not all songs are conveniently written in C Major (which consequently has no sharps or flats), therefore sharp and flat symbols are used in music notation.
Sharp & Double Sharp
In music, sharp, dièse (from French), or diesis (from Greek) means higher
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 13
Natural
A note is natural when it is neither flat nor sharp (nor double-flat or double-sharp either). Natural notes are the notes A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, and are represented by the white notes on the keyboard of a piano or organ. On a modern concert harp, the middle position of the seven pedals which alter the tuning of the strings gives the natural pitch for each string.
In musical notation, a natural sign (♮) is an accidental sign used to cancel a flat or sharp from either a preceding note or the key signature. If a bar contains a double sharp or double flat accidental and the composer wishes to denote the same note with only a single sharp or flat, a natural sign traditionally precedes the (single) sharp or flat symbol. Naturals are assumed (by default) in key signatures and mentioned only in key signature changes.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 14
Dynamic Marks, Accents Not only is it essential to know how fast to play a piece but it’s noted how to loud and quiet the piece should be played:
The two basic dynamic indications in music are: • •
p or piano, meaning "soft". ƒ or forte, meaning "loud".
More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by: • •
mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft". mƒ, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".
Beyond f and p, there are also • •
pp, standing for "pianissimo", and meaning "very soft", ƒƒ, standing for "fortissimo", and meaning "very loud",
Velocity defines the steps set on a MIDI interface that control the dynamics notes.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 15
Key Signatures In musical notation, a key signature is a series of sharp or flat symbols placed on the staff, designating notes that are to be consistently played one semitone higher or lower than the equivalent natural notes unless otherwise altered with an accidental. Key signatures are generally written immediately after the clef at the beginning of a line of musical notation, although they can appear in other parts of a score, notably after a double barline. Key signatures are used to make reading music easier. A sharp on the staff line means that any notes on that line are sharp (unless naturalized). For example a sharp on the ‘F’ staff line would result in all F’s being played as F♯ for the duration of the piece. Below is a B Major scale with no key signature at the beginning.
And then with a key signature at the beginning
Key signatures follow rules just as the other elements of music theory. A key signature is not the same as a key; key signatures are merely notational devices. They are convenient principally for diatonic or tonal music. Some pieces that change key (modulate) insert a new key signature on the staff partway, while others use accidentals: natural signs to neutralize the key signature and other sharps or flats for the new key. Key signatures can be placed into two catergories. These are
Sharp Key Signatures
Flat Key Signatures
The key of C Major (which has no sharps or flats) and atonal music are exceptions.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 16
Sharp Key Signatures ("Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle") Relative major:
1 Sharp:
G Major
F♯
Relative minor: E Minor Relative major:
2 Sharps:
D Major
F♯, C♯
Relative minor: B Minor Relative major:
3 Sharps:
A Major
F♯, C♯, G♯
Relative minor: F♯ Minor Relative major:
4 Sharps:
E Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯
Relative minor: C♯ Minor Relative major:
5 Sharps:
B Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯
Relative minor: G♯ Minor Relative major:
6 Sharps:
F♯ Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯
Relative minor: D♯ Minor Relative major:
7 Sharps:
C♯ Major
F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯, A♯, E♯, B♯
Relative minor: A♯ Minor
Sharp key signatures consist of a number of sharps applied in the order: F C G D A E B
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 17
Flat Key Signatures ("Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles's Father") Relative major:
1 Flat:
F Major
B♭
Relative minor: D Minor Relative major:
2 Flats:
B♭ Major
B♭, E♭
Relative minor: G Minor Relative major:
3 Flats:
E♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭
Relative minor: C Minor Relative major:
4 Flats:
A♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭
Relative minor: F Minor Relative major:
5 Flats:
D♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭
Relative minor: B♭ Minor Relative major:
6 Flats:
G♭ Major
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭
Relative minor: E♭ Minor Relative major:
7 Flats:
C♭ Major (B Major)
B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭, C♭, F♭
Relative minor: A♭ Minor
Flat key signatures consist of a number of flat applied in the order: B E A D G C F
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 18
Intervals An interval is a term used in music to describe the relationship between two notes. These can be shown as:
Number of Semitones
Diatonic Interval
Short
Example
0
Perfect Unison
P1
C
1
minor Second
m2
C♯/ D♭
2
Major Second
M2
D
3
minor Third
m3
D♯/ E♭
4
Major Third
M3
E
5
Perfect Fourth
P4
F
6
Diminished Fifth/ Augmented Fourth
d5/A4
F♯/ G♭
7
Perfect Fifth
P5
G
8
minor Sixth
m6
G♯/ A♭
9
Major Sixth
M6
A
10
minor Seventh
m7
A♯/ B♭
11
Major Seventh
M7
B
12
Perfect Octave
P8
C
A semitone is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). Therefore: - a note of E would be the Major Third in the key of C. - a note of G would be the Perfect Fifth in the key of C. - a note of G♯/ A♭ would be the Minor Sixth in the key of C.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 19
Scales Music can be separated into families. Within a key - some notes sound harmonious together and some sound dissonant. Understanding how notes relate to each other is crucial to writing music. Notes that belong together within a key are called scales. From these scales, chords are constructed.
Major Scales
Above is the C Major scale. The C Major scale uses all the white notes on a piano (no sharps or flats - black notes) This can be calculated using the following interval sequence (where a tone is equal to two semitones and a semitone is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from G to G♯): TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So starting on the note C. A tone up from C is D, a tone up from D is E, a semitone up from E is F. Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a major scale in any key: C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
There are 8 notes in every major scale. These have different names in accordance to their relativity to their position within the scale: 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Tonic C
Supertonic D
Mediant E
- Tonic / Keynote - Supertonic - Mediant - Subdominant - Dominant - Submediant - Leading Tone - Tonic/ Octave
Subdominant F
Dominant G
Submediant A
Leading Tone B
Octave C
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 20
Minor Scales Minor keys are sometimes said to have a more interesting, possibly sadder sound than plain major scales. It’s possible to play in a minor key by playing the relative major key but starting 3 semitones down. For example: An A natural minor scale can be played by playing the C Major scale but starting on A (refer to Aeolian Mode).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
A
Melodic Minor Scales A melodic minor is essentially a major scale with the third flattened.
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a melodic minor scale in any key:
C
D
E♭
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Harmonic Minor Scales A harmonic minor is the darkest sounding a minor scale with the third and the sixth flattened.
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
3 SEMI TONES
SEMI TONE
Using the interval sequence it’s easy to calculate the notes of a melodic minor scale in any key:
C
D
E♭
F
G
G♯
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C E♭
D♯ F♯
E G
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 21
Chord Construction In addition to playing the standard triads, the chords can be inverted. The C Major chord can be played as: C E G
E G C
G C E
1st 3rd 5th
3rd 5th 1st
5th 1st 3rd
By looking at the notes in the major scale, chord families can be discovered. Playing the 1st, 3rd and 5th gives a C Major chord. Playing the 2nd, 4th, and 6th gives a D Minor chord. Therefore C Major and D Minor both contain notes from the C Major scale and can be classed in the same chord family. Using the major scale, it’s easy to understand the different chords used in that key:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 24
Chord Construction In addition to playing the standard triads, the chords can be inverted. The C Major chord can be played as: C E G
E G C
G C E
1st 3rd 5th
3rd 5th 1st
5th 1st 3rd
By looking at the notes in the major scale, chord families can be discovered. Playing the 1st, 3rd and 5th gives a C Major chord. Playing the 2nd, 4th, and 6th gives a D Minor chord. Therefore C Major and D Minor both contain notes from the C Major scale and can be classed in the same chord family. Using the major scale, it’s easy to understand the different chords used in that key:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 24
Seventh Chords The seventh note in a scale is imperative in jazz, blues and funk music (in addition to many other forms). Jazz typically uses the natural seventh (the major seventh). Blues and funk tend to flatten the seventh (the minor seventh - or dominant seventh).
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
Major Seventh (maj7, Δ7, Δ7, Δ7) Minor Seventh (m7,min7, −7, −7)
Root Root
Major minor
Perfect Perfect
Major minor
minor Major Seventh (m maj7) Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
Root Root
minor Major
Perfect Perfect
Major minor
C, E, G, B C, E♭, G, B ♭ C, E♭, G, B C, E, G, B♭
Diminished Seventh (o7, dim7)
Root
minor
diminished
diminished
Half-Diminished Seventh (ø7)
Root
minor
diminished
minor
Augmented Seventh (aug7)
Root
Major
Augmented
minor
Augmented Major Seventh (M7♯ 5)
Root
Major
Augmented
Major
C, E♭, G♭, B♭♭ C, E♭, G♭, B♭ C, E, G♯, B ♭ C, E, G♯, B
Adding the seventh note only causes the chord to become a seventh chord. For it to become a minor or diminished seventh, the third (mediant) HAS to be flatted. In order for a seventh chord to be a major of augmented, the third (mediant) HAS to remain natural.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 25
Extended Chords Jazz relies heavily on extended chords. The basis of all jazz extended chords are seventh chords - whether major, minor or dominant, with the added notes on top.
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Major Seventh (maj7, Δ7, Δ 7, Δ7 )
Root
Major
Perfect
Major
9th
11th
13th
Major Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Major
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
minor Seventh (m7,min7, −7, −7)
Root
minor
Perfect
minor
C, E♭, G, B♭
9th
11th
13th
Major Ninth (maj9, Δ79) Major Eleventh (maj11, Δ11) Major Thirteenth (maj13, Δ13)
Major
minor Eleventh (min11, −11) minor Thirteenth (min13, −13)
Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Major
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Root
Major
Perfect
minor
9th
11th
13th
Major Major Major
Perfect Perfect
Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
Dominant Ninth (9) Dominant Eleventh (11) Dominant Thirteenth (13)
C, E, G, B
C, E, G, B, D C, G, B, D, F C, G, B, D, A
minor Ninth (min9, −9)
CHORD NAME
EXAMPLE
C, E♭, G, B♭, D C, G, B♭, D, F C, G, B♭, D, A EXAMPLE C, E, G, B♭
C, E, G, B♭, D C, G, B♭, D, F C, G, B♭, D, A
Major
Just like the major scale, chords can be constructed to see which chords fit within the key. This is constructed around the 13th chord quality:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
Maj13
min13
m7♭13
7ø♭9♭13
minor second
maj13♯ 11 Major Fourth
13
Major Unison
m7♭9♭ 13 minor third
Major Fifth
minor sixth
diminished seventh
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 26
Altered Chords Although the third and seventh of the chord are always determined by the symbols shown above, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may all be chromatically altered by accidentals). The augmented ninth is often referred to in blues and jazz as a blue note, being enharmonically equivalent to the flat third or tenth. This chord is more colloquially known as “The Jimi Hendrix Chord” due to his prolific use of it.
CHORD NAME Dominant Seventh (7, 7, dom7)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
Root
Major
Perfect
minor
9th
11th
13th
EXAMPLE C, E, G, B♭
C, G, B♭, D♭, C, G, B♭, D♯, C, G, B, D, F♯ C, G, B♭, D, A ♭
Seventh Flat Nine (7♭9) Seventh Sharp Nine (7♯9) Seventh Aug. Eleventh (7♯11) Seventh Flat Thirteenth (7♭13)
minor Augmented -
Augmented -
minor
CHORD NAME
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
SEVENTH
EXAMPLE
Seventh Augmented Fifth (7+5)
Root
Major
Augmented
Dominant
C, E, G♯, B♭
Half-diminished Seventh (ø, m7♭5)
Root
Major
diminished
minor
C, E, G♭, B♭
Added Tone Chords An added tone chord is a triad chord with an added, non-tertian note, such as the commonly added sixth as well as chords with an added second (ninth) or fourth (eleventh) or a combination of the three.
CHORD NAME Add Nine (add9) Major Fourth (4, add11) Major Sixth (6) minor Sixth (min6, m6) Six-Nine (6/9)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
ADDED
Root Root Root Root Root
Major Major Major Minor Major
Perfect Perfect Perfect Perfect Perfect
Major 9th Major 4th Major 6th minor 6th Major 6th/9th
EXAMPLE C, E, G, D C, F, G, C C, E, G, A C, E♭, G, A C, G, A, D
Personally I would rather use add9 as opposed to sus2 to describe a chord where the third (mediant) is present and the added note lies above the triad. I would opt to use sus2 when the third (mediant) has been substituted for the suspended second (supertonic).
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 27
Suspended Chords A suspended chord, or "sus chord" (sometimes wrongly thought to mean sustained chord), is a chord in which the third is replaced by either the "second" or the "fourth." This results in two main chord types: the suspended second (sus2) and the suspended fourth (sus4). The chords, Csus2 and Csus4, for example, consist of the notes C D G and C F G, respectively. There is also a third type of suspended chord, in which both the second and fourth are present, for example the chord with the notes C, D, F, G.
CHORD NAME Suspended Second (sus2) Suspended Fourth (sus4)
FIRST
THIRD
FIFTH
ADDED
Root Root
-
Perfect Perfect
Major 2nd Major 4th
EXAMPLE C, D, G, C C, F, G, C
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 28
Modes There are seven different modes in music - one for each white note. These are: • • • • • • •
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
The modes were typically used in chant music (Gregorian Chant). Each of the different modes creates a different feel. Various interpretations of the "character" imparted by the different modes have been suggested. Note that the names and mode numbers have been modernized.
Name Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
Mode I II III IV V VI VII
Perfect Serious Sad Mystic Harmonious Happy Devout
Description Of Knowledge Any Feeling Serious Vehement Tender Happy Pious
Very Happy Happy Tearful Inciting Anger Delightful Happy Tearful
Example Ad cenam agni providi Veni sancte spiritus Jesu dulcis amor meus Kyrie, fons bonitatis Conditor alme siderum Salve Regina Ubi caritas
It’s easier to understand modes by applying interval sequences. To show examples, only the white keys will be used:
Name Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
Mode I II III IV V VI VII
Key C D E F G A B
So for example: A C Major scale that begins on E and ends on E an octave higher is E Phrygian mode. A C Major scale that begins on G and ends of G an octave higher is G Mixolydian mode.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 29
Ionian Mode (I) The Ionian mode is the basic major scale. It follows the following interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So for example; the Ionian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
C
Tonic
P1
D
Major Second
M2
E
Major Third
M3
F
Perfect Fourth
P4
G
Perfect Fifth
P5
A
Major Sixth
M6
B
Major Seventh
M7
C
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
C C Major 7 (Cmaj7) G G7
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 30
Dorian Mode (II) The Dorian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
So for example; the Dorian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E♭
F
G
A
B♭
C
E G
F♯ A
G B♭
A C
B D
C♯ E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
D
Tonic
P1
E
Major Second
M2
F
minor Third
m3
G
Perfect Fourth
P4
A
Perfect Fifth
P5
B
Major Sixth
M6
C
minor Seventh
m7
D
Upper Octave
P8
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 31
Phrygian Mode (III) The Phrygian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Phrygian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D♭
E♭
F
G
A♭
B♭
C
E G
F A♭
G B♭
A C
B D
C E♭
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
E
Tonic
P1
F
minor Second
m2
G
minor Third
m3
A
Perfect Fourth
P4
B
Perfect Fifth
P5
C
minor Sixth
m6
D
minor Seventh
m7
E
Upper Octave
P8
The modern minor scale has a minor third, sixth, and seventh. The minor second in addition here makes the scale Phrygian, not Aeolian (natural minor)
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
E minor (Em) E minor 7 (Em7) B diminished (B°) B half-diminished (Bm7♭5/ Bø)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 32
Lydian Mode (IV) The Lydian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
So for example; the Lydian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F♯
G
A
B
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A♯ C♯
B D
C♯ E
D♯ F♯
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
F
Tonic
P1
G
Major Second
M2
A
Major Third
M3
B
Augmented Fourth
A4
C
Perfect Fifth
P5
D
Major Sixth
M6
E
Major Seventh
M7
F
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
F F Major 7 (FMaj7) C C Major 7 (CMaj7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 33
Mixolydian Mode (V) The Mixolydian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
So for example; the Mixolydian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D
E
F
G
A
B♭
C
E G
F♯ A
G♯ B
A C
B D
C♯ E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
G
Tonic
P1
A
Major Second
M2
B
Major Third
M3
C
Perfect Fourth
P4
D
Perfect Fifth
P5
E
Major Sixth
M6
F
minor Seventh
m7
G
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
G G7 D minor (Dm) D minor 7 (Dmin7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 34
Aeolian Mode (VI) The Aeolian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Aeolian scale for the following keys would be:
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 35
Locrian Mode (VII) The Locrian mode can be calculated using the interval sequence:
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
SEMI TONE
TONE
TONE
TONE
So for example; the Locrian scale for the following keys would be:
C
D♭
E♭
F
G♭
A♭
B♭
C
E G
F A♭
G B
A C
B♭ D♭
C E
D F
E G
Note
Relation To Key
Short
B
Tonic
P1
C
minor Second
m2
D
minor Third
m3
E
Perfect Fourth
P4
F
diminished Fifth
d5
G
minor Sixth
m6
A
minor Seventh
m7
B
Upper Octave
P8
Tonic Triad Tonic Seventh Chord Dominant Triad Dominant Seventh Chord
B diminished (B°) B half-diminished (Bm7♭5/ Bø) F F Major 7 (FMaj7)
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 36
ing Modes How to the interval sequence (Tone is represented as T, Semitone as s):
Name
Mode
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
I II III IV V VI VII
Interval Sequence T T s T T T s
T s T T T s T
s T T T s T T
T T T s T T s
T T s T T s T
T s T T s T T
s T T s T T T
These are the accidentals within the scale (in accordance to the major scale of that key):
Name
Mode
Ionian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian
I II III IV V VI VII
Accidentals Flattened Flattened Augmented Flattened Flattened Flattened
3rd & 7th 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th 4th 7th 3rd, 6th, 7th 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th
The modes can be arranged in the following sequence, which follows the circle of fifths. In this sequence, each mode has one more lowered interval above the tonic than the one preceding it. Thus taking Lydian as reference, Ionian (major) has a lowered fourth; Mixolydian, a lowered fourth and seventh; Dorian, a lowered fourth, seventh, and third; Aeolian (Natural Minor), a lowered fourth, seventh, third, and sixth; Phrygian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, and second; and Locrian, a lowered fourth, seventh, third, sixth, second, and fifth. Put another way, the augmented fourth of the Lydian scale has been reduced to a perfect fourth in Ionian, the major seventh in Ionian, to a minor seventh in Mixolydian, etc.
The first three modes are sometimes called major, the next three minor, and the last one diminished (Locrian), according to the quality of their tonic triads.
MUSIC THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION 37
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