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From Phones to Phonemes
43
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44
Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology
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Phonemes of English
45
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honemes of English 5IFEJBMFDUTPG&OHMJTIWBSZTPNFXIBUXJUISFTQFDUUPWPXFMT FWFOXJUIJO UIF6OJUFE4UBUFT5IFSFQFSUPSZPGWPXFMQIPOFNFTJO5BCMFJTSFQSF TFOUBUJWFPGBHSFBUNBOZTQFBLFSTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI UIPVHIOPUBMM5IF MJTUJTTVQQMFNFOUFECZUISFFEJQIUIPOHT 5IFMJTUPGDPOTPOBOUQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIJTTIPXOJO5BCMF XIFOFWFSQPTTJCMF UIFPDDVSSFODFPGFBDIQIPOFNFJTFYFNQMJGJFEGPS UIFXPSEJOJUJBM XPSENFEJBM BOEXPSEGJOBMQPTJUJPOT )PXEPFTUIFQIPOFNJDTZTUFNPG&OHMJTIDPNQBSFXJUIUIFTZTUFNTPG PUIFSMBOHVBHFT *OUIFOVNCFSPGTFHNFOUT JUCFMPOHTUPUIFNJEEMFSBOHF BMPOHXJUIUIFMBSHFNBKPSJUZPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT"DDPSEJOHUPBTVSWFZ CBTFEPOUIFQIPOFNJDJOWFOUPSJFTPGBTBNQMFPGMBOHVBHFT .BEEJFTPO
TPNFMBOHVBHFTDPOUBJOOPNPSFUIBOBEP[FOTFHNFOUBMQIPOFNFT GPSUIFNPTUQBSUUIFZBSFNFNCFSTPGUIF*OEP1BDJGJDBOE"VTUSPOFTJBO MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFT
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UIBUPGWPXFMTDMPTFUPOJOF *ONPTUMBOHVBHFT UIFUPUBMOVNCFSPG DPOTPOBOUTJTNPSFUIBOUXJDFBTMBSHFBTUIFOVNCFSPGWPXFMT5IFNPTU DPNNPO DPOTPOBOUBM TVCTZTUFN JODMVEFT GSPN GJWF UP FMFWFO QMPTJWFT TUPQT
JODMVEJOHBGGSJDBUFTPOFUPGPVSGSJDBUJWFTUXPUPGPVSOBTBMTBOE GPVSDPOTPOBOUTPGPUIFSUZQFT5IFNPTUDPNNPOWPXFMTBSFUIPTFDMBTTJ GJFEBTIJHIGSPOUVOSPVOEFE IJHICBDLSPVOEFE NJEGSPOUVOSPVOEFE NJE
46 TA B L E 3 . 4 Typical Vowel Phonemes in American English
Phonemic Symbol
Example
Single vowels /i/ /i/ /e/ /ε/ /æ/ // (unstressed = /©/) /a/ /u/ /u/ /o/ /ɔ/ Diphthongs /ai/ /au/ /ɔi/
bead bid bade (rhyming with made) bed bad bud body boot book bode bought bite bout boy
TA B L E 3 . 5 Consonant Phonemes in American English
Phonemic Symbol /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /O/ /jˇ/ /f/ /v/ /θ/ /ð/ /s/ /z/ /sˇ/ /•/ /h/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /r/ /w/ /y/
Examples pit, supper, rip bit, fiber, rib tip, meaty, kit dip, odor, kid cap, locker, pick gap, soggy, pig chin, itchy, rich gin, pudgy, ridge fat, gopher, belief vat, ivy, believe thin, ether, breath then, either, breathe seal, icy, hiss zeal, cozy, his show, potion, rush —, leisure, rouge hasp, ahoy, — moon, simmer, loom noon, sinner, loon —, singer, king limb, miller, reel rim, mirror, rear wet, lower, — yet, layer, —
Prosodic Features
47
CBDL SPVOEFE BOE MPX DFOUSBM VOSPVOEFE 5IF JOWFOUPSZ PG TFHNFOUBM QIPOFNFTJO&OHMJTIBQQFBSTUPCFNVDIMJLFUIFTZTUFNTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPG UIFCVMLPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT5IJTJTOPUUPTBZ IPXFWFS UIBU&OHMJTIJT BUZQJDBMMBOHVBHF"MUIPVHIBMMOBUVSBMMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFFEEJTUJODUWBSJB UJPOTPOBDPNNPOUIFNFIVNBOMBOHVBHFFBDIIBTJUTPXOQFDVMJBSGFB UVSFTPGTUSVDUVSFUIBUNBLFJUVOJRVF Prosodic Features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i8JMMZPVQFSNJUNFUPVTFZPVS QFSNJU wUIFXPSEQFSNJU GVODUJPOJOHBTBWFSCJTTUSFTTFEEJGGFSFOUMZGSPN QFSNJU VTFEBTBOPVO4PNFMJOHVJTUTDMBJNUIBUUPEFTDSJCF&OHMJTIBEF RVBUFMZ BTNBOZBTGPVSEFHSFFTPGTUSFTTBSFOFFEFE SBOHJOHGSPNQSJNBSZ UPXFBL
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
48
Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology
TA B L E 3 . 6
Syllable
The Four Distinctive Tones of Mandarin Chinese
Tone Number
Description
Tone Letter
Pitch Pinyin Contour Transcription
Meaning
ma
1
high and level
5–5
mother
ma
2
rising
3–5
hemp
ma
3
falling, then rising
2–1–4
horse
ma
4
high falling
5–1
to scold
The tone letter provides a simplified time-pitch graph of each syllable under normal stress. The time-pitch graph is drawn from left to right, with the vertical line serving as a reference scale for pitch range. Similarly, the pitch contour represents pitches by numbers from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest.
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Etics and Emics
49
Etics and Emics -FUVTGJSTUCSJFGMZSFWJFXUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOQIPOFUJDTBOEQIPOFNJDT "QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO PSEFTDSJQUJPO PGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFJTBOBU UFNQUUPBDDPVOUGPSBMMUIFBVEJCMFPSQFSDFJWBCMFEJGGFSFODFTBNPOHUIF TPVOETPGUIBUMBOHVBHF'PSFYBNQMF UIFQIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPG&OHMJTI XPSETXPVMESFHJTUFSUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFQ TPVOETPGQJLF BOETQJLF UIFGJSTUJTBTQJSBUFEXIFSFBTUIFTFDPOE JTOPU PSCFUXFFOUIF JOJUJBMDPOTPOBOUTPGTIPPU BOETIFFU UIDPOWFOUJPOBMMZXSJUUFOBTTI UIF GJSTU <Ý> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTSPVOEFEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPGBSPVOEFE WPXFMUIFTFDPOE <Ý> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTTQSFBEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPG BOVOSPVOEFEWPXFM #ZDPOUSBTU UIFQIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPGUIFTFGPVS TPVOETJOUIFUXPQBJSTPGXPSETXPVMECFTJNQMZQBOETCFDBVTFJO&OH MJTIOFJUIFSBOE OPS<Ý>BOE<Ý>EJTUJOHVJTINFBOJOHJOUIFXBZO BOEŋ EP GPSFYBNQMF JOTJO BOETJOH XPSETHJWFOEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHCZ WJSUVFPGOWFSTVTŋ 5IFUFSNTFUJD BOEFNJD BOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOH OPVOTFUJDT BOEFNJDT XFSFEFSJWFEGSPNQIPOFUJD T BOEQIPOFNJD T BOE DPJOFECZUIFMJOHVJTU,FOOFUI-1JLF o JOBXPSLJOXIJDIIFBU UFNQUFEUPSFMBUFUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFUPBVOJGJFEUIFPSZPGUIFTUSVDUVSFPG IVNBOCFIBWJPS "DDPSEJOHUP1JLF
UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMJNQPS UBOUEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOUIFFUJDBOEFNJDBQQSPBDIFTUPMBOHVBHFBOEDVM UVSF'PSFYBNQMF TPDJBMTDJFOUJTUTXIPTUVEZCFIBWJPS JODMVEJOHMBOHVBHF
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Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology
F I G U R E 3 . 2 Deetz’s “Facteme” and “Allofacts” Illustrated
on Arrowheads
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Etics and Emics
51
'PSFYBNQMF GPMLOBSSBUJWFTGSPNBMMQBSUTPGUIFXPSMEDPOUBJOBNPUJGFNF UIBUDPVMECFEFTDSJCFEBTiUIFIFSPJTTVCKFDUFEUPBEJGGJDVMUPSEBOHFSPVT UFTUw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o
XBTUIFGPSFNPTUQSPQPOFOU iFUJDBOBMZTJTis BTUFQQJOHTUPOe . .UP UIFEJTDPWFSZPGFUJDTUSVDUVSFT5IFJOUFOUJTOFJUIFSUPDPOWFSUFUJDTUPFNJDT OPSFNJDTUPFUJDT CVUSBUIFSUPEFTDSJCFUIBOEJGQPTTJCMFUPFYQMBJOPOF JOUFSNTPGUIFPUIFSw )BSSJT "OEGVSUIFS iFUJDT GPS1JLF FWFOBU UIFQIPOFUJDMFWFM JTJOQBSUUIFPCTFSWFSTFNJDTJODPSSFDUMZBQQMJFEUPBGPS FJHOTZTUem. . . *G1JLFIBENFBOUCZFUJDTOPUIJOHCVUUIFFNJDTPGUIFPC TFSWFS XIZEJEIFUIFSUPJOUSPEVDFUIFUFSNFUJDT 8IZOPUTJNQMZCF DPOUFOUXJUIUIFPQQPTJUJPOAFNJDTPGUIFPCTFSWFSWFSTVTAFNJDTPGUIFOB UJWFQBSUJDJQBOU w )BSSJT "HPPEBOUISPQPMPHJDBMSFQPSU BDDPSE JOH UP )BSSJT TIPVME EJTUJOHVJTI CFUXFFO PO UIF POF IBOE XIBU UIF PCTFSWFSIBTTFFOBOEIFBSEUPUIFCFTUPGIJTPSIFSPCKFDUJWFBCJMJUZ BOE XIJDIDBOUIFSFGPSFCFJOEFQFOEFOUMZWFSJGJFE BOE POUIFPUIFSIBOE XIBU JTJOUIFIFBETPGUIFOBUJWFJOGPSNBOUTXIFOUIFZDPNNFOUPOUIFJSPXO DVMUVSF&UJDBOBMZTJTJTUIFSFGPSFUPCFDPOTJEFSFEBOFOEJOJUTFMG 5IFGJOFSQPJOUTPGUIFFUJDTFNJDTEFCBUFBSFRVJUFUFDIOJDBMBOEUIFSFGPSF PVUTJEF UIF TDPQF PG BO JOUSPEVDUJPO UP MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ 0O UIF
52
Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology
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UIBUJT QIPOFNJD GPSFYBNQMFBOE JO&OHMJTI EJGGFSFOUJBUJOHCFUXFFOCVMM BOEQVMM
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
4 Structure of Words and Sentences
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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Morphemes and Allomorphs
55
MZ BOBEWFSCJBMTFHNFOUNFBOJOHiJOa . . NBOOFS w EJT NFBOJOHiOPU PQQPTJUFPG w HSBDF NFBOJOHiQSPQSJFUZ EFDFODZ w GVM NFBOJOHiDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZ w BDU NFBOJOHiEFFE wBOE T NFBOJOHiNPSFUIBOPOF w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}>NBSLTTUSFTTFEWPXFMT XJUIIJHIFSQJUDIMPOHWPXFMTBSFXSJUUFOEPVCMZ &YBNQMFTPGEFQFOE FOU OPVOT BSF CÏUFF A TPNFPOFT IFBSU XPOPUØOPʔ A TPNFPOFT FBS OPUØØOF ANZEBVHIUFS CÏÓUFIʔ ÏÓ A TPNFPOFT GSJFOE BOECFUÏÓ AMPVTF GMFB CFDBVTFUIFSFJTOPTVDIUIJOHBTBIFBSUPSBOFBSBQBSUGSPNBIVNBOPS BOBOJNBM BEBVHIUFSXJUIPVUBNPUIFSPSGBUIFS BGSJFOEVOBUUBDIFEUP BOPUIFSCZBGGFDUJPO PSBMPVTFPSGMFBUIBUDPVMETVSWJWFXJUIPVUEFSJWJOH
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
CFOFGJUTGSPNBIPTU5IFGPSNTCÏUFF XPOPUØOPʔ OPUØØOF CÏÓUFIʔ ÏÓ BOE CFUÏÓ DPOTJTUPGFJUIFSUIFGJSTUQFSTPOQPTTFTTJWFNPSQIFNFOJOOPUØØ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ÈOØʔ AXPNBO LØOÓʔ AHSBOEDIJME TFXÓʔ ANBHQJF BOETFWFSBMPUIFSTUFNTGPSNUIFQMVSBMCZJOTFSUJOHBOJOGJYJOUIF GPSNPG BWPJDFMFTTMBUFSBMDPOUJOVBOU CFGPSFUIFTFDPOEDPOTPOBOU ZJFMEJOHaká n’óʔ ‘women,’ kó n’íʔ ‘grandchildren,’ and se wíʔ ‘magpies *OGJYBUJPO JT GBJSMZ DPNNPO JO /BUJWF "NFSJDBO 4PVUIFBTU "TJBO BOE "GSJDBOMBOHVBHFT 8IBUBVUTVDIiJSSFHVMBSwQMVSBMTJO&OHMJTIBTGFFU HFFTF NFO BOE NJDF 3BUIFS UIBO CZ BEEJOH B TVGGJY UP UIF TUFNT GPPU HPPTF NBO BOE NPVTF UIFQMVSBMJTGPSNFECZDIBOHJOHUIFTUFNWPXFMGPSFYBNQMF JO GPPU m GFFU BOEHPPTF m HFFTFCZGSPOUJOHBOEVOSPVOEJOHJU TFF#PY 1MVSBMJ[BUJPOJOTVDIXPSETJTFGGFDUFECZXIBUJTTPNFUJNFTSFGFSSFEUPBTB QSPDFTTNPSQIFNFBOEJTRVJUFEJGGFSFOUGSPNUIFBEEJUJPOPGBTVGGJYBGUFS UIFTUFN BTJODBU QMVTT "QBSUJDVMBSNPSQIFNFEPFTOPUIBWFUPIBWFUIFTBNFTIBQFFWFSZUJNF JUPDDVST5IFQMVSBMPG&OHMJTIOPVOTPGGFSTBOFYDFMMFOUFYBNQMFPGUIFDPO TJEFSBCMFWBSJBUJPOJOUIFQIPOFNJDTIBQFPGBNPSQIFNF/PVOTUFNTFOE JOHJOBTPDBMMFETJCJMBOU BOTMJLFPSTIMJLFGSJDBUJWF GPSNUIFJSQMVSBMCZ BEEJOHBWPXFMQMVTB[ TPVOE WFSZDPNNPOMZ<ə[> BTJOYFT QBTTFT CV[[FT CVTIFT HBSBHFT QBUDIFT BOEKVEHFT5IFHSFBUNBKPSJUZPGOPVO TUFNTFOEJOHJOWPJDFEOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFE<[> XIFSFBTUIPTF FOEJOHJOWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFMFTTBTJOCFBST DBOT DPNNBT MBUIFT QBET QJMMT SJCT SJHT BOETPOHT POUIFPOFIBOE BOE DBUT MBVHIT MJQT BOEUJDLT POUIFPUIFS#VUBOVNCFSPGOPVOTUFNTGPSN
Morphemes and Allomorphs
57
B OX 4 . 1 W H Y E N G L I S H I S S O H A R D
Compared to other Indo-European languages, English has few grammatical affixes. But as in all natural languages, there are some “irregular” forms, as this anonymous poem points out. All the italicized words were used in English before the twelfth century except vow and booth (thirteenth century), boot (fourteenth century), and moose (earliest recorded date of use is 1603). They are old words, not likely to become regularized. We’ll begin with a box, and the plural is boxes, But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes. Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese, Yet the plural of moose should never be meese. You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice, But the plural of house is houses, not hice. If the plural of man is always called men, Why shouldn’t the plural of pan be called pen? The cow in the plural may be cows or kine, But the plural of vow is vows, not vine. And I speak of a foot, and you show me your feet, But I give you a boot—would a pair be called beet? If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth, Why shouldn’t the plural of booth be called beeth? Then one may be that, and three may be those, Yet the plural of hat would never be hose. We speak of a brother and also of brethren, But though we say mother, we never say methren. So our English, I think you will agree, Is the trickiest language you ever did see.
UIFQMVSBMEJGGFSFOUMZBNPOHUIFNBMVNOB BMVNOVT DIJME DSJTJT DSJUFSJPO EBUVN LJCCVU[ BOEPYUIFJSQMVSBMTBSF SFTQFDUJWFMZ BMVNOBF BMVNOJ DIJM ESFO DSJTFT DSJUFSJB EBUB LJCCVU[JN BOEPYFO "OEUIFOUIFSFBSFBSFMBUJWFMZ GFXOPVOTUFNTUIFQMVSBMTPGXIJDIBSFOPUPWFSUMZNBSLFE GPSFYBNQMF TIFFQ BOETXJOF 5IFTFBOEPUIFSTVDIOPVOTBSFTBJEUPIBWFUIFJSQMVSBMT
58
Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
NBSLFECZB[FSP XSJUUFOBT
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PS NPSQIFNFBMUFSOBUT"MMPNPSQITPGBHJWFONPSQIFNF UIFO BSFEJGGFSFOU GPSNTPGUIFNPSQIFNF EFQFOEJOHPOUIFDPOUFYUJOXIJDIUIFZPDDVS *OTVNNBSZ UIFO POFNBZTBZUIBUUIFQMVSBMNPSQIFNFJO&OHMJTIIBT BOVNCFSPGBMMPNPSQIT SBOHJOHGSPNUIFNPTUDPNNPOPOFTPG[ T BOEə[ UISPVHITFWFSBMPUIFSTBTTPDJBUFEFTQFDJBMMZXJUIMPBOXPSET UP [FSP"OEJOUIFDBTFPGQMVSBMJ[JOHUIFOPVONBO UPNFO POFXPVMESFQSF TFOUUIFQMVSBMBMMPNPSQIBTmε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orphological Processes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
Morphological Processes
59
FST *O&OHMJTIBMMJOGMFDUJPOBMBGGJYFTBSFTVGGJYFTBOEBSFMJNJUFEUPUIFQMVSBM BOEQPTTFTTJWFNBSLFSTJOOPVOT BTJONPUIFST BOENPUIFST
DPNQBSBUJWF BOETVQFSMBUJWFNBSLFSTJOBEKFDUJWFT BTJOUBMMFS BOEUBMMFTU
BOEUIFUIJSE QFSTPOTJOHVMBSQSFTFOUUFOTFNBSLFSBOEUIFQBTUUFOTF QSPHSFTTJWF BOEQBTU QBSUJDJQMFNBSLFSTJOWFSCT BTJOXBJUT XBJUFE <JT>TJOHJOH BOECFBUFO %FSJWBUJPOBMBOEJOGMFDUJPOBMNPSQIFNFTNBZIBWFUIFTBNFQIPOFNJD TIBQF0OFJOH JO&OHMJTITFSWFTBTUIFEFSJWBUJPOBMTVGGJYDIBOHJOHBWFSC JOUPBOPVOBTJOi&YDFTTJWFFBUJOHJTIBSNGVM wXIFSFBTBOPUIFSJOH JTBO JOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYNBSLJOHUIFQSPHSFTTJWFWFSCGPSNBTJOi5IFZXFSFFBU JOHWPSBDJPVTMZw*O&OHMJTIJOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYFTBMXBZTGPMMPXEFSJWBUJPOBM TVGGJYFT BTJOSFBEFST PSHBOJ[FST BOEGSJFOEMJFTU SFBEFST PSHBOJ[ F FST BOEGSJFOEMJFTU "T MBOHVBHFT HP &OHMJTI IBT WFSZ GFX JOGMFDUJPOBM BGGJYFT DPNQBSFE XJUI GPSFYBNQMF -BUJO"TBHBJOTUUIFIBOEGVMPGEJGGFSFOUGPSNTPGBO &OHMJTIWFSC TQFBL TQFBLT TQFBLJOH TQPLF BOETQPLFO
B-BUJOWFSCIBT TDPSFT3FHBSEJOHOVNCFS &OHMJTIEJTUJOHVJTIFTGPSNBMMZPOMZCFUXFFO UIFTJOHVMBSBOEUIFQMVSBM XIFSFBTTPNFMBOHVBHFTIBWFTQFDJBMGPSNT BMTPGPSUIFEVBMUPSFGFSUPUXPPGBLJOE BOEFWFOGPSNTUPSFGFSUPUISFF BOEGPVSPGBLJOE0ME&OHMJTINBSLFEUIFEVBMOVNCFSJOJUTQFSTPOBM QSPOPVOT#FTJEFTJD A*BOEX [ AXF UIFSFXBTXJU AXFUXPCFTJEFTN[ A UP
NFBOEõT A UP VT UIFSFXBTVOD A UP UIFUXPPGVTBOETPPO5IFTF EVBMGPSNTHSBEVBMMZEJTBQQFBSFEEVSJOHUIFTFDPOEQBSUPGUIFUIJSUFFOUI DFOUVSZ IBMGXBZUISPVHIUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE)PXFWFS EFSJWBUJPOBM TVGGJYFTJO&OHMJTIBSFQMFOUJGVMBCMF BTJOSFBTPOBCMF
BEF CMPDLBEF
BHF CSFBLBHF
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BODF BTTJTUBODF
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BSE ESVOLBSE
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BUJD QSPCMFNBUJD
BOE TDPSFTPGPUIFST 4PNFMBOHVBHFTEJTUJOHVJTIOPVOTBDDPSEJOHUPTFWFSBMHFOEFST FBDIPG XIJDINBZSFRVJSFDPSSFTQPOEJOHGPSNTJOQSPOPVOT BEKFDUJWFT BOEFWFO WFSCT'SFRVFOUMZUIFSFJTOPDPSSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOHSBNNBUJDBMBOEOBUVSBM HFOEFS*O&OHMJTIBMMJOBOJNBUFPCKFDUTBSFSFGFSSFEUPCZUIFQSPOPVOJU JO (FSNBO IPXFWFS EFS-ÚGGFM ATQPPOJTNBTDVMJOF EJF(BCFM AGPSLJTGFNJ OJOF BOEEBT.FTTFS ALOJGFJTOFVUFS BTBSFBMTPEBT8FJC AXPNBOBOEEBT .ÊEDIFO AHJSM*O0ME&OHMJTI TUGO ATUPOFBOEXkGNBO AXPNBOXFSFNBT DVMJOF EVSV AEPPS BOE TVOOF ATVO GFNJOJOF BOE XPSE AXPSE BOE XkG AXPNBO XJGFOFVUFS5IFTVCTUJUVUJPOPGOBUVSBMGPSHSBNNBUJDBMHFOEFS BMTPUPPLQMBDFEVSJOHUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE
60
Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
"OPUIFSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZUIBUNBZTFSWFBTBOFYBNQMFJTDBTF "M UIPVHI0ME&OHMJTIIBEUISFFDBTFGPSNTGPS TBZ TUGO ATUPOFJOUIFTJOHVMBS OPNJOBUJWFBOEBDDVTBUJWFTUGO HFOJUJWFTUGOFT BOEEBUJWFTUGOF BOEUISFF JOUIFQMVSBM TUGOBT TUGOB BOETUGOVN SFTQFDUJWFMZ
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
NFBOJOHABU OFBS BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPMMB ABUUIFIPVTF FMBUJWF NFBOJOHAPVUPG BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPTUB AGSPN JOTJEF UIFIPVTF JOFTTJWFAJO XJUIJO BQMBDF
BTJOUBMPTTB AJOUIFIPVTF JMMBUJWFAJOUP BQMBDF
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BTJOUBMPMMF AUP XBSET UIFIPVTF BOETFWFSBM PUIFST "TQFDU JTBHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZFYQSFTTJOHIPXBDUJWJUJFTEFOPUFECZ WFSCTBSFSFMBUFEUPUJNF5IJTDBUFHPSZJTQBSUJDVMBSMZXFMMEFWFMPQFEJO 4MBWJDMBOHVBHFT BTTPNFPGUIFGPMMPXJOHFYBNQMFTGSPN$[FDIXJMMTIPX $[FDIWFSCTBSFQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTDPNQMFUFPSDPODMVEFE BT JOUIFTVQQMFUJWFQÑJÝFM iIFIBTDPNF BSSJWFEwGSPNUIFJOGJOJUJWFQÑJKÓU PS JNQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTJODPNQMFUFPSSFQFBUFE BTJOÝFM AIFXFOU GSPNKÓU AUPHP5IFNVMUJQMJDJUZPGWFSCBMBDUJPOJTFYQSFTTFEJOUIFJUFSBUJWF GPSNOPTJM AIFDBSSJFEBOEUIFNPSFJOUFOTJWFGSFRVFOUBUJWFGPSNOPTÓWBM AIFVTFEUPDBSSZ"QBSUJDVMBSQIBTFPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFTQFDJGJFEBT BOJOJUJBUPSZPOF BTJOWZCZIM AIFSBOPVU BDPNQMFUFEPOF BTJOEPCZIM AIF SFBDIFE CZSVOOJOH BOEBUFSNJOBUJWFPOF BTJOQSPCZIM TF AIFIBE SVO5IFFYUFOUPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFNPNFOUBSZ BTJOTUÑFMJM AIFUPPL BTIPU PSEVSBUJWF FYQSFTTJWFDPOUJOVJUZ BTJOTUÑÓMFM AIFGJSFEBXBZPSUIF FYUFOUJTTNBMM BTJOVTNÈMTF AIFHBWFBTNJMF wPSMBSHF BTJOOBTNÈMTF AIF IBEBHPPEMBVHI "OJOUFSFTUJOHNPSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTJTSFEVQMJDBUJPO UIFEPVCMJOHPS SFQFUJUJPOPGBQIPOFNFPSQIPOFNFT*O*TUINVT/BIVBU BEJBMFDUPG/BIV BUMTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJOFBTUFSO.FYJDP WFSCTUFNTBSFEFSJWFE
Morphophonemics
61
CZSFEVQMJDBUJPOUPNBSLEJGGFSFOULJOETPGSFQFUJUJWFBDUJPOLBLBMBLJ AFOUFS BIPVTFNBOZUJNFTGSPNLBMBLJAFOUFSQBIQBOPAQBTTCZNBOZUJNFT GSPNQBOPAQBTTCZQPQPTUFLJACSFBLNBOZUJNFTPSACSFBLJOUPNBOZ QJFDFTGSPNQPTUFLJACSFBLQBQBLB AXBTINBOZUJNFTBOEQBIQBLB AXBTINBOZUIJOHTGSPNQBLBAXBTIBOEUIFMJLF5IFDPNQPVOEHPPEZ HPPEZ IFMUFSTLFMUFS UFFOZXFFOZ BOE XJTIZXBTIZ BSF SFEVQMJDBUJPOT PG TPSUT CVUUIFQSPDFTTJO&OHMJTIJTRVJUFMJNJUFE 0OFDPVMEHPPOJMMVTUSBUJOHWBSJPVTPUIFSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFTGPVOE JOUIFUIPVTBOETPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT BTQFDU NPPE UFOTF WPJDF BOE TPPO BOEUIFQSPDFTTFTCZXIJDIUIFZBSFNBSLFE CVUUIFFYBNQMFTBMSFBEZ HJWFOTIPVMETVGGJDF)PXFWFS POFJNQPSUBOUQPJOUNVTUCFNBEF8IFUIFS PSOPUBMBOHVBHFGPSNBMMZNBSLTBQBSUJDVMBSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZEPFTOPU NBLFJUTVQFSJPS PSJOGFSJPS UPPUIFST*GJUXFSFTP 0ME&OHMJTIXPVMEIBWF UPCFSBUFEBTNVDITVQFSJPSUP.PEFSO&OHMJTITPNFUIJOHOPPOFDBOTF SJPVTMZNBJOUBJO"MMMBOHVBHFTBSFGVMMZBEFRVBUFCFDBVTFUIFZFOBCMFOB UJWFTQFBLFSTUPFYQSFTTBMMUIBUUIFZXJTIUPTBZBVUUIFTPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSF JOXIJDIUIFZMJWF Morphophonemics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əCFGPSFUIFQMVSBMTVGGJYJGUIFTUFNFOETJOBTJCJMBOU T [ Ý ä O PS BTJOLJTT LJTTFT PSDIBOHFUIFWPJDFE[UPWPJDFMFTTTJGUIF TUFNUFSNJOBUFTJOBWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOU BTJOOFDL OFDLT
62
Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis
63
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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B OX 4 . 2 CO N T R A S T I N G T H E D E S C R I P T I V E A N D G E N E R AT I V E A P P R O A C H E S
Consider the operation of a gas-powered automobile. Like a language, a car that runs is a complex functioning whole. Like a language, too, it consists of many different parts that make up various systems (the drive train, the electric system, the cooling system, and others), each of which operates according to specific principles. Applying the view of Chomsky and his followers to this example, one can liken the descriptivist approach to the skills and operations of a mechanic who is well acquainted with the various automobile parts and their functions but who is not seriously concerned with how and why a car runs. Very much like the descriptivist linguist, who restricts his or her analysis to surface structures, the mechanic is familiar with the car only superficially, although capable of maintaining it in good running condition. According to Chomsky, such an approach is not truly scientific because it makes no effort to explain. A real understanding of what makes a car run comes from the comprehension of such fundamental principles as those of combustion, friction, application of force, and the like. Not until these principles are grasped can one say significant things not only about a particular make of car but about cars in general, and about other conveyances that utilize these principles (for example, snowmobiles). Consequently, the fundamental principles, like the rules of grammar, are prior; and the parts and their arrangements, like the linguistic units and their arrangements, assume secondary importance. . . . Nevertheless, for the anthropological field worker, who is mainly concerned with recording native in a serviceable phonemic transcription and who rarely possesses intuitive knowledge of the language he or she is dealing with, the descriptivist approach continues to be useful. from Oriol Pi-Sunyer and Zdenek Salzmann, Humanity and Culture (1978), 356–357
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Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences
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Summary and Conclusions
71
VOJWFSTBMHSBNNBSJTQBSUPGPVSIVNBOCJPMPHJDBMFOEPXNFOU8IBUUIF TQFBLFSTPGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFNVTUMFBSO PGDPVSTF BSFUIFTQFDJGJDTPG UIFMBOHVBHFUIFZBSFBDRVJSJOH GPSFYBNQMF UIFMFYJDPO -JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTBSFQSJNBSJMZJOUFSFTUFEJOVOEFSTUBOEJOHMBO HVBHFXJUIJOUIFPWFSBMMNBUSJYPGDVMUVSF BOETQFFDIBTBOJOTFQBSBCMFMJOL UPTPDJBMCFIBWJPS#VUFWFOUIPVHIUIFZBSFOPUTPNVDIDPODFSOFEXJUI MJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFBTTVDI UIFZBSFPCWJPVTMZJOGMVFODFECZUIFMBUFTUEF WFMPQNFOUTJOMJOHVJTUJDUIFPSJFTBOENFUIPETCFDBVTFPGUIFJSJOUFSFTUJO UIFTQFFDIPGUIPTFXIPTFDVMUVSFTUIFZTUVEZ
5 Nonve rbal Communication
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SFQSFTFOUUIFMFUUFSTPGUIFBMQIBCFU BTJO 73
74
Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
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Paralinguistics
75
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76
Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
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Kinesics
77
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78
Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
TA B L E 5 . 1 The Four Distance Zones of Informal Interpersonal Space Among
Middle-Class Americans of North European Heritage
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Proxemics *OUIFFBSMZT UIFJOUFSEFQFOEFODFCFUXFFODPNNVOJDBUJPOBOEDVM UVSFTUJNVMBUFE&EXBSE5)BMMUPEFWFMPQQSPYFNJDT UIFTUVEZPGUIFDVM UVSBMQBUUFSOJOHPGUIFTQBUJBMTFQBSBUJPOJOEJWJEVBMTNBJOUBJOJOGBDFUPGBDF FODPVOUFST5IFUFSNIBTTVCTFRVFOUMZDPNFUPFNCSBDFTUVEJFTDPODFSOFE XJUIQSJWBDZ DSPXEJOH UFSSJUPSJBMJUZ BOEUIFEFTJHOJOHPGCVJMEJOHT QSJWBUF BTXFMMBTQVCMJD XJUIUIFWJFXPGNFFUJOHUIFEJGGFSFOUDVMUVSBMFYQFDUBUJPOT PGUIFJSQSPTQFDUJWFVTFST "DDPSEJOHUP)BMM UIFEJTUBODFTJOEJWJEVBMTNBJOUBJOGSPNPOFBOPUIFS EFQFOEPOUIFOBUVSFPGUIFJSNVUVBMJOWPMWFNFOUBOEBSFDVMUVSFTQFDJGJD 'PSFYBNQMF VOEFSOPSNBMDJSDVNTUBODFT NJEEMFDMBTT"NFSJDBOBEVMUTPG OPSUIFSO&VSPQFBOIFSJUBHFNBLFSFHVMBSVTFPGGPVSQSPYFNJD[POFT PS EJTUBODFT SBOHJOHGSPNJOUJNBUFUPQVCMJD FBDIPGUIF[POFTDPOTJTUJOHPGB DMPTFBOEBGBSQIBTF TFF5BCMF *O UIF DMPTF QIBTF PG UIF JOUJNBUF EJTUBODF UIF JOEJWJEVBMT BSF DMPTF FOPVHIUPCFFODJSDMFECZFBDIPUIFSTBSNT"MMTFOTFTBSFFOHBHFE&BDI JOEJWJEVBMSFDFJWFTUIFEZIFBUBTXFMMBTBOZPEPSPSTDFOUFNBOBUJOHGSPN UIFPUIFSJOEJWJEVBM BOEUIFPUIFSQFSTPOTCSFBUIJTGFMUCFDBVTFPGUIF
Proxemics
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Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
B OX 5 . 1 H A L L O N P ROX E M I C S I N A C R O S S - C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T
In Latin America the interaction distance is much less than it is in the United States. Indeed, people cannot talk comfortably with one another unless they are very close to the distance that evokes either sexual or hostile feelings in the North American. The result is that when they move close, we withdraw and back away. As a consequence, they think we are distant or cold, withdrawn and unfriendly. We, on the other hand, are constantly accusing them of breathing down our necks, crowding us, and spraying our faces. Americans who have spent some time in Latin America without learning these space considerations make other adaptations, like barricading themselves behind their desks, using chairs and typewriter tables to keep the Latin American at what is to us a comfortable distance. The result is that the Latin American may even climb over the obstacles until he has achieved a distance at which he can comfortably talk. from Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (1959), 209
Many Americans feel that [older] Germans are overly rigid in their behavior, unbending and formal. Some of this impression is created by differences in the handling of chairs while seated. The American doesn’t seem to mind if people hitch their chairs up to adjust the distance to the situation—those that do mind would not think of saying anything, for to comment on the manners of others would be impolite. In , however, it is a violation of the mores to change the position of your chair. An added deterrent for those who don’t know better is the weight of most German furniture. . . . To a German, light furniture is anathema, not only because it seems flimsy but because people move it and thereby destroy the order of things, including intrusions on the “private sphere.” In one instance reported to me, a German newspaper editor who had moved to the United States had his visitor’s chair bolted to the floor “at the proper distance” because he couldn’t tolerate the American habit of adjusting the chair to the situation. from Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (1966), 129
Whistle “Languages”
81
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Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
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Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
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Sign Languages
85
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iOBSSBUFw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
86
Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication
UISPXOBXBZ5IFSJHIUGJTUIFMEJOGSPOUPGUIFDIFTUXBTTXVOHPVUBOE EPXOUPUIFSJHIUBTUIFIBOEXBTPQFOJOHVQ "MUIPVHIUIFCVMLPGUIFTJHOTNVTUIBWFCFFOTIBSFECZUIFUSJCFTPGUIF OPSUIDFOUSBM1MBJOT UIFSFXFSFOPEPVCUiEJBMFDUBMwEJGGFSFODFTTJNJMBSUP UIPTFGPVOEJOXJEFMZFYUFOEFETQPLFOMBOHVBHFT6OMJLFUIFXIJTUMFiMBO HVBHFT wIPXFWFS TJHOMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGTQFFDIFWFOUIPVHI UIFZIBWFPDDBTJPOBMMZCFFOVTFEJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIJU0OMZJONBOVBMBM QIBCFUTJTUIFSFBDPOOFDUJPO"NBOVBMBMQIBCFUSFQSFTFOUTUIFFMFNFOUTPG BXSJUJOHTZTUFNUIBUJOUVSOEFSJWFTGSPNTQFFDI Summary and Conclusions "MUIPVHI TQPLFO MBOHVBHF JT VOEPVCUFEMZ UIF PMEFTU BOE NPTU FGGJDJFOU NFBOTPGIVNBODPNNVOJDBUJPO UIFSFBSFNBOZPUIFSXBZTJOXIJDIQFP QMFUSBOTNJUPSFYDIBOHFJOGPSNBUJPO*OGPSNBUJPO FNPUJPOT BOEGFFMJOHT JOBEEJUJPOUPXSJUJOH DBOCFUSBOTNJUUFEOPOWFSCBMMZ/POWFSCBMTZTUFNT PGDPNNVOJDBUJPOBSFCBTFEPOFJUIFSTQPLFOPSXSJUUFOMBOHVBHF PSBSFJO EFQFOEFOUPGJU 5IF.PSTF$PEFBOECSBJMMFEFSJWFGSPNUIFXSJUUFOSFQSFTFOUBUJPOPGB MBOHVBHFXIJTUMFiMBOHVBHFT w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
6 The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Communication Among Social Insects
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90
Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Communication Among Social Insects
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F I G U R E 6 . 1 Communication of Honeybees
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Milestones in Human Evolution
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98
Years Before the Present
Stages of Hominid Evolution
Prehistoric Periods Neolithic
_10,000
Middle
_500,000 Archaic Homo sapiens
s
ili
ab
oh
Duality of patterning Stone tools from Beginnings of prepared cores articulate speech Belief in afterlife? Organized hunting
Lower Control and use of fire
Early stage of prelanguage
Hunting
Blending
First tools made and used
s cie pe s l s u us ra en ec ve e g ith Se th p of tralo s Au
_5 million
Ritual activities
s
om
H
_4 million
(Proto-IndoEuropean)
tu
rec
oe
om
H
_3 million
Paleolithic
Neanderthals Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
Presumed Stages in the Evolution of Language
Upper Spectacular portable Earliest stage of and cave-wall art full-fledged language
Cro-Magnons (H. s. sapiens)
_100,000
_2 million
Farming
ic
lith Meso
_40,000
_1 million
Landmarks in Cultural Evolution
Adaptations for prelanguage Simple multimodal communication
Hominids branch off from other hominoids Monkeys and apes diverge
_50 million Primates emerge _100 million
F I G U R E 6 . 2 Presumed Stages of Human Evolution
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Language as an Evolutionary Product
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
B OX 6 . 1 H O C K E T T O N B L E N D I N G
Suppose a gibbon finds himself in a situation characterized by both the presence of food and the imminence of danger. The factors, we shall say, are closely balanced. The normal consequence among gibbons is that one or the other factor prevails and just one call is given. This time we imagine our gibbon atypical. Instead of emitting either the food call or the danger call, he utters a cry that has some of the characteristics of each: he produces a blend of the two. This is beyond the experience of the other gibbons in his band. Depending on acoustic conditions, some of them may hear the actual cry as the food call, others as the danger call, and others as nonsense. It is unlikely that any hear it as a new signal, conveying two kinds of information at once. The consequences are thus negligible. But now suppose that the early hominids had a somewhat richer call system (though closed) functioning in a somewhat more complex social order. Then we may also assume that this type of event occasionally happened, and that sooner or later the other of a band responded appropriately, thus handling an unusually complex situation more efficiently than otherwise. With this reinforcement, the habit of blending two calls to produce a new one would gain ground. We have to assume that this is what happened, because blending is the only way in which a closed system can move towards openness of the kind characteristic of language. from Charles F. Hockett, Man’s Place in Nature (1973), 381
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Estimating the Age of Language: Linguistic Considerations
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language
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Summary and Conclusions
117
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7 Acquiring Language(s): Life with First Languages, Second Languages, and More
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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
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B OX 7 . 1 C H OM S K Y O N L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N
We can think of every normal human’s internalized grammar as, in effect, a theory of his language. This theory provides a sound-meaning correlation for an infinite number of sentences. . . . In formal . . . we can describe the child’s acquisition of language as a kind of theory construction. The child discovers the theory of his language with only small amounts of data from that language. . . . Normal speech consists, in large part, of fragments, false starts, blends, and other distortions of the underlying idealized forms. Nevertheless, as is evident from a study of the mature use of language, what the child learns is the underlying ideal theory. This is a remarkable fact. We must also bear in mind that the child constructs this ideal theory without explicit instruction, that he acquires this knowledge at a time when he is not capable of complex intellectual achievements in many other domains, and that this achievement is relatively independent of intelligence or the particular course of experience. These are facts that a theory of learning must face. . . . . . . It is unimaginable that a highly specific, abstract, and tightly organized language comes by accident into the mind of every four-year-old child. from Noam Chomsky, “Language and the Mind” (1968), 66
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F I G U R E 7 . 1 The Human Brain
Side view of the left hemisphere of the human brain, with its front on the left. The locations of the areas mentioned in the text are indicated as follows: AC = auditory cortex; AG = angular gyrus; B = Broca’s area; MC = motor cortex; W = Wernicke’s area. The thalamus is not seen from this view.
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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
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The Social Aspects of Multilingualism
133
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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
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135
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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
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Summary and Conclusions
137
UBVHIUJOTDIPPMTBOEBTTVNFTNPTUPGUIFMJUFSBSZ BENJOJTUSBUJWF MFHBM BOE SFMJHJPVTGVODUJPOT *OTUBODFTPGEJHMPTTJBBSFGBJSMZDPNNPO5IPTF4XJTTXIPVTF4UBOEBSE (FSNBO BT UIFJS GPSNBM WBSJFUZ BSF GMVFOU JO UIF 4XJTT (FSNBO EJBMFDU 4DIXZ[FSUàUTDI
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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)
B OX 7 . 2 T H E H UM A N B R A I N A N D L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N
Why aren’t babies born talking? We know that part of the answer is that babies have to listen to themselves to learn how to work their articulators, and have to listen to their elders to learn communal phonemes, words, and phrase orders. Some of these acquisitions depend on other ones, forcing development to proceed in a sequence: phonemes before words, words before sentences. But any mental mechanism powerful enough to learn these things could probably do so with a few weeks or months of input. Why does the sequence have to take three years? Could it be any faster? Perhaps not. Complicated machines take time to assemble, and human infants may be expelled from the womb before their brains are complete. A human, after all, is an animal with a ludicrously large head, and a woman’s pelvis, through which it must , can be only so big. If human beings stayed in the womb for the proportion of their life cycle that we would expect based on extrapolation from other primates, they would be born at the age of eighteen months. That is the age at which babies in fact begin to put words together. In one sense, then[,] babies are born talking! And we know that babies’ brains do change considerably after birth. Before birth, virtually all the neurons (nerve cells) are formed, and they migrate into their proper locations in the brain. But head size, brain weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex (gray matter), where the synapses (junctions) subserving mental computation are found, continue to increase rapidly in the year after birth. Long-distance connections (white matter) are not complete until nine months, and they continue to grow their speed-inducing myelin insulation throughout childhood. Synapses continue to develop, peaking in number between nine months and two years (depending on the brain region), at which point the child has fifty percent more synapses than the adult! Metabolic activity in the brain reaches adult levels by nine to ten months, and soon exceeds it, peaking around the age of four. The brain is sculpted not only by adding neural material but by chipping it away. Massive numbers of neurons die in utero, and the dying continues during the first two years before level(continues)
Summary and Conclusions
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(continued) ing off at age seven. Synapses wither from the age of two through the rest of childhood and into adolescence, when the brain’s metabolic rate falls back to adult levels. Language development, then, could be on a maturational timetable, like teeth. Perhaps linguistic accomplishments like babbling, first words, and grammar require minimum levels of brain size, long-distance connections, and extra synapses, particularly in the language centers of the brain. . . . So language seems to develop about as quickly as the growing brain can handle it. from Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (1994), 288–289
8 Language Through Time
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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B OX 8 . 1 S I E B E RT O N T H E O R I G I N A L H OM E O F T H E P ROTO - A LG O N Q U I A N P E O P L E
The primeval home. . . . lay between the almost strictly coniferous forests to the north and the deciduous woodlands to the south. That the ProtoAlgonquians lived in a mixed-forest zone is evident from the frequent use of the two contrasting noun-finals in many tree names, PA *-a·ntakw‘evergreen tree, conifer’ and *-a·xkw- ‘wood; hardwood or deciduous tree.’ The relatively southern species of deciduous trees, like the white ash, sugar maple, basswood, and beech, extend more or less only slightly farther north than the Algonquian homeland, whereas northern conifers, like the white spruce and tamarack, were found commonly only to the southern borders of the original home or slightly beyond. The original home lay at the southern limit of the woodland caribou. . . . The harbour seal is the only seal that is common on the eastern coast of the United States . . . [but] in aboriginal times its ascent penetrated . . . into the interior along the upper St. Lawrence River and affluent streams. . . . The distributions of [four species of fish] provide additional reasons for pinpointing the earliest Algonquian residence to southern Ontario rather than to a more western portion of the Great Lakes region. . . . In order to allow for possible undetermined changes in the distribution of fauna and flora in the prehistoric period . . . the earliest original home is diagrammatically represented as Stage Number 1 . . . and an expanded area of occupancy of slightly later date, which certainly includes the entire Algonquian homeland, is characterized as Stage Number 2. To these the tentative dates of 1200 B.C. and 900 B.C., respectively, are assigned as suppositions to serve as a basis for further discussion. . . . The earliest residence of the speakers of Proto-Algonquian is ascertained by the multiple intersections of the distributional lines of significant species. The original home of the Algonquian peoples lay in the region between Lake Huron and Georgian Bay and the middle course of the Ottawa River, bounded on the north by Lake Nipissing and the Mattawa River and on the south by the northern shore of Lake Ontario, the headwaters of the Grand River, and the Saugeen River. from Frank T. Siebert, Jr., “The Original Home of the Proto-Algonquian People” (1967), 36–40
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F I G U R E 8 . 1 The Two Assumed Stages of the Proto-Algonquin Home and Their Locations
160
Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology
161
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology TA B L E 8 . 1
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163
The 100-Word Core Vocabulary dog louse tree seed leaf root bark skin flesh blood bone grease egg horn tail feather hair head ear eye
nose mouth tooth tongue claw foot knee hand belly neck breasts heart liver drink eat bite see hear know sleep
die kill swim fly walk come lie sit stand give say sun moon star water rain stone sand earth cloud
smoke fire ash burn path mountain red green yellow white black night hot cold full new good round dry name
It should be noted that the large majority of these words can be traced to Old English—that is, they are very old English words. Because of the universal nature and occurrence of the referents for which these words stand, equivalents in other languages are available and may also be expected to be old.
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Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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Time Perspective in Culture
165
B OX 8 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C I N F E R E N C E S A B O U T E A R LY B A N T U H I S T O R Y
The oldest Bantu subsistence vocabulary so far reconstructible accords with postulation of a high-rainfall, tropical environment for the protoBantu homeland. No grain can be reconstructed, but there is instead a word for yam. Two or three possible root words dealing with the oil palm may also date to proto-Bantu, and the reconstructible protoBantu name for alcoholic drink apparently referred specifically to palm wine. At least one cucurbit, probably the bottle gourd, a pulse (the cowpea?), and probably the Voandzeia groundnut were also known to the proto-Bantu. . . . These three crops would all have been domesticated elsewhere than in the proto-Bantu homeland, but apparently they could be effectively grown in high-rainfall savanna and/or rain forest. . . . A second indication of a high-rainfall environment is provided by the reconstructibility of fishing and boating vocabulary. . . . Apparently the proto-Bantu made considerable use of riverine resources and lived where large perennial streams were commonplace. Knowledge of two domestic animals, cattle and goats, can be reconstructed. . . . Whatever the cause of proto-Bantu knowledge of cattle, it was lost by those who expanded into the equatorial rain forest, for the protoBantu root *nyaka is found no farther south than some of the forest languages in which it was reapplied, in the absence of cattle, to the buffalo. . . . Contrary to a widely held view, knowledge of ironworking cannot be linguistically reconstructed for proto-Bantu. . . . By the beginnings, however, of Bantu expansion into eastern Africa, on linguistic grounds most probably during the last millennium B.C., metallurgical had come into use among at least the ancestral Eastern Bantu communities. from Christopher Ehret, “Linguistic Inferences About Early Bantu History”(1982), 61–62
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166
Chapter 8: Language Through Time
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BOENPSQIPMPHJDBMTJNJMBSJUJFTTPNFUJNFTFYJTUBNPOHVOSFMBUFEOFJHISJOH MBOHVBHFTUPBOFYUFOUUIBUDPVMETDBSDFMZCFEVFUPDIBODF4VDITJNJMBSJUJFT BSFJOEJDBUJWFPGBOFYUFOTJWFQFSJPEPGDVMUVSBMDPOUBDUCFUXFFOUIFSFTQFD UJWFTPDJFUJFT BDJSDVNTUBODFUIFFUIOPMPHJTUNVTUUBLFJOUPBDDPVOU *OUIFDPODMVEJOHSFNBSLTPGIJTNPOPHSBQI 4BQJSNBEFUIFQPJOUUIBU BMUIPVHIEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTNVDIUPCFQSFGFSSFEUPJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODFJO UIFTUVEZPGDVMUVSFIJTUPSZBOEUIFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGDVMUVSFTFRVFODFT BO UISPQPMPHJTUTGSFRVFOUMZGBDFTJUVBUJPOTXIFSFEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTFJUIFSJO TVGGJDJFOUPSDPNQMFUFMZMBDLJOH*OTVDIDBTFTJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODF MJOHVJTUJD JOQBSUJDVMBS CFDPNFTJOWBMVBCMF Summary and Conclusions -JWJOHMBOHVBHFTDIBOHFTMPXMZCVUDPOTUBOUMZ5IF0ME&OHMJTIJTOPMPOHFS JOUFMMJHJCMFUPTQFBLFSTPG.PEFSO&OHMJTI BOEFWFOXPSETUIBUSIZNFEJO 4IBLFTQFBSFT UJNF EP OPU BMXBZT SIZNF UPEBZ 5IF UFOEFODZ PG TPVOE DIBOHFTUPCFSFHVMBSNBLFTJUQPTTJCMFUPSFDPOTUSVDUUIFBTTVNFEBODFTUSBM MBOHVBHFPGEBVHIUFSMBOHVBHFT3FDPOTUSVDUJCMFXPSETIBWJOHUPEPXJUIUIF OBUVSBMFOWJSPONFOUPGBQSFIJTUPSJDTPDJFUZGBDJMJUBUFEFUFSNJOJOHUIFMPDB UJPOPGJUTBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE'VSUIFSNPSF UIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGQSPUPXPSET NBZBMTPUISPXMJHIUPOGFBUVSFTPGBQSFIJTUPSJDDVMUVSFOPUEJTDPWFSBCMFCZ PUIFSNFBOT'PSFYBNQMF UIFSFDPOTUSVDUJCJMJUZPGDFSUBJOLJOTIJQUFSNT TVDI
Summary and Conclusions
167
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9 Languages in Va riation and Languages in
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Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in
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Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in
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B O X 9 . 1 C R E O L I Z AT I O N O F T O K P I S I N
World War II greatly accelerated the spread of Tok Pisin within New Guinea. New Guinean males who were pressed into service by the various foreign armies had only Tok Pisin as a common language. In addition, there were extensive movements of indigenous populations during the war and Tok Pisin spread with them. Following the war, the traditional state of warfare or hostility between indigenous groups in Papua New Guinea was almost completely eliminated as a result of the continuous efforts of missionaries and the pacification programs of various foreign governments. This has enabled people to leave their native groups without the fear of being killed. Mobility is increasing considerably as transportation improves, and many people are leaving their home villages to seek employment and excitement in urban areas. When groups mix in this way, Tok Pisin is usually the only means of communication, except where Hiri Motu or English is spoken, and thus Tok Pisin is commonly used in public urban life in New Guinea. There are an increasing number of marriages between men and women from different linguistic groups. When such couples live in towns away from the home group of either partner they generally speak only Tok Pisin in the home, and their children acquire Tok Pisin as a native language. Such young native speakers now number in the thousands. from Ellen B. Woolford, Aspects of Tok Pisin Grammar (1979), 3
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Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in
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F I G U R E 9 . 1 The World’s Languages and Their Speakers 5IFFTUJNBUFESFMBUJWFOVNCFSTPGTQFBLFSTCFMPOHJOHUPUIFUPQUFOMBOHVBHFHSPVQT GBNJMJFT BSF HSBQIJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEJO B 5IFGPMMPXJOHBCCSFWJBUJPOTBSFVTFE *& *OEP&VSPQFBONPTUPGUIFMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJO&VSPQF TFWFSBMPGXIJDIIBWFTQSFBEUP PUIFSQBSUTPGUIFXPSME BTXFMMBTTPNFMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJO*OEJBBOETPVUIXFTUFSO "TJB 45 4JOP5JCFUBOWBSJPVT5JCFUBO #VSNFTF BOE$IJOFTFMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJOTPVUIFBTUFSO "TJB /$ /JHFS$POHPNPTUPGUIFMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJOXFTUFSO DFOUSBM BOETPVUIFSO"GSJDB JO DMVEJOHUIF#BOUVMBOHVBHFT "G" "GSP"TJBUJDWBSJPVT4FNJUJD #FSCFS $VTIJUJD BOE$IBEJDMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJOOPSUI FSO"GSJDBBOETPVUIXFTUFSO"TJB BTXFMMBTFYUJODU "ODJFOU &HZQUJBO "V "VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJOUIFWBTUBSFBFYUFOEJOHGSPN.BEBHBTDBSFBTUXBSE UISPVHIUIF.BMBZ1FOJOTVMBUP)BXBJJBOE&BTUFS*TMBOE % %SBWJEJBOMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOQSJNBSJMZJOTPVUIFSO*OEJBBOEQBSUTPG4SJ-BOLB + +BQBOFTFUIFMBOHVBHFPG+BQBO DPOTJEFSFECZTPNFTDIPMBSTUPCFEJTUBOUMZSFMBUFEUP UIF"MUBJDGBNJMZ "M "MUBJDMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOGSPN5VSLFZJOUIFXFTUBDSPTTDFOUSBM"TJBJOUP4JCFSJB "V" "VTUSPBTJBUJDMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOGPSUIFNPTUQBSUJOTPVUIFBTUFSO"TJB -BPT 7JFUOBN BOE$BNEJB CVUBMTPJOTPNFQBSUTPG*OEJB , ,PSFBOUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIFUXP,PSFBT DPOTJEFSFECZTPNFTDIPMBSTUPCFEJTUBOUMZSF MBUFEUP+BQBOFTFPSUIF"MUBJDGBNJMZ 0UIFST BHSFBUWBSJFUZPGMBOHVBHFTCFMPOHJOHUPOVNFSPVTMBOHVBHFHSPVQTBOETQPLFOJO&VSB TJB "GSJDB BOE"VTUSBMJBBTXFMMBTBMMOBUJWFMBOHVBHFTPGUIF/FX8PSMEBMUPHFUIFS OFBSMZ MBOHVBHFT PSIBMGPGUIFXPSMETUPUBM 5IFFTUJNBUFESFMBUJWFOVNCFSTPGTQFBLFSTPGUIFUPQUFONPUIFSUPOHVFTBSFHSBQIJDBMMZSFQSF TFOUFEJOEFTDFOEJOHPSEFSJO C 5IFGPMMPXJOHBCCSFWJBUJPOTBSFVTFE$$IJOFTF MBOHVBHFTPS EJBMFDUT &&OHMJTI44QBOJTI))JOEJ""SBCJD##FOHBMJ33VTTJBO11PSUVHVFTF ++BQBOFTF((FSNBOUIFPUIFSTJODMVEFUIFSFNBJOJOH UP MBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSME 5IFUPQUFOPGGJDJBMPSTFNJPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHFTTFSWJOHUIFMBSHFTUOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTBSF JOEF TDFOEJOHPSEFS&OHMJTI $IJOFTF )JOEJ 4QBOJTI 3VTTJBO 'SFODI "SBCJD 1PSUVHVFTF .BMBZ JO DMVEJOH*OEPOFTJBO
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Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in
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10 Ethnography of Communication
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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication
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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication
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B OX 1 0 . 1 F E S T I V E D R I N K I N G A N D TA L K I N G A M O N G T H E S U B A N U N
As the size and role-structure of the gathering becomes defined, discourse changes in topic to removed referents, usually beginning with relatively trivial gossip, proceeding to more important subjects of current interest, and, finally, in many cases arriving at litigation. . . . Success in effecting legal decisions depends on achieving a commanding role in the encounter and on debating effectively from that position. Since there are no sanctions of force legally applicable to back up a decision, the payment of a fine in compliance with a decision is final testimony to the prowess in verbal combat of the person who made the decision. . . . If drinking continues long enough, the focus of messages shifts from their topics to play with message forms themselves, following stylized patterns of song and verse composition. Songs and verses are composed on the spot to carry on discussions in an operetta-like setting. Even unsettled litigation may be continued in this manner, the basis for decision being shifted from cogent argument to verbal artistry. The most prestigious kinds of drinking songs require the mastery of an esoteric vocabulary by means of which each line is repeated with a semantically equivalent but formally different line. Game drinking is a frequent accompaniment to these displays of verbal art. Together they help assure that the festivity will end with good feelings among all participants, a goal which is explicitly stated by the Subanun. Participants who had displayed marked hostility toward each other during the course of drinking talk may be singled out for special ritual treatment designed to restore good feelings. from Charles O. Frake, “How to Ask for a Drink in Subanun” (1964), 130–131
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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication
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201
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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication
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Summary and Conclusions
203
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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication
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11 Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization: Meaning and Language in the Conceptual World
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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It is still not definitively clear how we as children learn what words mean. For the most part, words are never explicitly defined for us, even though many times specific examples are pointed out (“Look, there’s a ‘puppy’ coming!”). Still, this process is often equally mysterious, even to adults, when things are explained to them and they have the intellectual maturity to know what to look for and the tools to do so. A case in point is when one of the authors (Stanlaw) was studying Japanese. The first week of language class he learned two important survival words: “eat” (taberu) and “drink” (nomu). When Japanese people would consume tea, beer, or water they would nomu; when they would consume sushi, hamburgers, or pizza they would taberu. There were a few oddities, however (as seen below). Japanese people would nomu chicken soup or aspirin, while Americans would “eat” the soup or “take” the aspirin. If something was dropped on the floor, a dog could “eat” it—or taberu it—in both languages (even if it was an aspirin). Stanlaw chalked this up to just some of the inevitable exceptions to the rules in learning a foreign language and never thought much more about these peculiarities, as about 90% of the time he ate and drank in Japanese just fine.
water, beer hamburger, sushi chicken soup aspirin dog’s stuff on the floor
ENGLISH “drink” “eat” “eat” “take” “eat”
JAPANESE nomu taberu nomu nomu taberu (continues)
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(continued) On his first trip to Japan, Stanlaw went to the zoo one day to peoplewatch and noticed a grade school class on one of their ubiquitous field trips getting a guided tour in the reptile house. After being shown a number of snakes, someone asked the zookeeper “What do pythons nomu?” Assuming he was smarter than a Japanese fifth grader, Stanlaw thought the answer would be obvious. Even snakes sometime probably had to “drink” water. He was surprised at the zookeeper’s reply, “Pythons nomu mice and rats.” Pondering how pythons could “drink” mice, it finally dawned on him what nomu really meant: “to ingest something without chewing.” Pythons, of course, swallow their prey whole, so they don’t “ingest by moving the jaws,” which is what taberu refers to. This is why Japanese can nomu soups or aspirins, as these are generally not chewed. A dog, however, will chew something he picks up off the floor, even an aspirin, so the right verb is taberu in this case. Stanlaw went to his Japanese teachers with his new insights: First, in English the world of consumables is divided into liquids (which are “drunk”) and solids (which are “eaten”). Second, the Japanese divide the world into actions—whether or not something is chewed (taberu) or not chewed (nomu). His teachers looked at him as if he had just discovered that the sky is blue or dogs have tails. This fact about the cultural universe was so self-evident to the Japanese teachers that they were at a loss to even know that it had to be pointed out (and in fact, at the time, most Japanese-English dictionaries didn’t). Stanlaw also realized a third thing: In the English world, speakers “take” medicines, regardless of whether they are solids or liquids. So there is another distinction English makes—that between consumables and medicines. It is the intent behind the ingestion that is as significant as either the act itself or the item ingested. Dogs snatching up the dropped aspirin are not really “taking” it, they are just eating it as they would any stray scrap of food they find. But if a dog were sick and went to the vet, he might be given some baby aspirins that the owner would be instructed to have him “take” at certain times. These were aspects about the meaning of the English words “eat,” “drink,” and “take” that Stanlaw had never been explicitly taught. Nor had he really noticed their usage before, even though he had been using these words—presumably correctly—for decades. Jim Stanlaw
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization
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12 Language, Culture, and Thought
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226
Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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The Stimulus of Sapir’s Writings
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B O X 1 2 . 1 H O W W O R D S A F F E C T B E H AV I O R
It was in the course of my professional work for a fire insurance company, in which I undertook the task of analyzing many hundreds of reports of circumstances surrounding the start of fires, and in some cases, of explosions. My analysis was directed toward purely physical conditions, such as defective wiring, presence or lack of air spaces between metal flues and woodwork, etc., and the results were presented in these . . . . But in due course it became evident that not only a physical situation qua physics, but the meaning of that situation to people, was sometimes a factor, through the behavior of the people, in the start of the fire. And this factor of meaning was clearest when it was a LINGUISTIC MEANING, residing in the name or the linguistic description commonly applied to the situation. Thus, around a storage of what are called “gasoline drums,” behavior will tend to a certain type, that is, great care will be exercised; while around a storage of what are called “empty gasoline drums,” it will tend to be different—careless, with little repression of smoking or of tossing cigarette stubs about. Yet the “empty” drums are perhaps the more dangerous, since they contain explosive vapor. Physically the situation is hazardous, but the linguistic analysis according to regular analogy must employ the word “empty,” which inevitably suggests lack of hazard. from Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (1956), 135
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The Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity and Linguisitc Determinism
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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F I G U R E 1 2 . 1 Partial Comparison of the American and Arapaho Kinship Systems
237
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Color Nomenclature and Other Challenges to Linguistic Relativity
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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Summary and Conclusions
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B O X 1 2 . 2 C A R R O L L O N L I N G U I S T I C R E L AT I V I T Y
The speakers of one language . . . may tend to ignore differences which are regularly noticed by the speakers of another language. This is not to say that they always ignore them, for these differences can indeed be recognized and talked about in any language, but they are differences which are not always salient in their experiences. The effect of any one language category is to lead language s to assume, perhaps mistakenly, that there is uniformity of some sort within the category. . . . For example, historians have pointed out that the use of the term “the Middle Ages” may lead to the false impression that the period between the fall of Rome and the Italian Renaissance was in truth a distinct historical period which had uniform characteristics, throughout its length, which set it apart from other periods. . . . Let us now analyze a simple cross-linguistic example. In English, it is possible to report about someone, “He went to town.” Nothing is said about his mode of travel: he might have walked, run, rode a horse, driven a car, or taken a bus or even a boat or a helicopter. It is well known that in German one would have to specify at least a minimum of information about the mode of travel. Use of the verb gehen (as a cognate of go, apparently the most direct translation) would imply walking or some other form of self-propelled movement; use of fahren would imply going in a vehicle; of reiten, going on horseback; etc. Russian, and, it so happens, Navaho, could use an even longer list of verbs to distinguish modes of transportation. Thus, in English, it is possible to focus attention on the mere fact of someone’s having departed in the direction of town, even though the speaker of English can be more specific if he wants to: walked, ran, drove, rode, flew, bicycled, rowed, helicoptered could be substituted for went in the sentence indicated. . . . As compared with German speakers, English speakers are sometimes benefited, sometimes disadvantaged by the possible lack of specificity in the meaning of the English term go. from John B. Carroll, “Linguistic Relativity, Contrastive Linguistics, and Language Learning” (1963), 12–13
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Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought
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13 Language and Ideology: Va riations in Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and Nationality
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Chapter 13: Language and Ideology
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Chapter 13: Language and Ideology
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B O X 1 3 . 1 TA L K I N G L I K E A L A D Y
Aside from specific lexical items like color names, we find differences between the speech of women and that of men in the use of particles that grammarians often describe as “meaningless.” There may be no referent for them, but they are far from meaningless: they define the social context of an utterance, indicate the relationship the speaker feels between himself and his addressee, between himself and what he is talking about. As an experiment, one might present native speakers of standard American English with pairs of sentences, identical syntactically and in of referential lexical items, and differing merely in the choice of “meaningless” particle, and ask them which was spoken by a man, which a woman. Consider: (a) Oh dear, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again. (b) Shit, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again. It is safe to predict that people would classify the first sentence as part of “women’s language,” the second as “men’s language.” It is true that many self-respecting women are becoming able to use sentences like (b) publicly without flinching, but this is a relatively recent development, and while perhaps the majority of Middle America might condone the use of (b) for men, they would still disapprove of its use by women. (It is of interest, by the way, to note that men’s language is increasingly being used by women, but women’s language is not being adopted by men, apart from those who reject the American masculine image [for example, homosexuals]. This is analogous to the fact that men’s jobs are being sought by women, but few men are rushing to become housewives or secretaries. The language of the favored group, the group that holds the power, along with its nonlinguistic behavior, is generally adopted by the other group, not vice versa. In any event, it is a truism to state that the “stronger” expletives are reserved for men, and the “weaker” ones for women. from Robin Lakoff, Language and Woman’s Place (1975), 9–10
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B O X 1 3 . 2 W H AT D O E S T H E W O R D M A N M E A N ?
It has been argued that the word man, as in man is a primate, is independent of sex, that it refers to all of the species, and that it is just an etymological coincidence that the form for the species is the same as that for the male of the species. Certainly, using the same form for the entire species and for half the species creates the possibility of confusion, as those colonial women discovered who rashly thought that the word man in the sentence “All men are created equal” included them. More confusion may come about when we use phrases like early man. Although this presumably refers to the species, notice how easy it is to use expressions like early man and his wife and how hard it is to say things like man is the only animal that menstruates or even early woman and her husband. . . . The common theme running through these last examples is that the male is taken as the normal, that masculine forms refer both to the sex and the species, while women are the exception, usually absorbed by the masculine, but needing special when they become noticeable. If the above examples have not convinced you that man as a generic is at best ambiguous, consider the following quote from Alma Graham . . . : If a woman is swept off a ship into the water, the cry is “Man overboard!” If she is killed by a hit-and-run driver, the charge is “manslaughter.” If she is injured on the job, the coverage is “workmen’s compensation.” But if she arrives at a threshold marked “Men Only,” she knows the onition is not intended to bar animals or plants or inanimate objects. It is meant for her. from Francine Frank and Frank Anshen, Language and the Sexes (1983), 71–72
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B OX 1 3 . 3 A F R I C A N - A M E R I C A N E N G L I S H I N AC T I O N : A F I F T E E N -Y E A R - O L D S P E A K S
INTERVIEWER: What happens to you after you die? Do you know? LARRY: Yeah, I know. I: What? LARRY: After they put you in the ground, your body turns into—ah—bones,
an’ shit. I: What happens to your spirit? LARRY: Your spirit—soon as you die, your spirit leaves you. I: And where does the spirit go? LARRY: Well, it all depends . . . I: On what? LARRY: You know, like some people say if you’re good an’ shit, your spirit
goin’ t’heaven . . . ’n’ if you bad, your spirit goin’ to hell. Well, bullshit! Your spirit goin’ to hell anyway, good or bad. I: Why? LARRY: Why? I’ll tell you why. ’Cause, you see, doesn’ nobody really know that it’s a God, y’know, ’cause I mean I have seen black gods, pink gods, white gods, all color gods, and don’t nobody know it’s really a God. An’ when they be sayin’ if you good, you goin’ t’heaven, tha’s bullshit, ’cause you ain’t goin’ to no heaven, ’cause it ain’t no heaven for you to go to. I: Well, if there’s no heaven, how could there be a hell? LARRY: I mean—ye-eah. Well, let me tell you, it ain’t no hell, ’cause this is hell right here, y’know! I: This is hell? LARRY: Yeah, this is hell right here! I: . . . But, just say that there is a God, what color is he? White or black? LARRY: Well, if it is a God . . . I wouldn’ know what color, I couldn’ say,— couldn’ nobody say what color he is or really would be. I: But now, jus’ suppose there was a God— LARRY: Unless’n they say . . . I: No, I was jus’ sayin’ jus’ suppose there is a God, would he be white or black? LARRY: . . . He’d be white, man. I: Why? LARRY: Why? I’ll tell you why. ’Cause the average whitey out here got everything, you dig? And the nigger ain’t got shit, y’know? Y’understan’? So— um—for—in order for that to happen, you know it ain’t no black God that’s doin’ that bullshit. from William Labov, “The Logic of Nonstandard English” (1970), 12–15
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287
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Chapter 13: Language and Ideology
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Summary and Conclusions
289
Summary and Conclusions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iNFOTMBO HVBHFw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
14 Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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CVUJUBMTPDBOBOEEPFT 291
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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B O X 1 4 . 1 P L A N S F O R T H E R E V I TA L I Z AT I O N O F K E R E S , THE DIALECT OF RIO GRANDE KERESAN, SPOKEN IN T H E P U E B LO O F CO C H I T I , N E W M E X I CO
As of this writing, the plans for the fall [2000] include (1) an all-Keres room where Head Start and preschool children can spend from half an hour to two hours daily, depending on their parents’ preferences; (2) Keres language classes for tribal employees, to be given three times a week; (3) after-school arts and crafts and recreational activities for school-age children; and (4) arts and crafts and Keres classes for adults in the evenings. In addition, CIEC [Cochiti Indian Education Committee] and CETF [Cochiti Education Task Force] committee have committed themselves to providing mentoring to less fluent speakers and to revitalizing the practice of visiting each other and maintaining Keres during these visits. Several community projects such as ditch cleaning, weeding, and painting are planned in which fluent adults are matched with learning adolescents. All of these efforts will be undertaken either with volunteers or with tribal funds. This allows the tribe to maintain control and to remain faithful to its own values. Moreover, drawing in the different segments of the community—for example, the elders, the tribal council, tribal employees, parents, and children— underscores the fact that the language revitalization project belongs to everyone and therefore all have a responsibility to its continuation. Future plans include a language nest, where babies and very young children can be cared for by fluent Keres-speaking “grandmothers”; an all-Keres preschool program; a healthy after-school recreational program; more community projects; adolescent-elder pairings; and consistent Keres class offerings after school and in the evenings for adults. These plans for the future will necessarily mean that more fluent speakers will be needed to teach and to lead in the various initiatives that are to come. The CIEC, the task force, and the leaders of the community understand the commitment required to make all of this a reality. However, they also understand the power of these initiatives for the language learning of their future leaders. Much of the success that the Pueblo de Cochiti has enjoyed is owed to the fact that the leaders have moved slowly and planned carefully. Above all, they have made certain that every step taken has been consonant with Cochiti traditional culture and values. from Regis Pecos and Rebecca Blum-Martinez, “The Key to Cultural Survival” (2001), 81–82
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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B O X 1 4 . 2 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O B L E M S B E T W E E N E N G L I S H S P E A K E R S A N D AT H A B A S K A N S
What’s Confusing to English Speakers About Athabaskans
What’s Confusing to Athabaskan Speakers About English Speakers
They do not speak. They keep silent. They avoid situations of talking.
They talk too much. They always talk first. They talk to strangers or people they don’t know. They think they can predict the future. They brag about themselves. They don’t help people even when they can. They always talk about what’s going to happen later. They ask too many questions. They always interrupt. They only talk about what they are interested in. They don’t give others a chance to talk. They are always getting excited when they talk. They aren’t careful when they talk about things or people.
They only want to talk to close acquaintances. They play down their own abilities. They act as if they expect things to be given to them. They deny planning. They avoid direct questions. They never start a conversation. They talk off the topic. They never say anything about themselves. They are slow to take a turn in talking. They ask questions in unusual places. They talk with a flat tone of voice. They are too indirect, inexplicit. They don’t make sense. They just leave without saying anything.
from Ronald Scollon and Suzanne Wong-Scollon, “Athabaskan-English Interethnic Communication” (1990), 284
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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I337 5P34K: 4N 31337 I3350N F0R 4N O1D F4RT
In a class on Japanese linguistics I was teaching, I was describing some of the new orthographic games Japanese teenage girls play on their cell phones when they text-message using symbols, emoticons, and scripts from various foreign languages. “Oh, that’s just like leet!” said a student. Seeing the puzzled look on my face, he went to the board and wrote 31337 sp34k, as if this explained everything. It didn’t. After a pregnant pause, with me unsuccessfully finding a way to appear both knowledgeable and cool, he said, “You really are a newb—a newbie—aren’t you?” while writing n00b in big letters. It dawned on me that this was some kind of code. 0 replaced the letter o, 7 replaced t, 1 replaced l, 4 replaced A, 5 replaced S, and so on. So, 31337 was supposed to be “elite”—spelled eleet, and shortened to leet, in this strange argot. But this was not what cryptologists call a transposition cipher, where numbers simply encoded letters. Instead, what was going on was a kind orthographic running joke. For example, ph was often used for any f-sounds, and words could be transcribed in several ways: “fear” might be rendered ph34r, ph33r, or phear. Phonetic and orthographic puns saturate leet-speek, and sometimes the uninitiated might miss the joke. I never would have guessed that b7 is “banned,” and the logic, such as it is, is something like this: The ampersand (&) is pronounced “and,” and the number 7 and the character & share the same key on the keyboard. Thus, b and 7 (i.e., and) make “banned.” “Surely, even you . . . you who are . . . ”—he wrote 4n o1d F4rt on the board, as the class broke out into giggles—“can see this, right?” “But of course,” I lied, trying to keep my composure. Later on, after class, I figured it out. I could console myself, however, that at least I was not an über g33k like my student. Jim Stanlaw
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
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Summary and Conclusions
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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World
B O X 1 4 . 4 . W H AT L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S HELPED ACCOMPLISH
It is the policy of the United States to—
1) preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedom of Native Americans to use, practice, and develop Native American languages; . . . (3) encourage and the use of Native American languages as a medium of instruction in order to encourage and — (A) Native American language survival, (B) educational opportunity, (C) increased student success and performance, (D) increased student awareness and knowledge of their culture and history, and (E) increased student and community pride; (4) encourage State and local education programs to work with Native American parents, educators, Indian tribes, and other Native American governing bodies in the implementation of programs to put this policy into effect; (5) recognize the right of Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies to use the Native American languages as a medium of instruction in all schools funded by the Secretary of the Interior; . . . (7) the granting of comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a Native American language the same academic credit as comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a foreign language . . . Public Law 101-477 Title I—Native American Languages Act [1990]
RESOURCE MANUAL AND S T U DY G U I D E
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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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i*OUSPEVDUJPOwUPUIF )BOEPLPG "NFSJDBO*OEJBO-BOHVBHFT
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Chapter 2 Key DPOTVMUBOU DPSQVT FMJDJUBUJPO GJFMEXPSL JOGPSNBOU MJOHVJTUJDT QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO
Questions for Discussion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
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 '
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
$PNQMFUJPOT "DPMMFDUJPOPGMBOHVBHFEBUBVTFEBTBCBTJTGPSBOBOBMZTJTPSEFTDSJQUJPOJTSFGFSSFE UPBTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE JTUIFESBXJOHPVUPGJOGPSNBUJPOPSSFTQPOTF GSPNJOGPSNBOUT 5PFNQIBTJ[FUIFJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFODVMUVSFBOETPDJFUZ BOUISPQPMPHJTUTVTF UIFDPNQPVOEBEKFDUJWF@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE
Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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iMBOHVBHFNBU UFSTJOBOUISPQPMPHZw5IFUPQJDTSBOHFGSPNBDRVJTJUJPOPGMBOHVBHFUPXSJUJOH"OZSFBEFS XJMMGJOETPNFUIJOHPGJOUFSFTUBTXFMMBTTIPSUCJCMJPHSBQIJFTPGUIFNPTUTBMJFOUXPSLTPO FBDIUPQJD'PSBSFBEFSJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ TFF%VSBOUJUIFUXFOUZPOFDPOUSJ CVUJPOTUPUIJTXPSLJODMVEFBSUJDMFTPOTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZBOEDPNNVOJDBUJWFDPNQFUFODF VUUFSBODFTBTBDUT MBOHVBHFTPDJBMJ[BUJPOBOEMJUFSBDZQSBDUJDFT BOEUIFQPXFSPGMBOHVBHF
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Chapter 3 Key BDDFOU BMMPNPUJG BMMPQIPOF DPOTPOBOU FNJD T
FUJD T
NPUJG NPUJGFNF QIPOF QIPOFNF QIPOFNJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
QIPOFUJD USBOTDSJQUJPO
QIPOPMPHZ QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFT TQFFDIBQQBSBUVT TZMMBCMF WPJDFETPVOE WPJDFMFTTTPVOE WPXFM
Questions for Discussion &NJD BOEFUJD BQQSPBDIFTIBWFUIFJSPSJHJOJOMJOHVJTUJDTCVUFWFOUVBMMZIBWFCFFOBQ QMJFEJOTFWFSBMCSBODIFTPGBOUISPQPMPHZ JODMVEJOHPSBMGPMLMPSF*ODVMUVSBM TPDJBM
BOUISPQPMPHZUIFWBMVFPGUIFTFUXPBQQSPBDIFTIBTOPXCFFOHFOFSBMMZSFDPHOJ[FE %JTDVTTGJSTUUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFUXPBQQSPBDIFT QIPOFUJDWFSTVTQIPOFNJD
JOMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTBOEEFTDSJQUJPO BOEUIFOIPXUIFZDPNQMFNFOUFBDIPUIFSJO FUIOPHSBQIZ EFTDSJQUJPOPGBDVMUVSF 5IF&OHMJTIXPSETCZ IJHI UIJHI XIZ SZF BOEMJF BOEPOFDPVMEMJTUPUIFSTUIBU SIZNF CFMPOHUPUIFTBNFNJOJNBMTFU&YQMBJOXIBUJTNFBOUCZUIJTTUBUFNFOUBOE DPNNFOU PO UIF SFMBUJPO CFUXFFO UIF QSPOVODJBUJPO PG &OHMJTI XPSET BOE UIFJS TQFMMJOH .PSSJT)BMMFXSPUFUIBUiUIFTPunds XFFNJUXIFOTQFBLJOHBSFQSPEVDFECZDPN QMFYHZNOBTUJDTw$POTJEFSJOHUIBUQFPQMFTQFBLFGGPSUMFTTMZBOETPNFUJNFTUPPGBTU XIZEJE)BMMFNBLFUIBUTUBUFNFOU $POTJEFSUFOPSTPTPVOETPG&OHMJTIBOEBUUFNQUUPEFTDSJCF BUMFBTUSPVHIMZ XIFSF JOUIFWPDBMUSBDU UIBUJT CFUXFFOUIFMJQTBOEUIFMBSZOY NBSLFEJOUIFOFDLCZUIF TPDBMMFE"EBNTBQQMF
FBDITPVOEJTQSPEVDFEBOECZXIBUNFBOT
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 '
"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIIBTNPSFWPXFMQIPOFNFTUIBODPOTPOBOUQIPOFNFT
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5 '
5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
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
.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ 8IFOUIFWPDBMDPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFSBOENBEFUPWJCSBUF UIFZQSPEVDF "
WPJDFETPVOET # WPJDFMFTTTPVOET $ UIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<ʔ> @@@@ 5IFQTPVOETJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSETQFBL BOETQFBL BSF " UXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOF QIPOFNF # UXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT $ JODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO % 0G UIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWFPOMZUXPBSFBDDFQUBCMF & 0GUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWF POMZPOFJTBDDFQUBCMF @@@@ 5IFDPOUSBTUCFUXFFOUIFFNJDBOEFUJDQFSTQFDUJWFTJOMJOHVJTUJDTBOEMJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEBMTPUP " GPMLMPSF # BSDIBFPMPHZ $ DVMUVSBM BOUISPQPMPHZ % 5IJTBQQSPBDIIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEUPBMMUISFFTVCGJFMETMJTUFE IFSF @@@@ 5IFTPVOEXSJUUFOBTJT " VWVMBS # EFOUBM $ CJMBCJBM % /POFPGUIFTF UISFFDIPJDFTBQQMJFT @@@@ 8IJDIBNPOHUIFGPMMPXJOHTUBUFNFOUTJT JOEFGFOTJCMF " &BDIMBOHVBHFIBTB DIBSBDUFSJTUJDQIPOFNJDTZTUFN # 5IFHSBNNBSTPGVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTPGTNBMM USJCBMTPDJFUJFTBSFJOWBSJBCMZTJNQMFSUIBOHSBNNBSTPGMBOHVBHFTPGMBSHFFTUBC MJTIFETPDJFUJFT $ 5IFQSPEVDUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOETJTBOFYDFFEJOHMZDPNQMFY QSPDFTTJOWPMWJOHTPNFPOFIVOESFENVTDMFTBTXFMMBTPUIFSUJTTVFT % /BUJWF TQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHFVTFJUFGGJDJFOUMZFWFOUIPVHIUIFZNBZLOPXOPUIJOHBVU JUTTUSVDUVSF
$PNQMFUJPOT -BOHVBHFTUIBUNBLFVTFPGEJTUJODUJWFQJUDIMFWFMT .BOEBSJO$IJOFTF GPSFYBNQMF
BSFSFGFSSFEUPBT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@MBOHVBHFT POFXPSE 5IFTNBMMFTUQFSDFQUJCMFEJTDSFUFTFHNFOUPGTQFFDIJTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE UIFDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEVOJUTPGBMBOHVBHFBSF@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE BOEUIFWBSJFUJFTPGBDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEBSFJUT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE
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Problems 1SPCMFN #BTFEPO8POEFSMZBBOEC UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN;PRVF BMBOHVBHFTQPLFO JOTPVUIFSO.FYJDPUIBUCFMPOHTUPUIF.JYF;PRVFHSPVQPGMBOHVBHFT"NPOHUIFTPVOET PG;PRVFBSFBWPJDFMFTTBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF TJNJMBSUPUIFDPOTPOBOUTJOUIFXPSEUTFUTF
BOE<> BWPJDFEBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF'SPNUIFEBUBHJWFOIFSFUPCFUBLFOBTSFQSF TFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHFBSFBOE<>BMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF UIBUJT BSFUIFZJO DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO
PSBSFUIFZBTTJHOBCMFUPUXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT UIBUJT EP UIFZDPOUSBTU 4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. ʔakaʔŋhk2. ʔaŋoŋu 3. camamnayu 4. cap 5. caʔ 6. cima
7. nhku 8. nima 9. nin 10. pac 11. puci 12. wanʔyu
‘to be round’ ‘he answered’ ‘he chatted’ ‘sky’ ‘stone’ ‘calabash’
‘I did it’ ‘my calabash’ ‘my pine’ ‘skunk’ ‘trash’ ‘he quit singing’
1SPCMFN $[FDIJTB8FTU4MBWJDMBOHVBHFPGUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ TQPLFOJOUIF$[FDI 3FQVCMJD*O$[FDI BNPOHUIFWBSJPVTTUPQT QMPTJWFT BSFUXPBMWFPEFOUBMTUPQT BOE <E> BSUJDVMBUFECZUIFUPOHVFUJQBHBJOTUUIFVOEBSZCFUXFFOUIFVQQFSJODJTPSTBOEUIF BMWFPMBSSJEHFCFIJOEUIFN BOEUXPQBMBUBMTUPQTBOE<EZ>5PIPXNBOZQIPOFNFTBSF UIFTFGPVSTPVOETBTTJHOBCMF $POTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBOETVQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. dej 2. dyedyit 3. dyej 4. dyelo 5. kotel 6. kotye 7. tedi 8. tele
‘give!’ ‘to inherit’ ‘action’ ‘cannon’ ‘kettle’ ‘kitten’ ‘hence’ ‘calf (animal)’
9. tyelo 10. teta 11. tikat 12. titul 13. tyikat 14. vada 15. vana 16. vata
‘body’ ‘aunt’ ‘to be on a first-name basis’ ‘title’ ‘to tick (clock)’ ‘flaw’ ‘bathtub’ ‘absorbent cotton’
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO&DIFWFSSÓBBOE$POUSFSBT UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN"SBVDBOJBO BMBO HVBHFTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPG"SHFOUJOBBOE$IJMF*TUIFNBJOTUSFTT NBSLFECZ <}> EJTUJODUJWF PSJTJUQSFEJDUBCMFCZSVMF 4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. elúmuyu 2. kimúfaluwulay 3. kurám
‘give us!’ ‘he pretended not to know’ ‘egg’
4. nawél 5. putún 6. θuŋúlan 7. wuyá
‘tiger’ ‘to drink’ ‘I do not speak’ ‘yesterday’
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO1PTUBM UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN.PIBXL UIF*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFPGB/BUJWF "NFSJDBOQFPQMFXIPMJWFNBJOMZJOTPVUIFSO0OUBSJPBOEFYUSFNFOPSUIFSO/FX:PSL0O UIFCBTJTPGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFTUBUVTPGWPXFMMFOHUIJTJUQSFEJDUBCMFPSJTJU EJTUJODUJWF -FOHUIJTJOEJDBUFECZEPVCMJOHBTZNMUIBUJT ÏÏ JTBMPOHF<ʔ>JTUIFHMPU
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UBMTUPQ<}>NBSLTTUSFTT<>JTBOVOSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM BTJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSE CVEBOE<ɔ>JTBSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM 1. ranahéézs 2. ragéédas 3. ray}thos 4. waháágedeʔ 5. wísk 6. rehyááraʔs
7. wahrehyááraʔneʔ 8. ɔwadunizaʔáshegeʔ
‘he trusts her’ ‘he scrapes’ ‘he plants’ ‘he scraped’ ‘five’ ‘he re’
9. yékreks 10. royóʔdeʔ
‘he ed’ ‘it will be ripening repeatedly’ ‘I push it’ ‘he works’
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN,PSFBO BMBOHVBHFXIPTFBG GJMJBUJPOJTEJTQVUFE5IFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>BSFJODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO0OUIFCBTJT PGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFTVGGJYNFBOJOHAPG UIF 8IBUDIBOHFEP OPVOTUFNTVOEFSHPXIFOUIFTVGGJYJTBUUBDIFE BOEVOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFTEPFTUIF DIBOHFPDDVS 8IBUBSFUIFUXPNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFFOWJSPONFOUT DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJ CVUJPO JOXIJDIUIFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>PDDVS 1. pal 2. paruy 3. kul 4. il
‘foot’ ‘of the foot’ ‘oyster’ ‘day’
5. rupi 6. ratio 7. mul 8. muruy
‘ruby’ ‘radio’ ‘water’ ‘of the water’
9. saram 10. saramuy 11. multok 12. ipalsa
‘person’ ‘of the person’ ‘water jug’ ‘barber’
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPNB#BOUVMBOHVBHFTQP LFOJO"OHPMB "GSJDB5IJTMBOHVBHFJTBNFNCFSPGUIF/JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 5IFBMWFPMBSTFHNFOUT JODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPOXJUIUIFJSQBMBUBMDPVOUFS QBSUTBSFBTTJHOBCMFUPUISFFQIPOFNFT8IBUJTUIFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGFBDIPGUIFDPS SFTQPOEJOHQBJSTPGBMMPQIPOFT UIBUJT BOE BOE<Ý> BOE<[>BOE<ä> 8IJDIPG UIF QIPOFUJD TZNMT GSPN UIF GJSTU QBJS XPVME ZPV DIPPTF UP SFQSFTFOU UIF QIPOFNF BOEXIZ 1. tobola 2. tanu 3. kesoka 4. kasu 5. kunezulu 6. zevo 7. zenga
‘to bore a hole’ ‘five’ ‘to be cut’ ‘emaciation’ ‘heaven’ ‘then’ ‘to cut’
8. nselele 9. Oina 10. Oiba 11. nkoi 12. aimola 13. loloni 14. ima
‘termite’ ‘to cut’ ‘banana’ ‘lion’ ‘alms’ ‘to wash the house’ ‘to stretch’
1SPCMFN %FTQFSBOUPJTTQPLFOJOBOBTZFUVOFYQMPSFEUSPQJDBMGPSFTU"NPOHUIF%FTQFSBOUPXPSET BSFUIFGPMMPXJOHOPVOTBOEOPVOQISBTFT MPOHWPXFMTBSFSFQSFTFOUFECZEPVCMFMFUUFST TIPSUWPXFMTCZTJOHMFMFUUFST 1. muumu 2. kaka 3. wowo
‘home fried potatoes’ ‘scrambled eggs’ ‘bikini swimsuit’
Is vowel length phonemic?
yes
4. kakaa 5. mumu 6. woowoo no.
‘used bicycle’ ‘garlic ice cream’ ‘banana split’
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In your answer (one sentence should suffice), justify your choice: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________
1SPCMFN "NPOHUIFTPVOETPG$[FDIBSFBOE JTUIFTPVOEXSJUUFODI JOUIFOBNFPGUIF DPNQPTFS+4#BDI 0OUIFCBTJTPGUIF$[FDIXPSETMJTUFECFMPX BSFUIFTFUXPTPVOETUXP TFQBSBUFQIPOFNFTPSUXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF 1. [prak] 2. [puk] 3. [xrxel] 4. [krkoun]
‘slingshot’ ‘puck’ ‘spittle’ ‘cheapskate’
5. [prax] 6. [xroust] 7. [kras] 8. [pux]
‘dust’ ‘June bug’ ‘limestone region with caverns’ ‘stench’
2 separate phonemes 2 allophones of one phoneme. Justify your decision: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________
Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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
Chapter 4 Key BGGJY BMMPNPSQI BTQFDU VOENPSQIFNF
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DBTF EFSJWBUJPO EJTDPVSTF GSFFNPSQIFNF HFOEFS HFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS JOGJY JOGMFDUJPO NPSQIFNF NPSQIPMPHZ NPSQIPQIPOFNJDT QSFGJY QSPDFTTNPSQIFNF SFEVQMJDBUJPO TUFN TVGGJY TVQQMFUJPO TZOUBY USBOTGPSNBUJPO USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBS USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF WPXFMIBSNPOZ XPSEPSEFS
Questions for Discussion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
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 '
5 ' 5 '
/BUJWFTQFBLFSTXIPEPOPUPCTFSWFUIFQSPQFSHSBNNBUJDBMSVMFT UIFZNBZTBZ GPSFYBNQMF i*BJOUwPSiIFEPOULOPXOPUIJOHw BSFOPUVTFEBTJOGPSNBOUTCZ MJOHVJTUTBOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT 5IFTUVEZPGQIPOFNJDEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOWBSJPVTGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNFJT UFSNFENPSQIPQIPOFNJDT .PSQIPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZPGUIFPSJHJOPGXPSET
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-JOHVJTUJDVOJUTUIBUIBWFBNFBOJOHCVUDPOUBJOOPTNBMMFSNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTBSF DBMMFENPSQIFNFT 5IFSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUWPXFMTXJUIJOBXPSEIBWFBDFSUBJOTJNJMBSJUZSFTVMUTJO XIBUJTUFSNFEWPXFMIBSNPOZ
.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOUNPSQIFNFT OPUIPXNBOZ NPSQIFNFT BSFUIFSFJOUIFGPM MPXJOHTFOUFODFi4IFDPPLTUBTUZTPVQTBOETUFXTw " # $ % @@@@ 8IBUJTUIFUPUBM OVNCFSPGNPSQIFNFTJOUIFQSFDFEJOHTFOUFODF " # $
% @@@@ 5IF&OHMJTIXPSEVOEFTJSBCMF DPOUBJOT " POFQSFGJY # POFTVGGJY $ UXPBG GJYFT % UISFFBGGJYFT & 5XPPGUIFBWFDIPJDFTBQQMZ ' 5ISFFPGUIFBWF DIPJDFT "o% BQQMZ @@@@ 8IJDIPGUIF&OHMJTIXPSETMJTUFECFMPXIBTB[FSPBMMPNPSQIPGUIFQMVSBMNPS QIFNF " TZMMBCVT # NPVTF $ PY % TIFFQ & [FSP @@@@ 5IF TFOUFODF i%PHT CJUF UIJFWFTw DPOUBJOT " UISFF GSFF NPSQIFNFT # POF VOENPSQIFNF $ UXPVOENPSQIFNFT % 0OMZPOFPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFT BWFBQQMJFT & 5XPPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWF "o$ BQQMZ
$PNQMFUJPOT 8IBULJOEPGNPSQIFNF BMMPNPSQI JTFYFNQMJGJFECZBDIBOHFSBUIFSUIBOBO BEEJUJPO BTJOUIFQMVSBMJ[BUJPOPGNPVTF UPNJDF *UJTB@@@@@@@@@@NPSQIFNF POFXPSE *O-BUJO UIFBSSBOHFNFOUPGXPSETJOBTFOUFODFEPFTOPUJOEJDBUFXIJDIOPVO JTUIFTVCKFDUBOEXIJDIJTUIFPCKFDU CVUSBUIFSJTVTFEUPTIPX@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Problems 1SPCMFN #BTFEPO-BOHBDLFS UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN-VJTF×P B6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHF TQPLFOJOTPVUIXFTUFSO$BMJGPSOJB<ʔ>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQJTBQPTUWFMBSWPJDFMFTTTUPQ TJNJMBSUP CVUBSUJDVMBUFEGBSUIFSCBDLJOUIFNPVUI MPOHWPXFMTBSFXSJUUFOBTBTF RVFODFPGUXPWPXFMTZNMTUIFTUSFTT <}> JTNBSLFEPOMZPOUIFGJSTUPGUXPBEKBDFOU WPXFMT'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUBUPCFUBLFOBTSFQSFTFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHFJTPMBUF -VJTF×PNPSQIFNFTBOEQSPWJEFFBDIXJUIBO&OHMJTIHMPTT BCSJFGUSBOTMBUJPOUPJOEJDBUF NFBOJOH 1. nóo wukálaq 2. nóo páaʔiq 3. nóo páaʔin 4. temét Oáami páaʔiviOunin 5. nóo póy wukálaviOuniq 6. nóo páaʔiviOuq 7. temét póy wukálaviOuniq
‘I am walking’ ‘I am drinking’ ‘I will drink’ ‘The sun will make us want to drink’ ‘I am making him want to walk’ ‘I want to drink’ ‘The sun is making him want to walk’
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO;FQFEB UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN5PIPOP0PEIBN GPSNFSMZSFGFSSFEUPBT1B QBHP
B6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJOTPVUIFSO"SJ[POBBOEOPSUIXFTUFSO.FYJDP<ʔ>
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JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQBOE<ñ>JTQSPOPVODFEMJLFUIF×JOUIF&OHMJTIXPSEQJ×PO BMTPTQFMMFE QJOZPO0OUIFCBTJTPGUIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBSWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO"BOEUIFQMVSBM GPSNTJO$PMVNO# IPXXPVMEZPVEFTDSJCFJOHFOFSBMUFSNTUIFQSPDFTTPGQMVSBMJ[BUJPO PGUIFWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO" A 1. ñeok 2. ʔul 3. helwuin 4. him 5. dagkon
‘speaks’ ‘sticks out’ ‘is sliding’ ‘walks’ ‘wipes’
B ñeñeok ʔuʔul hehelwuin hihim dadagkon
1SPCMFN 5IFSFHVMBS&OHMJTIQBTUUFOTFNPSQIFNFIBTUISFFBMMPNPSQITEBTJOCFHHFE UBTJO DIJSQFE BOE-ədBTJOHVJEFE 5IFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBSNPSQIFNFBMTPIBTUISFFBMMP NPSQIT[BTJOHPFT PSCFHT TBTJODIJSQT BOE-əzBTJOIPVTFT %FTDSJCFUIFFOWJ SPONFOUTJOXIJDIUIFBMMPNPSQITPGFBDIPGUIFUXPNPSQIFNFTPDDVS
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO.FSSJGJFMEBOEPUIFST UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4JFSSB1PQPMVDB B.JYF ;PRVFMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJOBVUUXPEP[FOWJMMBHFTBOETFUUMFNFOUTJOUIFTUBUFPG7FS BDSV[ .FYJDP 5IF SBJTFE EPU <·> BGUFS B WPXFM NBSLT WPXFM MFOHUI <> JT B DFOUSBM VOSPVOEFEWPXFM<ʔ>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<ŋ>JTBWFMBSOBTBM TJNJMBSUPOH JOTJOH PSLJOH BOE<Ý> <×> BOE BSFQBMBUPBMWFPMBSTBWPJDFMFTTTUPQ BOBGGSJDBUF BGSJDBUJWF BOBTBM BOEBTFNJWPXFM SFTQFDUJWFMZ'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB MJTUUIFBMMPNPSQITPGUIF NPSQIFNFNBSLJOHXIBUDPSSFTQPOETUPUIF&OHMJTIHMPTTiNZwBOEUIFOTUBUFUIFSVMFT UIBUHPWFSOUIFNPSQIPQIPOFNJDTPGUIJTQSFGJY 1. co·goy 2. Oiki 3. ha·ya 4. he·pe 5. kawah 6. k ·pi 7. me·me 8. me·sah 9. nc 10. n·yi 11. petkuy 12. piyu 13. suskuy 14. suuŋ 15. apun 16. iʔmpa 17. tk 18. tyaka 19. wOo·mo 20. yemkuy
‘liver’ ‘itch’ ‘husband’ ‘cup’ ‘horse’ ‘firewood’ ‘butterfly’ ‘table’ ‘armadillo’ ‘name’ ‘broom’ ‘hen’ ‘whistle’ ‘cooking pot’ ‘soap’ ‘bamboo’ ‘house’ ‘chick’ ‘wife’ ‘fan’
21. anco·goy 22. añOiki 23. anha·ya 24. anhe·pe 25. aŋkawah 26. aŋk ·pi 27. amme·me 28. amme·sah 29. annc 30. ann·yi 31. ampetkuy 32. ampiyu 33. ansuskuy 34. ansuuŋ 35. añapun 36. añiʔmpa 37. antk 38. añtyaka 39. aŋwOo·mo 40. añyemkuy
‘my liver’ ‘my itch’ ‘my husband’ ‘my cup’ ‘my horse’ ‘my firewood’ ‘my butterfly’ ‘my table’ ‘my armadillo’ ‘my name’ ‘my broom’ ‘my hen’ ‘my whistle’ ‘my cooking pot’ ‘my soap’ ‘my bamboo’ ‘my house’ ‘my chick’ ‘my wife’ ‘my fan’
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1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4BNPBO4BNPBOJTB NFNCFSPGUIF"VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 1. manao 2. matua 3. malosi 4. punou 5. atamaki 6. savali 7. laga
‘he wishes’ ‘he is old’ ‘he is strong’ ‘he bends’ ‘he is wise’ ‘he travels’ ‘he weaves’
8. mananao 9. matutua 10. malolosi 11. punonou 12. atamamaki 13. pepese
‘they wish’ ‘they are old’ ‘they are strong’ ‘they bend’ ‘they are wise’ ‘they sing’
Given the preceding data, what Samoan words would you expect for the following: he sings __________ , they weave ________________ , they travel ________________?
1SPCMFN 5IFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBSFGSPNUIF"[UFDEJBMFDUIFBSEJO7FSBDSV[ .FYJDP 1. niOoka 2. niOokaʔ 3. nimayana 4. nimayanaʔ
‘I cry’ ‘I cried’ ‘I am hungry’ ‘I was hungry’
5. timayana 6. nimayanas 7. tiOoka 8. niOokas
‘you (sing.) are hungry’ ‘I will be hungry’ ‘you (sing.) cry’ ‘I will cry’
$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFGJSTUQFSTPOTJOHVMBS*TJUBQSFGJY @@@@@@PSBTVG GJY @@@@@@8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFQSFT FOUUFOTF @@@@@@@UIFQBTUUFOTF @@@@@@@@@UIFGVUVSFUFOTF @@@@@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSN PGUIFTUFNNFBOJOHADSZ @@@@@@@@@$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFTFDPOEQFSTPO TJOHVMBS8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
1SPCMFN )FSFBSFUFO&OHMJTIXPSETXSJUUFOJOUSBEJUJPOBMPSUIPHSBQIZ 1. rewriting 2. fearfully
3. tasteless 4. carelessly
5. illegally 6. hopelessly
7. carefully 8. irretrievable
9. immobile 10. immorally
)PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU OPUIPXNBOZ QSFGJYFTEPUIFTFUFOXPSETEJTQMBZ @@@ HJWFUIF OVNCFS )PXNBOZBMMPNPSQITPGPOFQBSUJDVMBSQSFGJYBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVN CFS )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU TVGGJYFTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU TUFNTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS
Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 3FGFSFODFTUPUFYUPLTPGMJOHVJTUJDTNBZCFGPVOEJOUIF/PUFTUP$IBQUFS"OFYDFMMFOU TBNQMFPGQSPCMFNTBOEFYFSDJTFTJTGPVOEJO.FSSJGJFME /BJTI 3FOTDI BOE4UPSZ 5IF$IPOUBMFYBNQMFTBSFGSPN8BUFSIPVTF UIF*TUINVT/BIVBUFYBNQMFTGSPN -BX UIF4BNPBOFYBNQMFTGSPN'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO BOEUIFTVNNBSZPG UIFSVMFTPG5VSLJTIWPXFMIBSNPOZGSPN(MFBTPO 5IFQVCMJDBUJPOCZ$IPNTLZUIBUQSPWFEUPCFBUVSOJOHQPJOUJONPEFSOMJOHVJTUJDTJT 4ZOUBDUJD4USVDUVSFT 0UIFSXSJUJOHTCZ$IPNTLZJODMVEF"TQFDUTPGUIF5IFPSZPG 4ZOUBY
-BOHVBHFBOE.JOE
BOE-FDUVSFTPO(PWFSONFOUBOE#JOEJOH "HPPEJOUSPEVDUJPOUP$IPNTLZTDPOUSJCVUJPOTUPMJOHVJTUJDTBOEUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBN NBSJT-ZPOT BTBSF3BEGPSE BOE$BSOJF "EHFS $PPLBOE
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/FXTPOEJTDVTTTPNFPGUIFOFXFSEJSFDUJPOT$IPNTLZIBTUBLFOJOIJTTZOUBDUJDBM BOBMZTJT
Chapter 5 Key BMUFSOBUFTJHOMBOHVBHF "NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF PS"NFTMBO
CSBJMMF LJOFTJDT OPOWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPO QBSBMBOHVBHF QBSBMJOHVJTUJDT QSPYFNJDT TFNJPUJDT TJHOMBOHVBHF XIJTUMFiMBOHVBHFw PSXIJTUMFTQFFDI
Questions for Discussion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
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
"NFTMBO "NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF IBTUXPTJHOJOHTZTUFNTUIBUDPNQMFNFOU FBDIPUIFS "MMFYJTUJOHJOTUBODFTPGXIJTUMFTQFFDIBSFCBTFEPOMBOHVBHFTUIBUIBWFEJTUJOD UJWFUPOFT *OUIFPSZ QSPYFNJDCFIBWJPSWBSJFTGSPNTPDJFUZ DVMUVSF UPTPDJFUZIPXFWFS UIFQSPYFNJDCFIBWJPSTPGTPNFTPDJFUJFTEPOPUBQQSFDJBCMZEJGGFS
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.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ 5IFVTFPGHFTUVSFTUPBDDPNQBOZTQFFDIJTSFGFSSFEUPBT " LJOFTJDT # QSPY FNJDT $ QBSBMJOHVJTUJDT @@@@ 8IJDIPGUIFGPMMPXJOHOPOWFSCBMTZTUFNTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOJTEFSJWFEGSPNTQP LFOMBOHVBHFSBUIFSUIBOGSPNJUTXSJUUFOGPSN " .PSTFDPEF # #SBJMMF $
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Chapter 6 Key BDPVTUJDDIBOOFM BVTUSBMPQJUIFDJOFT DIBOOFM DPNNVOJDBUJPO $SP.BHOPOT EFTJHOGFBUVSFTPGMBOHVBHF EJTDPOUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFFWPMVUJPO EJTQMBZ IPNJOJET IPNJOPJET )PNPFSFDUVT )PNPIBCJMJT )PNPTBQJFOT )PNPTBQJFOTTBQJFOT JDPOJD JOOBUJTUUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO NPOPHFOFTJT PGMBOHVBHF
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Questions for Discussion 8IBULJOETPGFWJEFODFTVQQPSUUIFWJFXUIBUUIFHJGUPGTQFFDIJTCVJMUJOUPBMM IVNBOCFJOHT "OEIPXDBOUIJTXJEFMZBDDFQUFEQSFNJTFUIBUDIJMESFOBSFHF OFUJDBMMZQSPHSBNNFEUPMFBSOFBTJMZGSPNUIFJSQBSFOUTBOEPUIFSDBSFHJWFSTBOZ
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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 '
5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
5 '
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USJMJOHVBMJTN WPDBMQMBZ 8FSOJDLFTBSFB PGUIFCSBJO
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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 '
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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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ÏQSF[ BOE:B NBLJEP'PSEJTDVTTJPOPGUIFMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFTPG#SPDBTBSFBTFF(SPE[JOTLZBOE "NVOUT5IFQSPDFEVSFTVTFEUPNFBTVSFNVUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZBNPOH*SPRVPJBOMBO HVBHFTBSFEFTDSJCFEJOBOBSUJDMFCZ)JDLFSTPO 5VSOFS BOE)JDLFSTPO5IFUFSN EJHMPTTJB XBTDPJOFECZ'FSHVTPO8FJ-JTFEJUFE5IF#JMJOHVBMJTN3FBEFS HJWFT NBOZPGUIFDMBTTJDBSUJDMFTJOUIFEJTDJQMJOF'PSDPEFTXJUDIJOHBOEDPEFNJYJOHTFF)FMMFS PS(BSEOFS$IMPSPT4BWJMMF5SPJLFJTHPPEHFOFSBMJOUSPEVDUJPOUPTFDPOE MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO
Chapter 8 Key BHHMVUJOBUJWFMBOHVBHFT "OHMP4BYPO BTTJNJMBUJPO #FPXVMG DPHOBUFT EJBDISPOJD BQQSPBDI
EJTTJNJMBUJPO
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HFOFUJDDMBTTJGJDBUJPO HMPUUPDISPOPMPHZ IJTUPSJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT IZQFSDPSSFDUJPO JOGMFDUJOHMBOHVBHFT JTPMBUJOHMBOHVBHFT MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ MBOHVBHFJTPMBUF MFYJDPTUBUJTUJDT MJOHVJTUJDUZQPMPHZ MPBOXPSE NFUBUIFTJT QIZMVN QPMZTZOUIFUJDMBOHVBHFT QSPUPDVMUVSF SFDPOTUSVDUJPOT TPVOEDIBOHF TZODISPOJD BQQSPBDI
Questions for Discussion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
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
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$PNQMFUJPOT &OHMJTIJTBMBOHVBHFUIBUCFMPOHTUPUIF@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ POFIZQIFOBUFEXPSE 8IBUSFDPOTUSVDUJCMF*OEP&VSPQFBOXPSEJOEJDBUFTUIBU1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBOTEJE OPUMJWFOFBSUIFFRVBUPS @@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE
Problems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
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO$PXBOBOE3BLVÝBO
UIJTQSPCMFNDBMMTGPSUIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUIFJOJ UJBM1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBODPOTPOBOUPOUIFCBTJTPGUIFGPMMPXJOHDPHOBUFT SFMBUFEXPSET
JOUISFF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFT English father foot for flat fathom
Latin pater p[s per plGnus pat[re
Ancient Greek pat[r pous peri platos patan[
5IFIPSJ[POUBMMJOFTPWFSDFSUBJOWPXFMTNBSLUIFJSMFOHUIGPSFYBNQMF G JOQMGOVT TPVOETMJLFBJOGBUIFS
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1SPCMFN #BTFEPO-BOHBDLFS
UIJTQSPCMFNDPODFSOTUIFSFGMFYFTPG1SPUP$VQBO<M>JOUISFF MBOHVBHFTPG$VQBO BTVCGBNJMZPG6UP"[UFDBO "SFGMFYJOUIJTDBTFJTBTPVOEEFSJWFE GSPNBQSJPSTPVOE
Cahuilla haal kiyul laʔlaʔ qasily puul mukily silyi
Cupeño hal qəyul ləʔəl qəéily puul mukʔily silyi
Luiseño hal kiyuul laʔla qaaéil puula muukil éiili
‘look for’ ‘fish’ ‘goose’ ‘sagebrush’ ‘doctor’ ‘sore’ ‘pour’
1SPUP$VQBO<M>DPSSFTQPOETUP@@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ @@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ BOE@@@JO @@@@@@@VOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFT
1SPCMFN #BTFEPO$PXBOBOE3BLVÝBO
UIJTQSPCMFNDBMMTGPSUIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGXIPMF 1SPUP"VTUSPOFTJBOXPSETGSPNUIFGPMMPXJOHDPHOBUFTPGTFWFSBM"VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFT Sundanese manis taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjuŋ qupah
Old Javanese manis taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjuŋ qupah
Modern Javanese manès taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjóŋ upah
Malay manes taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjoŋ opah
Madurese manes taman kòraŋ dhámar bhántal tanjhuŋ òpa
‘lovely’ ‘garden’ ‘reduction’ ‘lamp’ ‘pillow’ ‘flower’ ‘reward’
Example: Proto-Austronesian word for ‘lovely’ is reconstructible as *manis.
1SPCMFN According to Watkins 1992, among the reconstructible Proto-Indo-European words are the following: *grə-no- ‘grain,’ *bhar(e)s- ‘barley,’ *yewo- ‘grain,’ *mel(ə)- ‘to grind,’ *s[- ‘to sow,’ *yeug- ‘to , to yoke,’ *gwou- ‘cow, ox,’ *weik- ‘village,’ *owi- ‘ewe, sheep,’ *ekwo- ‘horse,’ *dem- ‘house(hold),’ and *dhwer- ‘door(way).’ What conclusions can one draw from these Proto-Indo-European words about the livelihood of of old Indo-European society?
Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading $SPXMFZBOE#PXFSO )BMF .JMMFS BOE4DIFOEMBSFTUBOEBSESFDFOU UFYUTJOIJTUPSJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT'PSDMBTTJDUFDIOJDBMJOUSPEVDUJPOTUP BOETVSWFZPG IJTUPSJ DBMMJOHVJTUJDTTFF"OUUJMBPS)PDL4FWFSBMUIFNBUJDTFDUJPOTPOUIFTVCKFDUPGUIJT DIBQUFSBSFJODMVEFEJO$SZTUBM.PTUPGUIF+BQBOFTFFYBNQMFTDPNFGSPN*OPVF BOEIVOESFETPGPUIFSTDBOCFGPVOEJO4UBOMBXB
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Chapter 9 Key BDSPMFDU BSUJGJDJBM BVYJMJBSZ MBOHVBHF CBTJMFDU DSFPMF DSFPMJ[BUJPO EFDSFPMJ[BUJPO EJBMFDU JEJPMFDU MBOHVBHFDPOUBDU MJOHVBGSBODB MPBOXPSE QJEHJO QJEHJOJ[BUJPO TUBOEBSE TUZMF 5PL1JTJO WPDBMUSBDU
Questions for Discussion %PZPVVTFBEJGGFSFOUUFSNGPSTPNFPGUIFGPMMPXJOHJUFNTXIFOZPVSFGFSUPUIFN JOGPSNBMMZBUIPNF baby carriage dry streambed cottage cheese earthworm (fishermen’s term) doughnut pancake dragonfly trough along the eaves to catch and carry off rainwater
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%JGGFSFODFTJOQSPOVODJBUJPOBNPOHSFHJPOBMEJBMFDUTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIBSFXFBL FOJOHCFDBVTFPGUIFFWFSHSFBUFSNPCJMJUZPG"NFSJDBOT CVUUIFZTUJMMFYJTU8SJUFEPXO UIFGPMMPXJOHXPSETBOEUIFOBTLJOEJWJEVBMTGSPNEJGGFSFOUQBSUTPGUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT PS PUIFS&OHMJTITQFBLJOHDPVOUSJFT UPQSPOPVODFUIFN %POUTBZ UIFXPSET BTZPVBSF MJLFMZUPJOGMVFODFUIFQSPOVODJBUJPOPGZPVSJOGPSNBOUT
aunt half soot bird house third caught laugh which cot marry witch envelope Mary with greasy merry *UIBTCFFOTBJEUIBUBMBOHVBHFJTEJBMFDUXJUIBOBSNZ8IBUEPZPVUIJOLUIJTNFBOT *TUIFSFBOZXJTEPNUPTVDIBDMBJN 0OFPGUIFBVUIPSTXBTJO/FX(VJOFBBOEIFBSEUXPMPDBMQJEHJOTQFBLFSTMPPLJOH BUB-BOE3PWFSXJUIBCSPLFOIFBEMJHIU0OFTBJEUPUIFPUIFS i&ZFCFMPOHFNCVHHFSVQ QJOJTw8IBUEPZPVUIJOLIFXBTUSZJOHUPTBZ )*/5QJOJT JTUIFQJEHJOGPSNPG&OHMJTI iGJOJTIw
Projects 1SPKFDU )FSFBSFTPNF&OHMJTIXPSETBOEUIFJSDPSSFTQPOEJOHFRVJWBMFOUTJO,BNUPL $BNFSPPO 1JEHJO&OHMJTI * BNJ IFTIFJU J ZPV ZV XF XJ UIFZ EFN FBU DIPQ LOPX TBCJ DPNF LPN HPXJMMHP HP QBTU CJO CF CJ XIP IV NBOZ QFOUJ IPNF IPVTF IBVT GPS UP GP OPX OBV UPNPSSPX UVNSP 5SBOTMBUFUIFGPMMPXJOH$BNFSPPO1JEHJO&OHMJTITFOUFODFTJOUP&OHMJTI BOEUIF&OHMJTI TFOUFODFTJOUP$BNFSPPO1JEHJO&OHMJTI @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ ZFTUBEFJBCJODIPQ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ UVNSPBHPDIPQ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ BCJODIPQQFOUJ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ BCJODIPQOBVOBV @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ EFNCJOHPGPIBVT )FKVTUDBNF @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
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8FXJMMFBU *LOPX *XJMMHP *LOPXUIFN
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
8SJUFUISFFPUIFSTFOUFODFTJO$BNFSPPO1JEHJO&OHMJTI @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
1SPKFDU *EFOUJGZBUMFBTUBEP[FOXPSETUIBUIBWFCFFOSSPXFEJOUP&OHMJTIGSPNPUIFSMBOHVBHFT 5SZUPGJOEPVUXIBUUIFZNFBOJOUIFJSPSJHJOBMMBOHVBHF8IBULJOEPGNPEJGJDBUJPOTEP ZPVTFFUBLJOHQMBDF
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
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
.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ 5PL1JTJOJTTQPLFOJOXIJDIPGUIFGPMMPXJOHDPVOUSJFTQMBDFT " 1BQVB/FX (VJOFB # "VTUSBMJB $ /FX;FBMBOE % 5BIJUJ @@@@ 5IFEJGGFSFOUJBUJPOCFUXFFOBMBOHVBHFBOEBEJBMFDUJTCBTFEPO " NVUVBMJOUFM MJHJCJMJUZ # UIFTPDJPDVMUVSBMSFMBUJPOTIJQPGUIFUXPDPNNVOJUJFT HSPVQT QFP QMFT $ #PUIPGUIFTFDSJUFSJB "BOE# NVTUCFUBLFOJOUPBDDPVOU @@@@ "MUIPVHIQJEHJOTDBOCFCBTFEPOBOZMBOHVBHF UIFNPTUDPNNPOPSBUMFBTU UIFNPTUXFMMLOPXOQJEHJOTIBWFCFFOCBTFEPO " 'SFODI # 4QBOJTI $
&OHMJTI % +BQBOFTF
$PNQMFUJPOT 5IFQSPDFTTPGFYQBOTJPOPGBQJEHJOUPPUIFSMBOHVBHFGVODUJPOTJTSFGFSSFEUPBT @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE 5IFMJOHVJTU.BSUJO+PPTDMBJNTUIFSFBSF@@@@@@@@@DMFBSMZSFDPHOJ[BCMFTUZMFTJOIJT EJBMFDUPGFBTUDFOUSBM"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI POFXPSE 5IFUIFPSZPGUIFMJOHVJTU%FSFL#JDLFSUPOUIBUUSJFTUPFYQMBJOUIFTJNJMBSJUJFTGPVOE JOBMMQJEHJOTBOEDSFPMFTJTUIF@@@@@@@@@@@@@@IZQPUIFTJT POFXPSE
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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 5IFMJUFSBUVSFPOEJBMFDUPMPHZJTWBTU$IBNCFSTBOE5SVEHJMMJTBTUBOEBSEJOUSPEVD UPSZUFYU4FF8PMGSBNBOE4DIJMMJOH&TUFTPS-BWGPSEJTDVTTJPOTPG&OHMJTIEJ BMFDUTBOETPVOEDIBOHF-BWB C BOEDXJMMMJLFMZCFUIFOFXTUBOEBSETPO MBOHVBHFWBSJBUJPOBOEDIBOHFGPSTPNFUJNF 5IFPSJHJOPGUIFXPSEQJEHJO JTOPULOPXOGPSDFSUBJO BMUIPVHIJUJTVTVBMMZDPOTJEFSFE UPCFB$IJOFTFNJTQSPOVODJBUJPOPGUIF&OHMJTIXPSECVTJOFTT"SFDFOUTVSWFZ $SZTUBM o IBTJEFOUJGJFENPSFUIBOPOFIVOESFEQJEHJOTBOEDSFPMFTUIFXPSMEPWFS JODMVEJOHTPNFUIBUBSFOPXFYUJODU CVUUIFSFIBWFVOEPVCUFEMZCFFONPSF'PSFYBNQMF UIFUIFEJUJPOPGUIFEFGJOJUJWFMBOHVBHFSFTPVSDF&UIOPMPHVF (PSEPO DJUFTBVU GPVSIVOESFEQJEHJOTBOETJYIVOESFEDSFPMFT UIPVHI PGDPVSTF QSPCMFNTPGEFGJOJUJPO BVOE"OZGJHVSFTIPVMECFWJFXFEBTBDPOTFSWBUJWFFTUJNBUF BTNBOZQJEHJOTNVTUIBWF DFBTFEUPFYJTUXJUIPVUBOZSFDPSEBOETPNFPGUIFDSFPMFTPGUIFQBTUBSFOPMPOHFSJEFOUJ GJBCMFBTTVDI "OFYDFMMFOUSFDFOUHVJEFUPUIFTUVEZPGQJEHJOBOEDSFPMFMBOHVBHFTJT3PNBJOF BTIPSUFSBOENPSFQPQVMBSJOUSPEVDUJPOUPQJEHJOTJT)BMM BTXFMMBTUIFMBUFS5PEE 5IFUIFPSZBOETUSVDUVSFPGQJEHJOTBOEDSFPMFTBSFUIFTVCKFDUPGUIFUXPWPMVNFTPG )PMNBOE UIPVHITUVEFOUTOFXUPUIFUPQJDTIPVMETUBSUXJUIIJTTUBOEBSEJO USPEVDUPSZUFYU)PMN5IFOFXUIFPSFUJDBMTUBOEBSE IPXFWFS XJMMMJLFMZCF4JFHFM 'PSBCSJFGBOENPSFQPQVMBSMZXSJUUFOBSUJDMFPODSFPMFMBOHVBHFT TFF#JDLFSUPO "DSJUJDBM QBSUMZOFHBUJWFFWBMVBUJPOPG#JDLFSUPOTCJPQSPHSBNIZQPUIFTJTJTUPCFGPVOEJO .àIMIÊVTMFSBOE3PNBJOF 5IF5PL1JTJOFYBNQMFTBSFGSPN8PPMGPSEBOE.VSQIZUIFTIPSUUFYUJT UBLFOGSPN5PEE 5IFQSPDFEVSFTVTFEUPNFBTVSFNVUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZBNPOH*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFTBSF EFTDSJCFEJOBOBSUJDMFCZ)JDLFSTPO 5VSOFS BOE)JDLFSTPO
Chapter 10 Key DPNNVOJDBUJWFDPNQFUFODF DPNNVOJDBUJWFQFSGPSNBODF DPOUFYU DPOUFYUVBMJ[BUJPO FUIOPHSBQIZPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO GSBNF GSBNJOH
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TQFFDIBSFB TQFFDIDPNNVOJUZ TQFFDIFWFOU TQFFDITJUVBUJPO
Questions for Discussion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
Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
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Chapter 11 Key BOUPOZN CFIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZPGNFBOJOH CJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOT DPNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT DPODFQU DPOOPUBUJPO EFOPUBUJPO EJTDPVSTF FUIOPTDJFODF IPNPOZN MFYFNF QPMZTFNZ SFGFSFOU TFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM TFNBOUJDT TFNJPUJDUSJBOHMF TPVOETZNMJTN
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Questions for Discussion *OUIJTDIBQUFSXFTBXNBOZTFUTPG&OHMJTIUFSNTVTJOHTJNJMBSTPVOETUIBUTFFNUP TIBSFDFSUBJOGFFMJOHTPSNFBOJOHT8IZNJHIUUIJTCFUIFDBTF $PVMEUIJTQIFOPN FOPOCFVOJWFSTBM *GPOPNBUPQPFJDUFSNTBSFTVQQPTFEUPJNJUBUFTPVOET XIZBSFUIFWBSJPVTPOP NBUPQPFJDFYQSFTTJPOTEJGGFSFOUBDSPTTMBOHVBHFT FH XXPX JO&OHMJTI XBOXBO JO+BQBOFTF PSBXBX JO5BHBMPH
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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '
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Questions for Discussion &OHMJTILJOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ BTVTFECZ"NFSJDBOT WBSJFTTPNFXIBUGSPNQFSTPOUP QFSTPO4PNFLJOUFSNTBSFVTFECZFWFSZPOFGBUIFS NPUIFS TPO EBVHIUFSXIJMF PUIFSLJOUFSNTBSFOPUTPXFMMVOEFSTUPPEBOEUIFSFGPSFOPUTPDPNNPOMZVTFE TFDPOEDPVTJO UIJSEDPVTJO GJSTUDPVTJOPODFSFNPWFE BOEUIFMJLF&YBNJOFUIPTFLJO
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382
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GLOSSARY
383
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384
GLOSSARY
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i*LFQUPOFBUJOHw JTFYQSFTTFECZUIFXPSEOHJSSVVOUIJOHBQVLBOJ1SFGJY "OBGGJYUIBUJTBEEFEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHPGBSPPUPSTUFN GPSFYBNQMF UIFJOJUJBM NPSQIFNFTJOUIFXPSETSFXSJUF VOEP BOEEJTBMMPX 1SFMBOHVBHF "OZPGUIFTUBHFTJOUIFEFWFMPQNFOUPGTQFFDIUIBUQSFDFEFTGVMMGMFEHFE MBOHVBHF 1SJNBSZTJHOMBOHVBHF "TJHOMBOHVBHFVTFEUPUIFFYDMVTJPOPGTQPLFOMBOHVBHF GPSFY BNQMF CZQFPQMFSOEFBG 1SPDFTTNPSQIFNF "DIBOHFPGBTPVOEPSTPVOET GPSFYBNQMF GSPNHPPTF UPUIFQMVSBM HFFTF SBUIFSUIBOUIFBEEJUJPOPGBNPSQIFNF BTJOUIFQMVSBMDBUTGSPN DBU 1SPTPEJDGFBUVSFT 'FBUVSFTPUIFSUIBOWPXFMTBOEDPOTPOBOUTUIBUBSFFTTFOUJBMGPSBOVU UFSBODFUPTPVOEOBUVSBMBOEUPCFGVMMZNFBOJOHGVM GPSFYBNQMF TUSFTTBOEJOUPOBUJPO
GLOSSARY
385
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386
GLOSSARY
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
GLOSSARY
387
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389
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412
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414
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416
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1JEHJOTBOEDSFPMFT-POEPO3PVUMFEHF 5PNLJOT 8JMMJBN *OEJBOTJHOMBOHVBHF/FX:PSL%PWFS 0SJHJOBMMZQVCMJTIFECZUIFBVUIPSJO VOEFSUIFUJUMF6OJWFSTBM<"NFSJDBO>*OEJBOTJHOMBOHVBHF
5SBHFS (FPSHF- 1BSBMBOHVBHFBGJSTUBQQSPYJNBUJPO4UVEJFTJO-JOHVJTUJDTo -BOHVBHFBOEMBOHVBHFT4BO'SBODJTDP $"$IBOEMFS 5SVEHJMM 1FUFS FE "QQMJFETPDJPMJOHVJTUJDT0SMBOEP '-"DBEFNJD1SFTT 5TVEB :VLJP 5IFEJGGVTJPOPG&OHMJTIJUTJNQBDUPODVMUVSFBOEDPNNVOJDBUJPO,FJP$PN NVOJDBUJPO3FWJFXo 4IJOSZBLVTVSV&JHP IBOHFLJTVSV/JIPOHP *OWBEJOH&OHMJTI DPVOUFSBUUBDLJOH +BQBOFTF 5PLZP1)1 )FHFNPOZPG&OHMJTIWTFDPMPHZPGMBOHVBHFCVJMEJOHFRVBMJUZJOJOUFSOBUJPOBMDPN NVOJDBUJPO*O 8PSME&OHMJTIFTTFMFDUFEFTTBZT-BSSZ4NJUIBOE.JDIBFM'PS NBO FET QQo)POPMVMV )*6OJWFSTJUZPG)BXBJJ1SFTT&BTU8FTU$FOUFS 5ZMFS 4UFQIFO" FE $PHOJUJWFBOUISPQPMPHZ/FX:PSL)PMU 3JOFIBSUBOE8JOTUPO 6SDJVPMJ #POOJF &YQPTJOHQSFKVEJDF1VFSUP3JDBOFYQFSJFODFTPGMBOHVBHF SBDF BOEDMBTT#PVMEFS $08FTUWJFX1SFTT 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' BOE;4)BSSJT 5SBJOJOHJOBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT"NFSJDBO"OUISPQPMPHJTUo 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' BOE'MPSFODF.7PFHFMJO 0CUBJOJOHBMJOHVJTUJDTBNQMF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDTo )PQJEPNBJOTBMFYJDBMBQQSPBDIUPUIFQSPCMFNPGTFMFDUJPO*OEJBOB6OJWFSTJUZ 1VCMJDBUJPOTJO"OUISPQPMPHZBOE-JOHVJTUJDT NFNPJSPGUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVS OBMPG"NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDT#BMUJNPSF8BWFSMZ1SFTT (VJEFGPSUSBOTDSJCJOHVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTJOGJFMEXPSL"OUISPQPMPHJDBM-JO HVJTUJDTo DPNQT .BQPG/PSUI"NFSJDBO*OEJBOMBOHVBHFT"NFSJDBO&UIOPMPHJDBM4PDJFUZ 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' 'MPSFODF.7PFHFMJO BOE-B7FSOF.BTBZFTWB+FBOOF )PQJTFNBOUJDT*O )BOEPLPG/PSUI"NFSJDBO*OEJBOT WPM4PVUIXFTU QQ o8BTIJOHUPO %$4NJUITPOJBO*OTUJUVUJPO 7PZMFT +PTFQI BOE$IBSMFT#BSSBDL "OJOUSPEVDUJPOUP1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBOBOEUIFFBSMZ*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFT #MPPNJOHUPO*/4MBWJDB1VCMJTIFST 8BMUFS )FOSJFUUF -FGSBOÎBJTEBOTUPVTMFTTFOT1BSJT3-BGGPOU 8BSEIBVHI 3POBME BOE)%PVHMBT#SPXO FET "TVSWFZPGBQQMJFEMJOHVJTUJDT"OO"SS6OJWFSTJUZPG.JDIJHBO1SFTT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
417
8BUBOBCF 4VXBLP $VMUVSBM EJGGFSFODFT JO GSBNJOH "NFSJDBOBOE +BQBOFTF HSPVQ EJTDVTTJPOT*O 'SBNJOHJOEJTDPVSTF%FSBI5BOOFO FE QQo/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJ WFSTJUZ1SFTT 8BUFSIPVTF 7JPMB 5IFHSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSFPG0BYBDB$IPOUBM*OEJBOB6OJWFSTJUZ3FTFBSDI$FO UFSJO"OUISPQPMPHZ 'PMLMPSF BOE-JOHVJTUJDT1VCMJDBUJPOT OP#MPPNJOHUPO 8BULJOT $BMWFSU *OEP&VSPQFBOBOEUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOT*O 5IF"NFSJDBO)FSJUBHF%JDUJPOBSZPG UIF&OHMJTI-BOHVBHFEFE QQo#PTUPO)PVHIUPO.JGGMJO 8BUTPO 0.JDIBFM BOE5IFPEPSF%(SBWFT 2VBOUJUBUJWFSFTFBSDIJOQSPYFNJDCFIBWJPS"NFSJDBO"OUISPQPMPHJTUo 8FJOSJDI 6SJFM 0OTFNBOUJDT1IJMBEFMQIJB6OJWFSTJUZPG1FOOTZMWBOJB1SFTT 8FJU[ 4IJSMFZ FE /POWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOSFBEJOHTXJUIDPNNFOUBSZ/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJ WFSTJUZ1SFTT 8FTDPUU 3PHFS8 5IFPSJHJOPGTQFFDI*O -BOHVBHFPSJHJOT3PHFS88FTDPUU FE QQo4JM WFS4QSJOH .%-JOTUPL1SFTT 8IPSG #FOKBNJO-FF 5IFQVODUVBMBOETFHNFOUBUJWFBTQFDUTPGWFSCTJO)PQJ-BOHVBHFo B 4DJFODFBOEMJOHVJTUJDT5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo o "QSJM C -JOHVJTUJDTBTBOFYBDUTDJFODF5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo o %FDFNCFS B -BOHVBHFTBOEMPHJD5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo "QSJM C 5IFSFMBUJPOPGIBCJUVBMUIPVHIUBOECFIBWJPSUPMBOHVBHF*O -BOHVBHF DVMUVSF BOEQFSTPOBMJUZFTTBZTJONFNPSZPG&EXBSE4BQJS-FTMJF4QJFSBOEPUIFST FET QQo.FOBTIB 8*4BQJS.FNPSJBM1VCMJDBUJPO'VOE 5IF)PQJMBOHVBHF 5PSFWBEJBMFDU*O -JOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFTPG/BUJWF"NFSJDB$PS OFMJVT0THPPE FE7JLJOH'VOE1VCMJDBUJPOTJO"OUISPQPMPHZ OP QQo /FX:PSL7JLJOH'VOE "O"NFSJDBO*OEJBONPEFMPGUIFVOJWFSTF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO-JO HVJTUJDTo -BOHVBHF UIPVHIU BOESFBMJUZTFMFDUFEXSJUJOHTPG#FOKBNJO-FF8IPSG+PIO# $BSSPMM FE$BNCSJEHFBOE/FX:PSL5FDIOPMPHZ1SFTTPG.*5BOE+PIO8JMFZ BOE4POT 8JMTPO "MMBO$ BOE3FCFDDB-$BOO 5IFSFDFOU"GSJDBOHFOFTJTPGIVNBOT4DJFOUJGJD"NFSJDBOo "QSJM 8JUIFSTQPPO (BSZ -BOHVBHFBOEBSUJOUIF/BWBKPVOJWFSTF"OO"SS6OJWFSTJUZPG.JDIJHBO1SFTT 8PMGG )BOT -BOHVBHF FUIOJDJEFOUJUZBOETPDJBMDIBOHFJOTPVUIFSO/JHFSJB"OUISPQPMPHJDBM -JOHVJTUJDTo 8PMGSBN 8BMU BOE/BUBMJF4DIJMMJOH&TUFT "NFSJDBO&OHMJTIEJBMFDUTBOEWBSJBUJPOEFE.BMEFO ."#MBDLXFMM
418
BIBLIOGRAPHY
8POEFSMZ 8JMMJBN- B ;PRVF**QIPOFNFTBOENPSQIPQIPOFNFT*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO -JOHVJTUJDTo C ;PRVF***NPSQIPMPHJDBMDMBTTFT BGGJYMJTU BOEWFSCT*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG "NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDTo 8PPMBSE ,BUISZO" %PVCMFUBMLCJMJOHVBMJTNBOEUIFQPMJUJDTPGFUIOJDJUZJO$BUBMPOJB4UBOGPSE $" 4UBOGPSE6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT 8PPMBSE ,BUISZO" BOE#BNCJ#4DIJFGGFMJO -BOHVBHF JEFPMPHZ *O "OOVBM 3FWJFX PG "OUISPQPMPHZ WPM 8JMMJBN ) %VSIBNBOEPUIFST FET QQo1BMP"MUP $""OOVBM3FWJFXT 8PPMGPSE &MMFO# "TQFDUTPG5PL1JTJOHSBNNBS1BDJGJD-JOHVJTUJDT 4FSJFT#.POPHSBQIT OP $BOCFSSB"VTUSBMJBO/BUJPOBM6OJWFSTJUZ 8SJHIU 4VF FE -BOHVBHF EFNPDSBDZBOEEFWPMVUJPOJO$BUBMPOJB$MFWFEPO 6,.VMUJMJOHVBM .BUUFST :FHFSMFIOFS +PIO " OPUF PO FMJDJUJOH UFDIOJRVFT *OUFSOBUJPOBM +PVSOBM PG "NFSJDBO -JOHVJTUJDT o ;FQFEB 0GFMJB "1BQBHPHSBNNBS5VDTPO6OJWFSTJUZPG"SJ[POB1SFTT ;IBOH )BOH $VMUVSFBTBQPMPHZUIF)BJOBO*TMBOEJODJEFOU8PSME&OHMJTIFTo
LANGUAGES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT A N D T H E I R L O CAT I O N S
&VSPQF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Albanian Basque Catalan Croatian Czech Dutch Estonian Finnish
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
French German Greek Icelandic Italian (and Latin) Lapp (Sami) Magyar (Hungarian) Polish Portuguese
419
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Romanian Romansh Russian Schwyzertütsch Serbian Slovak Spanish
4PVUIXFTUFSO"TJBBOE /PSUI"GSJDB 25 26 27 28
Arabic Armenian Persian Turkish
"GSJDB4PVUIPG UIF4BIBSB 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Abua Afrikaans Ashanti a Bantu language Ewe Kalabari Kamba
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Kikuyu Kugbo Luhya Luo Nembe Odual Ogbia Swahili Twi Vai Yoruba
-BUJO"NFSJDBBOE UIF$BSJCCFBO 47 Aguaruna 48 Araucanian
49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
Aztec Caraya Chontal Guarani Island Carib Isthmus Nahuat Jamaican Creole Kuna Mazateco Nahuatl Otomi Pirahã Sierra Popoluca (Tenejapa) Tzeltal Yucatec Zoque
&BTUBOE4PVUI"TJB 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121
Agta Aklanon Assamese Badaga Bengali Bontok Cantonese Gujarati Hindi Japanese Javanese Kannada Kashmiri Korean Madurese
122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136
Malay Malayalam Mandarin (Chinese) Marathi Mongolian Oriya Panjabi (Punjabi) Subanun Sundanese Tagalog Tamil Telugu Urdu Vietnamese Yakan
"VTUSBMJBBOE0DFBOJB 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146
Hawaiian Creole Hiri Motu Kaluli Kiriwinian Maori Neo-Melanesian (Tok Pisin) Ngandi Pintupi Samoan Tolai (Kuanua)
(key continues)
/PSUI"NFSJDB/PSUI PG.FYJDP 65 Acoma 66 Apache (and Western Apache) 67 Arapaho 68 Atsina (Gros Ventre) 69 Blackfoot 70 Cahuilla 71 Cheyenne 72 Cree-Montagnais
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
Crow Cupeño Dakota Eskimo Fox Gullah Hopi Hupa Keres Kiowa Kiowa Apache Koasati
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
Kwakiutl Laguna Luiseño Menomini Mohawk Navajo Nootka Ojibwa Pawnee Penobscot-Abnaki Sarcee Shawnee
97 ShoshoneComanche 98 Takelma 99 Tewa 100 Tiwa 101 Tohono O’odham (Papago) 102 Tunica 103 Upper Chinook 104 Wichita 105 Yana 106 Zuni
Note: The locations are based on the map accompanying Comparative Studies of North American Indians by Harold E. Driver and William C. Massey (1957).
INDEX
"DDFOU "DPVTUJDDIBOOFM o "DPVTUJDQIPOFUJDT "DSPMFDU "GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS&OHMJTI i#MBDL&OHMJTIUSJBM wo EFTDSJQUJPOPG o FYBNQMFPG Y HSBNNBUJDBMEJGGFSFODFT o PSJHJOTPG o GJH QSPOVODJBUJPOPG o TUJHNBUJ[BUJPOPG o "GSJDBO"NFSJDBOT TUVEZPG DPNNVOJDBUJWFTUZMFPG o "GSP"TJBUJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "HBS .JDIBFM "HHMVUJOBUJWFMBOHVBHFT "HUBMBOHVBHF "HVBSVOBMBOHVBHF "MHPORVJBO MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE o Y GJH "MMPGBDU GJH "MMPGPSN "MMPNPSQI "MMPNPUJG o "MMPQIPOF "MUBJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "MUNBOO 4UVBSU" "NB[POCBTJO MBOHVBHFTPG "NCSPOB 4QBJO BSDIBFPMPHJDBM FYDBWBUJPOTBU
"NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF "4-PS "NFTMBO
"NFSJOEMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ "ODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o "OHMP"NFSJDBOT MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH o TUVEZPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFTUZMFPG "OHVMBSHZSVT GJH "OPNJDBQIBTJB "OTIFO 'SBOL "OUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT4FF MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ "OUISPQPMPHZ CSJFGIJTUPSZPG o EFGJOFE o TVCGJFMETPG "OUPOZN o "OUT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG o "QBDIF MBOHVBHFPG TJMFODFCFIBWJPSPG o "QIBTJB o "SBCJD FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH "SBQBIP EJDUJPOBSZ o LJOTIJQUFSNT o GJH MBOHVBHF o o MBOHVBHFNBJOUFOBODFQSPHSBN o NZUIT "SBVDBOJBOT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSETQFBLJOH 423
424
"SUJDVMBUJPO o "TIBOUJMBOHVBHF "4- "NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF
"TQFDU "TTJNJMBUJPO "UIBCBTLBOUSJCFT DPNNVOJDBUJPO CFUXFFO"NFSJDBOT$BOBEJBOTBOE o Y "UIBCBTLBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ "ULJOT #PXNBO, "UTJOB (SPT7FOUSF MBOHVBHF o "VEJUPSZDPSUFY GJH "VTUSBMPQJUIFDVTBGBSFOTJT "VTUSBMPQJUIFDVTBGSJDBOVT "VTUSPBTJBUJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH #BCCMJOH #BEBHBMBOHVBHF #BLIUJO .JLIBJM #BOUVIJTUPSZ MJOHVJTUJDJOGFSFODFTBVU Y #BSPO /BPNJ #BTJMFDU #BTRVFMBOHVBHF #BTTP ,FJUI) o #FFSUFSNJOPMPHZ o #FIBWJPSJTN #FIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO BOE o #FOHBMJ FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH #FSMJO #SFOU o #FSMJO,BZ DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZTUVEZCZ #FTOJFS /JLP #JDLFSUPO %FSFL o #JMJOHVBMJTN EFGJOFE NJTDPODFQUJPOTBVU TUBHFTPG o JO4XJU[FSMBOE 4FFBMTP NVMUJMJOHVBMJTN #JOBSZPQQPTJUJPOT o #JPQSPHSBNIZQPUIFTJT
INDEX
#JSET DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG #JSEXIJTUFMM 3BZ- i#MBDL&OHMJTIUSJBM w"OO"SS .JDIJHBO o #MFOEJOH GJH Y #MPPNGJFME -FPOBSE #MVN.BSUJOF[ 3FCFDDB #PBT 'SBO[ o #PLBNCB &ZBNCB #PMJOHFS %XJHIU #POUPLMBOHVBHF #SBJO IVNBO EFWFMPQNFOUPG o MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBOE oY PSHBOJ[BUJPOPG o GJH TQFFDIQSPEVDUJPOBSFBTPG o #SB[JM MBOHVBHFTPG #SJHIU 8JMMJBN #SJUJTI4JHO-BOHVBHF #4-
#SPDBTBQIBTJB #SPDBTBSFB o GJH #4- #SJUJTI4JHO-BOHVBHF
#VSFBVPG "NFSJDBO &UIOPMPHZ #VSMJOH 3PCCJOT $BEEPBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ $BNQCFMM -ZMF $BOBEB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o $BSBZBMBOHVBHF $BSJCEJBMFDU $BSSPMM +PIO# Y $BSSPMM -FXJT $BTBHSBOEF +PTFQI# $BTFGPSNT $BTUF×FEBEF/ÈKFSB 1FESPEF $BUBMBOMBOHVBHF $BUFHPSJ[BUJPO o $FSFCSVN $FUBDFBOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG $IBNCFSMBJO "MFYBOEFS' $IBNCFST +, $IBOOFMTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO UBCMF o
INDEX
$IFSFNF $IJNQBO[FFT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG o $IJOB MFUUFSPGBQPMPHZUPBVUTQZ QMBOFGJHIUFSDPMMJTJPO o $IJOFTF .BOEBSJO UBCMF $IJOFTFMBOHVBHFT GJH $IJQFXZBOMBOHVBHF $IPNTLZ /PBN o o o $IPOUBMMBOHVBHF $MBTTF "OESÏ $PEF HFOFSBMMBOHVBHF $PEFNJYJOH o $PEFTXJUDIJOH o $PFYUFOTJPO $PHOBUF o $PHOJUJPO DBUFHPSJ[BUJPOBOE o EJHJUBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE o MBOHVBHFBOE o $PHOJUJWFBOUISPQPMPHZ $PJOFEXPSET $PMPS 5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS 7JSUVBM"OUISPQPMPHZ$PMPS-BC XFCTJUF $PMPSUFSNJOPMPHZ #FSMJO,BZTUVEZPG o -FOOFCFSH3PCFSUTTUVEZPG o $PNNVOJDBUJPODPNNVOJDBUJWF BNPOHOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT o BNPOHOPOIVNBOWFSUFCSBUFT BNPOHTPDJBMJOTFDUT o CFUXFFO"UIBCBTLBOUSJCFTBOE "NFSJDBOT$BOBEJBOT o Y DIBOOFMTPG UBCMF o DPNQPOFOUTPG o EJHJUBM o FUIOPHSBQIZPG o o FWPMVUJPOPGJOUPMBOHVBHF o GSBNFGSBNJOH o HFOSF o LFZ o
425
NFTTBHFGPSNBOEDPOUFOU OPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO o QIBUJD QIBUJDDPNNVOJPO SVMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPO TUZMFTPG o 4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOETQFFDI $PNNVOJDBUJPO OPOWFSCBM DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o LJOFTJDT EZMBOHVBHF
o QBSBMBOHVBHF o TJHOMBOHVBHF o XIJTUMFTQFFDI o $PNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o $PODFQU EFGJOFE o $POOPUBUJPO $POTPOBOUQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO &OHMJTI UBCMF $POTPOBOUT BSUJDVMBUJPOPG UBCMF UBCMF $POUFYUVBMJ[BUJPO $POUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFFWPMVUJPO $PSQVT TJ[FPG o $PXBO (FPSHF. $SFPMF EFGJOFE $SFPMJ[BUJPO o Y $SJUJDBMQFSJPEDSJUJDBMBHFIZQPUIFTJT $SP.BHOPOT o $SVUUFOEFO "MBO $SZTUBM %BWJE $VMUVSBMEFUFSNJOJTN o $VMUVSBMIJTUPSZ SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o $[FDIT BUUJUVEFUPXBSE$[FDIMBOHVBHF o MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI4MPWBLT o %FDSFPMJ[BUJPO %FFU[ +BNFT' %FOF$BVDBTJBONBDSPGBNJMZ %FOPUBUJPO %FQBSUNFOUTUPSFFNQMPZFFT TUVEZPGJO /FX:PSL$JUZ o
426
%FSJWBUJPO %FTJHOGFBUVSFT o %JBDISPOJDIJTUPSJDMJOHVJTUJDT %JBMFDUT o %JHMPTTJB o %JMMBSE +- %JTDPOUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHF FWPMVUJPO o %JTDPVSTF %JTQMBZT o %JTTJNJMBUJPO %PMQIJOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG %SBWJEJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH %VBMJUZPGQBUUFSOJOH %VOEFT "MBO %VUDIMBOHVBHF &OJDT &ISFU $ISJTUPQIFS &MBSBUFEDPEF &MJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT &MJDJUJOHEBUB o &MMJOHUPO %VLF &NFSHFODZSPPNDBTF BQQMJFEMJOHVJTUJDT BOE o &NJDT o &OHMJTI BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o Y DPSSFTQPOEFODFCFUXFFODPHOJUJPOBOE HSBNNBUJDBMOVNCFSJO o FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTJOUFSOBUJPOBMMBOHVBHF o o o MPBOXPSETJO o QIPOFNFTPG o QPFNPOEJGGJDVMUZPG Y TFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFPG o &TLJNPMBOHVBHF &TQFSBOUP &UIOPQPFUJDT o &UIOPTDJFODF DPNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o EFGJOFE o
INDEX
EPVCUTBVU o FMJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT GPMLUBYPOPNJFT &UJDT o &WFSFUU %BOJFM o &WPMVUJPO IVNBO GJH o &YPHBNZ 'BDUFNF GJH 'FSHVTPO $IBSMFT 'JFMEXPSL DIBMMFOHFTPG DIFDLMJTUGPS o DPSQVT TJ[FPG o JOGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o Y UFDIOJRVFTGPS o 'JOOP6HSJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 'JTDIFS +PIO- 'PMLUBYPOPNJFT 'PSN JOBSDIBFPMPHZ
'PSNFNF 'PVUT 3PHFS 'SBLF $IBSMFT0 'SBNFGSBNJOH o 'SBOL 'SBODJOF 'SFODIMBOHVBHF JO$BOBEB o JOGMVFODFPO&OHMJTI JO/PSUI"GSJDB BTPGGJDJBMTFNJPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHF GJH BTiVOJWFSTBMwMBOHVBHF o JO7JFUOBN 'SJFOET 4PDJFUZPG 2VBLFST
MBOHVBHFPG 'SJTDI ,BSMWPO (BM 4VTBO (ÐQFPQMF CJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOBOE o (FOEFS EFGJOFE JOMBOHVBHFT o
INDEX
(FOEFS TQFFDIBOE JO"NFSJDBOTPDJFUZ o Y DPNNVOJDBUJPOTUSBUFHJFTBOE JO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJFUJFT o UIFPSJFTPG o (FOEFSMFDU (FOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS Y (FOSF PGTQFFDI
o (FSNBOMBOHVBHF JO"VTUSJB FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH HFOEFSJO o JOGMVFODFPGPO&OHMJTI JO4XJU[FSMBOE (JHMJPMJ 1JFS1BPMP (JWØO 5BMNZ (MPUUPDISPOPMPHZ o UBCMF (PGGNBO &SWJOH (PPEFOPVHI 8BSE (PVME 4UFQIFO+BZ (SBNNBS DIBOHFTJO VOJWFSTBM o WBSJBUJPOTJO o (SBWFT 5IFPEPSF (SFFLT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSEUBMLJOH (SFFOCFSH +PTFQI) o (SFZNPSOJOH 4UFQIFO o (VMMBIMBOHVBHF (VNQFS[ +PIO+ )BBT .BSZ3 )BHF 1FS )BMF $POTUBODF )BMF ,FOOFUI- )BMM &EXBSE5 )BMMF .PSSJT )BOEFEOFTT )BQUJDCFIBWJPS )BSSJT .BSWJO )BVHFO &JOBS )BZFT $BUIFSJOF )BZFT ,FJUI+
427
)FBSJOHJNQBJSFEJOEJWJEVBMT VTFPGTJHO MBOHVBHFCZ )FBUI +FGGSFZ )FEHFXPSET o )FMMFS .POJDB )FSPEPUVT )JMHFS *OF[ )JMM +BOF) )JOEJ FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHFPG*OEJB o )PDLFUU $IBSMFT' )PJKFS )BSSZ )PNJOJET )PNJOJEBF
o )PNJOJ[BUJPO )PNJOPJET )PNJOPJEFB
)PNPFSFDUVT o )PNPIBCJMJT )PNPTBQJFOT )PNPTBQJFOTOFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT )PNPOZNZ )POFZCFF "QJTNFMMJGFSB
DPNNVOJDBUJWF CFIBWJPSPG o GJH )POPSJGJDT o )PQJMBOHVBHF o )VNBOT FWPMVUJPOPG GJH o )VNMEU 8JMIFMNWPO )VQBUSJCF )ZNFT %FMM o o )ZQFSDPSSFDUJPO *DFMBOEJDMBOHVBHF MBDLPGMPBOXPSETJO *EJPMFDU o *ODMVTJPO *OEJB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o *OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH *OEP1BDJGJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ *OEPOFTJB MBOHVBHFTPG
428
INDEX
*OGJY *OGMFDUJOHMBOHVBHFT *OGMFDUJPO o *OGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o *OOBUJTUUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOPG o *OTUJUVUFGPS1SJNBUF4UVEJFTBU6OJWFSTJUZ PG0LMBIPNB *OUFSBDUJPO SVMFTPG *OUFSMJOHVB *OUFSOBUJPOBM1IPOFUJD"MQIBCFU *1"
*OUFSOFU MBOHVBHFPG o *OUFSQSFUBUJPO OPSNTPG o *OUPOBUJPO o *SJBO+BZB MBOHVBHFTPG *SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ *TIJHBLJ :PLP *TUINVT/BIVBUMBOHVBHF +BLPCTPO 3PNBO +BNBJDB DSFPMFPG +BQBO VTFPG&OHMJTICZXPNFOJO o +BQBOFTFMBOHVBHF FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o Y MPBOXPSETJO o +BWBOFTFMBOHVBHF +FBOOF -B7FSOF.BTBZFTWB +FGGFSTPO 5IPNBT +FTQFSTPO 0UUP +POFT 8JMMJBN +PPT .BSUJO +VODUVSFT JOTQFFDI ,BMVMJQFPQMF MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH o ,BO[J DIJNQBO[FF
,BSUWFMJBO 4PVUI$BVDBTJBO MBOHVBHF GBNJMZ ,BZ 1BVM o ,FMMFS $IBSMFT
,FMMFS +BOFU%JYPO ,FMTLZ ,BSFO ,FOZB OBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPG4XBIJMJJO o ,FOZBUUB +PNP ,FSFTMBOHVBHF SFWJUBMJ[BUJPOPG Y ,FZ o ,IPJTBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ ,JOFNF ,JOFTJDT o ,JOTIJQTZTUFNT DPNQBSJTPOPG"NFSJDBO BOE"SBQBIP GJH ,JOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ o ,JPXB*OEJBOT TJHOMBOHVBHFPG ,JPXB5BOPBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ ,JQBSTLZ 1BVM ,JSJXJOJBOMBOHVBHF ,PBTBUJMBOHVBHF ,PLP HPSJMMB
,PSFBOMBOHVBHF GJH ,SVT %BWJE ,VOBQFPQMF FUIOPQPFUJDEJTDPVSTF BNPOH o ,XBLJVUMMBOHVBHF -B(VBSEJB 'JPSFMMP -BW 8JMMJBN -BJUNBO +FGGSFZ5 o -BLPGG 3PCJO o -BOHVBHF DIBOHFTJOIVNBODVMUVSFBOE DPNQFUFODF DVMUVSBMEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o EFTJHOGFBUVSFTPG o GBNJMJFT o GJH HSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF o JEFPMPHZ EFGJOFE *OUFSOFUBOE o NPEFSONZUITBVU OBUJPOBMJUZBOE o QFSGPSNBODF QIPOFNJDBOBMZTJTPG o QIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO
INDEX
QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o BTQSPEVDUPGFWPMVUJPO o QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFTPG o BTSFGMFDUJPOPGDVMUVSF o BTSFGMFDUJPOPGJEFOUJUZ SFHJTUFS TUVEZPG o o Y VOJWFSTBMT XSJUJOHTZTUFN EFWFMPQJOH o -BOHVBHF BDRVJTJUJPOPG CFIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZPG o JODIJMEIPPE o JOOBUJTUUIFPSZPG o /PBN$IPNTLZPO Y TPDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZPG o -BOHVBHF FTUJNBUJOHBHFPG BOBUPNJDBMFWJEFODF o MJOHVJTUJDDPOTJEFSBUJPOT o QSFIJTUPSJDDMVFT o -BOHVBHFGJFME -BOHVBHFJTPMBUFT -BOHVBHFQIZMVN -BOHVBHFQMBOOJOH o -BOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF -BOHVBHF3FTFBSDI$FOUFSPGUIF:FSLFT 3FHJPOBM1SJNBUF3FTFBSDI$FOUFS -BOHVBHFT DIBOHFTJO o DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o JODPOUBDU o o EFBUIPG FOEBOHFSFE o HFOEFSJO o NBJOUFOBODFPG o SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o XPSME OVNCFSTPG GJH -BUJOMBOHVBHF o o -BUJOPT TUVEZPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTUZMFPG -FOHUI PGTPVOE -FOOFCFSH &SJD) -FV %POBME
429
-ÏWJ4USBVTT $MBVEF -FWJOTPO 4UFQIFO -FYJDBMEJGGVTJPO -FYJDPTUBUJTUJDT -JFCFSNBO 1IJMJQ -JOHVBGSBODB o -JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ BDDPNQMJTINFOUTPG Y DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDT Y o EFGJOFE FOEBOHFSFEMBOHVBHFTBOE o FUIJDBMRVFTUJPOTBOE o JOUFSDVMUVSBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE o MBOHVBHFQMBOOJOHBOE o MFHBMMBOHVBHFBOE o o MJUFSBDZBOE o OFXDPNNVOJDBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFTBOE o TUBOEBSETPGDPOEVDU o USBOTMBUJPOTBOE o XSJUJOHBOE o -JOHVJTUJDEFUFSNJOJTN DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o EFGJOFE FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBVU o -JOHVJTUJDQSPGJMJOH -JOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ BMUFSOBUJWFTUP o DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZBOE o DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o EFGJOFE o FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBVU o HFOEFSBOE o +PIO$BSSPMMPO Y -JOHVJTUJDTFOTJUJ[BUJPO -JOHVJTUJDT DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ Y o EFGJOFE o -PBOXPSET o o o -PVMJT DIJNQBO[FF
-VDZ +PIO o
430
-VDZ DIJNQBO[FF
-VDZ IPNJOJETQFDJNFO
.BMBZMBOHVBHF GJH .BMJODIF7PMDBOPDPNNVOJUJFT JOGMVFODF PG4QBOJTIPOUSBEJUJPOBMMBOHVBHF o .BMJOPXTLJ #SPOJTMBX .BO NFBOJOHPG Y .BSUIBT7JOFZBSE .BTTBDIVTFUUT MJOHVJTUJDDIBOHFJO o .BUTVCBSB +VOLP .B[BUFDPMBOHVBHF .D&MIJOOZ #POOJF .FBE .BSHBSFU .FBOJOH DBUFHPSJ[BUJPO o DPODFQU EFGJOFE o FUIOPQPFUJDT TUVEZPG o +BQBOFTFBOE&OHMJTI BTQFDUTPGXPSE NFBOJOHJO oY PTUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO TFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o TFNBOUJDSFMBUJPOTBNPOHXPSET o TFNJPUJDUSJBOHMF TFOTF TPVOETZNMJTN o TZOFTUIFTJB .FTPMJUIJDQFSJPE .FTTBHF GPSNBOEDPOUFOUPG .FUBUIFTJT o .FYJDP JOEJHFOPVTMBOHVBHFTPG o .POHPMJBOT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSETQFBLJOH .POPHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG o GJH .POUBHV "TIMFZ .PSQIFNF o .PSQIPMPHJDBMMBOHVBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT o .PSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFT o .PSQIPMPHZ .PSQIPQIPOFNFT HFOEFSEJGGFSFODFTJO .PSQIPQIPOFNJDT o
INDEX
.PUJG .PUJGFNF o .PUPSDPSUFY GJH .VMUJMJOHVBMJTN DPEFTXJUDIJOHDPEFNJYJOH o EJHMPTTJB o HMPCBM o TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG o TPDJPQPMJUJDBMVOJUTBOE o JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT o 4FFBMTP CJMJOHVBMJTN 5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS .ZFST4DPUUPO $BSPM .ZUIPMPHZ /BUJPOBMJUZ MBOHVBHFBOE o /BUJWF"NFSJDBOT MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFTPG TUVEZPG o /BWBKP BUUJUVEFUPXBSETQFBLJOH MBOHVBHF JOTIBQF DPMPS BOETQBDFTUVEZ o iXBSUBML w /FBOEFSUIBMT )PNPTBQJFOT OFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT
/FP.FMBOFTJBO 5PL1JTJO
DSFPMJ[BUJPO PG o Y /FPHSBNNBSJBOIZQPUIFTJT /FPMJUIJDQFSJPE /FVSPMJOHVJTUJDT o /FX:PSL$JUZ TUVEZPGEFQBSUNFOUTUPSF FNQMPZFFT o /HBOEJMBOHVBHF /JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH /JHFS%FMUB TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG NVMUJMJOHVBMJTNJO o /JN DIJNQBO[FF
/PPULBMBOHVBHF /PSUI"GSJDB 'SFODIEJBMFDUTJO /PTUSBUJDNBDSPGBNJMZ /VLVMBFMBF HFOEFSJOFRVBMJUZJOSFBEJOH BOEXSJUJOHPG o
INDEX
0BLMBOE $BMJGPSOJB 4DIPPM#PBSE SFTPMVUJPOPO&OJDT 0#BSS 8JMMJBN. 0CFSXBSU "VTUSJB DIBOHJOHDIPJDFPG MBOHVBHFJO 0DIT &MJOPS 0HEFO $, 0IBMB +PIO 0ME&OHMJTI o o 0ME4UPOF"HF 0MEVWBJ(PSHF 0MGBDUPSZDIBOOFM 0OFIVOESFEXPSEDPSFWPDBCVMBSZ 4XBEFTI
UBCMF 0QUJDBMDIBOOFM 0SUIPHSBQIZ DIBOHFTJO Y 0THPPE $IBSMFT o 0TUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO 0UPNJMBOHVBHF 1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE 1ʆyJOJ 1BQVB/FX(VJOFB MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO MBOHVBHFTPG TQSFBEPG5PL1JTJOJO 1BSBHVBZ TQFFDIDPNNVOJUZJO 1BSBMBOHVBHF o 1BSBMJOHVJTUJDT 1BSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o Y 1BSUJDJQBOUT DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU
o 1FDPT 3FHJT 1IBUJDDPNNVOJDBUJPO 1IBUJDDPNNVOJPO 1IPOF EFGJOFE 1IPOFNFT 1IPOFNJDBOBMZTJT o 1IPOFNJDDPOUSBTUT 1IPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO 1IPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o 1IPOFUJDT BSUJDVMBUPSZ 1IPOPMPHZ o
431
1J4VOZFS 0SJPM 1JEHJOJ[BUJPO 1JEHJOT o 1JLF ,FOOFUI- 1JOLFS 4UFQIFO 1JSBIÍMBOHVBHF o 1JUDI 1JUUTCVSHI1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU MBOHVBHF TUVEZPG 1MBJOT*OEJBOT MBOHVBHFT GBNJMJFTPG TJHOMBOHVBHFPG o 1MBUP POUBMLJOH 1MVSBMGPSNT JO"GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS &OHMJTI JO$IPOUBM JO&OHMJTI o Y JO0ME&OHMJTI o JO-BUJO JO5PL1JTJO JO:VDBUFD 1PMZHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG 1PMZHMPUT 1PMZTFNZ 1PMZTZOUIFUJDMBOHVBHFT 1PSUVHVFTF FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFST PG GJH 1PXFMM +PIO8FTMFZ 1SFGJY 1SFMBOHVBHF 1SJNBUFT DPNNVOJDBUJPOBNPOHOPOIVNBO o FNFSHFODFPG GJH JOBCJMJUZUPTQFBL o 1SPGJMJOH MJOHVJTUJD 1SPOPVOT VTFPGJOWBSJPVTMBOHVBHFT o 1SPTPEJDGFBUVSFT o 1SPUP"MHPORVJBOQFPQMF o Y GJH 1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBO 1SPUPMBOHVBHFT SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o
432
INDEX
1SPYFNJDT o UBCMF Y 1VFCMPQFPQMFT MBOHVBHFTPG 1VFSUP3JDBOT BOEMBOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF 2VBLFST 4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET
MBOHVBHFPG 2VBOUJUBUJWFNFUIPE TPDJPMJOHVJTUJDT
3BDF GBVMUZBTTPDJBUJPOPGXJUIMBOHVBHF BOEDVMUVSF o o 3FDPOTUSVDUJPO PGBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE o PGDVMUVSBMIJTUPSZ o PGQSPUPDVMUVSF o PGQSPUPMBOHVBHFT PGQSPUPXPSET 3FEVQMJDBUJPO o 3FGFSFODF 3FGMFYJWFOPJTFT 3FGMFYJWFOFTT 3FHJTUFS 3FTUSJDUFEDPEF 3JDIBSET *" 3PCFSUT +PIO 3PNBOTIMBOHVBHF 3VTTJBOMBOHVBHF GJH 4BCJS NFEJFWBMQJEHJO
4BM[NBOO ;EFOFL 4BNPB 8FTUFSO MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO 4BOTLSJUMBOHVBHF o 4BQJS &EXBSE Y o 4BQJS8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT o4FFBMTP 8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT 4BSBI DIJNQBO[FF
4BWBHF3VNCBVHI &4 4BWJMMF5SPJLF .VSJFM 4DBOMPO +FTTF 4DIJFGGFMJO #BNCJ# 4DIMFJDIFS "VHVTU 4DPMMPO 3POBME 4DPMMPO 4V[BOOF
4DPUU )VHI-FOPY 4FNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o 4FNBOUJDT TUVEZPG o 4FFBMTP NFBOJOH 4FNJPUJDUSJBOHMF 4FNJPUJDT 4FOUFODF BTVOJUPGBOBMZTJT o GJH 4FS$SPBUJBOMBOHVBHF 4FUUJOH DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU
o 4IBQFDPMPSTQBDF JOGMVFODFPOCFIBWJPS CZ o 4IFS[FS +PFM 4JFCFSU 'SBOL5 +S o 4JHOMBOHVBHF o 4JM 4JOP5JCFUBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH 4JPVBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 4LJOOFS #' 4MPWBLT SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI$[FDIT o 4NJUI 8JMMJBN 4PDJBMDMBTT MBOHVBHFBOE o 4PDJBMOFUXPSL 4PDJBMQPXFS HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ PG o 4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET 2VBLFST
4PDJPDVMUVSBM EFGJOJUJPOPG o 4PDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO BOE o 4PDJPMJOHVJTUJDDIBOHF TUVEZPG 4PVOEDIBOHFT o o i4PVOEMBXT w 4PVOETQFDUSPHSBQI 4PVOETZNMJTN o 4QBJO MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO 4QBOESFM 4QBOJTI FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH JO.FYJDP o o JOUIF64 41&",*/( BTNOFNPOJDEFWJDF o 4QFDUSPHSBN
INDEX
4QFFDI BDU BQQBSBUVT GJH BSFB BUUJUVEFTBVU o CFIBWJPS VOJUTPG o DPNNVOJUZ o FUIOPHSBQIZPG o FWFOU GJFME IVNBO Y OFUXPSL o TJUVBUJPO TUBOEBSE TUZMFT o 4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOE 4QFFDITPVOET BOBMZTJTPG BSUJDVMBUJPOPG o QSPEVDUJPOPG o 4UBOMBX +BNFT. o 4UJNVMVTSFTQPOTFSFXBSEGPSNVMB o 4UPLPF 8JMMJBN$ +S 4USFTT JOTQFFDI 4USPTT #SJBO 4UVSUFWBOU &EHBS) 4VCBOVOQFPQMF EJTFBTFEJBHOPTJTCZ o ESJOLJOHUBMLPG o Y 4VCDVMUVSF HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ PG 4VGGJY 4VNFSJBOMBOHVBHF 4VQFSPSEJOBUFUFSN 4VQQMFUJPO o 4VQQMFUJWFGPSN 4XBEFTI .PSSJT 4XBIJMJMBOHVBHF o 4ZODISPOJDMJOHVJTUJDT 4ZOFTUIFTJB 4ZOPOZN o 4ZOUBY 5BDUJMFDIBOOFM 5BHRVFTUJPO
433
5BLFMNBMBOHVBHF o 5BOOFO %FSBI 5BZMPS %PVHMBT 5BZMPS +PIO 5FFUFS ,BSM7 5FOFKBQB5[FMUBM MBOHVBHFPG TQFFDI UFSNJOPMPHZPG 5PL1JTJO /FP.FMBOFTJBO
DSFPMJ[BUJPO PG o Y 5POFMBOHVBHFT o 5PSSBMCB 4QBJO BSDIBFPMPHJDBMFYDBWBUJPOT BU 5SBOTGPSNBUJPO 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS o 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBSNPWFNFOU 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF 5TVEB :VLJP 5VOJDBMBOHVBHF o 5VSLJTIMBOHVBHF NPEFSOJ[BUJPOPG o WPXFMIBSNPOZJO 5XJMBOHVBHF 6OJWFSTBMJTN o 6QQFS$IJOPPLMBOHVBHF 6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE 6SBMJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 7BJQFPQMF MJUFSBDZBNPOH 7FSUFCSBUFT OPOIVNBO DPNNVOJDBUJPO BNPOH 7JLJ DIJNQBO[FF
7PDBMBQQBSBUVT FWPMVUJPOPG o 7PDBMBVEJUPSZDIBOOFM 7PDBMQMBZ 7PDBMTFHSFHBUFT 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' 7PFHFMJO 'MPSFODF. 7PJDFDIBSBDUFSJ[FST 7PJDFGFBUVSFT 7PJDFRVBMJGJFST 7PXFMIBSNPOZ
434
7PXFMQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI UBCMF 7PXFMT BSUJDVMBUJPOPG UBCMF 8BMUFS )FOSJFUUF i8BSUBML w 8BTIPF DIJNQBO[FF
8BUBOBCF 4VXBLP 8BUTPO .JDIBFM 8FSOJDLFTBQIBTJB 8FSOJDLFTBSFB o GJH 8FTDPUU 3PHFS8 8IBMFT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG 8IJTUMFTQFFDI o 8IPSG #FOKBNJO-FF o 8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT BMUFSOBUJWFTUP o FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTDPODFSOJOH o o FYUFOEFEWFSTJPOPG o
INDEX
MJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZBOEEFUFSNJOJTN o Y SFDPOTJEFSBUJPOPG o GJH 8JUIFSTQPPO (BSZ 8PMGG )BOT 8PPMGPSE &MMFO# 8PSET BGGFDUPGPOCFIBWJPS Y 8PSET DPJOFE 8SJUJOH FUIOPHSBQIZPG o 8SJUJOHTZTUFN EFWFMPQNFOUPG o :BLBOQFPQMF MFHBMTZTUFNPG :BOBUSJCF :VDBUFDMBOHVBHF DPSSFTQPOEFODF CFUXFFODPHOJUJPOBOEOVNCFS HSBNNBSJO o ;IBOH )BOH o ;VOJ DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZTUVEZBOE TQFFDIBUUJUVEFTPG
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