Introduction To Sociology Lecture Notes 4a6cm

Catholic University of Eastern Africa

Sociology A brief Introduction

Philipe Ojp Ombugu CUEA 2014

1 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


I. The discipline of sociology 1.1. Definition of sociology The term sociology etymologically has diversified backgrounds that were originated back to the history of mid 18th and 19th c. in . Among essay writers, Immanuel Joseph had pronounced the word Sociology in one of his essay writings for the first time. However, Sociology was again coined in refined way by Auguste Comte at the mid of 19th c. So, Auguste Comte was French Social philosopher and Sociologist who derived sociology from two different language origins. These were “Socius” and “Logos”, Latin and Greek respectively. These words had their own meanings. “Socius” meant Companion or Friendship, while “Logos” meant knowledge or word or reason. Some times later, these two words were merged together to mean “The New Social life”. Today, Sociology attains comprehensive definitions in many literatures with identical concepts. Hence, “Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups that primarily focuses on the influences of social relationships on people’s attitudes and behavior” (Schaefer, 2000:3). Sociology is the study of human society including social actions and social institutions. It is a science of society that is extremely broad in its scope which investigates social life in line with the wide variety of settings which offers us not only information about society, but also a distinctive ways of looking at the world and our place in it. Sociology examines not only at how social behavior is influenced by others but also at how major social institutions like family, religion, education, government and economy affect us. Among other concepts in sociology, social structures, social actions, functional integration, prestige, power and culture are basic concepts in sociology (Functionalism).



1.2. Subject matter and Scope The subject matter and the scope of sociology ranges from micro-level of face-to-face social interactions to the macro level of whole political institutions, economic order or even world systems. Sociology studies the sum total of individuals’ actions, social behaviors and interactions. Historically, Sociology pays special emphasis on modern and industrialized societies. In studying its subject matter, Sociology mainly uses careful observation, objective measurements and comparison methods. In sum, Sociology is a systematic and scientific discipline seeking knowledge of man as social animal, his societies, sub-societies as well as adjustment to them, his cultures, customs, institutions, the patterns of stability and change that they develop. Sociology has distinctive characteristics which can be traced as it examines ethnic groups, social class divisions, various religious organizations such as Ecclesia, Church, Denominations, Sects and Cults, world of poverty, deviant behavior, variations in life and chances for the young. It also sees equality or social inequality in a society. In sociology, the most distinctive field of study is group life. Sociology does its studies mainly in modern industrial societies rather than in preliterate societies. Sociology also looks development trends in urban as well as in rural areas.

1.3. Sociology and Other Social Sciences Social sciences seek greater understandings of man and society, although their approaches are a bit different. Sociology and Anthropology are both extremely broad in their perspectives. Both are trying to study societies in their entirety, not just as political, economic or systems of beliefs and values.



Sociology and Allied fields of study

Anthropolo gy

Sociolo gy

Econom ics

So ci al Psy ho c lo gy

Politic al Scienc e

His ory t Syst ems of beli efs

Soci al phil oso phy

In general consensus, anthropology has focused on studying preliterate or traditional societies, where as sociology studies contemporary or modern societies. Psychology studies mental and emotional side of man, where as economics studies the systems of production and distribution of goods as well as services. Political science studies the systems by which Social power and authority are institutionalized, exercised and regulated, where as history records the past, which are important evidences for all social sciences. Therefore, all social science disciplines are interrelated and interdependent. So, sociology doesn’t ignore any of them.  Sociology and other social science disciplines have many things in common such as:-



 Methodology,  History/Origin,  Shared theories, fields of inquire, and Subject matters. Sociology always responds complex relationships between nature and nurtures. It is also widely used in management science, esp. in the field of organizational behavior as well as in social work.

1.4

Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination is a sociological term that was coined by the American sociologist called C. Wright Mills in 1959. Wright Mill described the process of linking individual experiences with social institutions as well as one’s place in history. Sociological imagination is a new way of looking the world that recognized links between widespread societal issues and the private problem of the individual. It was also taken as a means to solve the problems of the current sociological discourse. C. Wright Mill characterized that men’s private lives are trapped into series predicaments. They are trapped due to the fact that, there are uncontrollable and continuous changes to society such as unemployment, war, marriage, life in cities, tensions between private trouble and public issues. Challenges in the life of women e.g. home makers, social change, reactions to being unemployed, interactions between the individual lives and society, as well as the inter play of a man and society. For example, when society is industrialized, a peasant becomes a factory worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes a businessman. When classes rise or fall, a person is employed or unemployed, when the rate of investment goes up or down, a person takes new heart or goes broke. When war takes place, an insurance sales man may become a rocket launcher, a store clerk, may become a radar operator, a wife or a husband may live alone, a child may grow up without a parent.



Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without under standing both.

Note: (1) Sociological imagination is an inspired thinking to understand social behavior as well as an awareness of the relationship between an individual and society. (2)Sociological imagination can be shown across race, gender, social class and national boundaries. (3) Sociological imagination can enhance our understandings about current social issues. It is also an awareness of the relationship between individual and the wider society that may become also an ability to view our own environment.

II.

Origin and development of Sociology 2.1. Early origin and development:

To under stand better about modern development of sociology, it is necessary to scrutinize briefly the history of sociology in the past. In this regard,

one

can

explore

all

about

tradition

periods

in

of

understandings about society. A. The period of tradition: − Since the downward of recorded history, man kind has sought greater knowledge about his species. How did he come to be a man? What was/is the relationship between moral order and his place in the universe etc? − The ancient Hebrew writers, Confucius, Chinese early philosopher, Greek thinkers such as Sophists, Pioneers of philosophy like Plato and Aristotle reflected their own views about man and the wider group, society.



− The Chinese early thinkers focused on man’s relationship to man in perpetuating the social system. − Greek thought had centered on the political and legalistic aspects of society. Plato and Aristotle investigated and classified the patterns of government that men create for themselves. In sum, tradition period was strongly dominated by long-established values, norms and thoughts about society and its social settings.

B) The period of Theology: − Early Christian ideas were reflected about society in the work of St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.). St. Augustine described the institutions of a society as being either good or bad according to whether they inspire man to wards salvation or not. − The theories of St. Augustine and the later those of Thomas Aquinas sufficiently dominated European Philosophy until the 17th and 18th C. Nevertheless, contemporary philosophers like John Locke in England, Jean Jacques Rousseau in began to develop different theories which were emphasizing on social factors and practically eliminate theological views as the foundation of social institutions in a society. − New trends towards modern social thought were rising gradually. These modern thoughts were born in a spirit of revolution against the injustice of the old social order. − Continuous

arguments

have

been

conceded

out

among

many

disagreeing philosophers that led to the realization of the need for more exact knowledge of society. − Early 19th c. the idea of an actual Science of society was cultivating in the mind of Saint-Simon, who was a French noble man that helped Washington’s cause in America. He also participated in much less successful French Revolution. Saint-Simon was a lecturer at Ecole



polytechnique institution where he exerted a powerful influence on his students. One of his students was Auguste Comte. Comte became not only his student, but also Simon’s friend and collaborator. Auguste Comet later became adversary of his former teacher. So, their partnership was dissolved. C) The period of Social Philosophy: − Sociology emerged after the great transformations in European societies, which took place during 17th and 18th C. In this respect, three basic interrelated changes fostered the emergence of the sociological perspectives. These include:•

Industrial technology

•

The growth of cities, and

•

Political changes.

− Sociology is a science of society, social institutions, and social relationships, specifically the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and collective behavior of organized human groups. − Sociology emerged at the end of the 19th c. through the work of Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, George Simmel, Robert E. Park, Albion W. Smell, Karl Marx etc. − Sociologists

use

observational

techniques,

surveys,

interviews,

statistical analysis, controlled experiments and other methods to study subjects such as family, ethnic relations, schooling, social status social class, bureaucracy, religious movements, deviance, elderly and social changes.

2.2.

Major founders of sociology:(i) Auguste Comte (1798-1857):

Auguste Comte was a French Philosopher, a founder of the discipline of sociology and the doctrine of positivism. He was regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern brains of the term. Comte developed



sociology in an attempt to therapy the social depression left by the French revolution. The discipline was later formally and academically established by Emile Durkheim. Auguste Comte attempted to introduce a consistent “Religion of Humanity” which, though largely unsuccessful, was influential in the development of various worldly humanist organizations in the 19th c. Comte also created and defined the term “altruism”. August Comte’s fields of studies were Positivism, Sociology, Law of three stages and encyclopedic law. (ii) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): Though, Auguste Comte was generally considered as the “Father of sociology”, the academic subject was formally established by Emile Durkheim. He developed positivism in great detail. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. He published “Rules of the Sociological method”. In 1896, he also established the journal of “L’Annee Sociologique”. Durkheim’s influential monograph, suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and protestant populations that distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. It was also marked a major contribution to the theoretical concept of structural functionalism. Emile Durkheim was also represented by “Social facts”, mechanical and organic solidarity, origin of religion, as well as moral unity. (iii) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, who was prominent as classical liberal political theorist, and sociological theorist. Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. As a polymath, he contributed

to a wide

range

of subjects, including

ethics, religion,

anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology and psychology. During his life time, he achieved tremendous authority, mainly 9 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


in English-speaking academia. In 1902, he was nominated for the Noble prize in literature. He was best known for the coining the concept “survival of the fittest”, which he did in principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin’s on the origin of species;. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection. Herbert Spencer was in the school of evolutionism, positivism, and classical liberalism. His main interests were evolution, positivism and utilitarianism Spencer’s notable ideas were Social Darwinism, “survival of the fittest”. (iv) Max Weber (1864 – 1920) Max Weber was a German sociologist and political economist, who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the remit of sociology itself. Weber’s major works dealt with the rationalization and the so-called “disenchantment” which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber was along with his associate George Simmel, a central figure in the establishment of methodological anti-positivism presenting sociology as a non-empirical field, which must study social action through stubbornly subjective means. He is typically cited with Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science and has variously been described as the most important classic thinkers in the social sciences. Max Weber was most famous for his thesis in economic sociology, the” protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism.” Dissimilar to Marx, Weber did not consider the development of capitalism in purely material ; he instead, emphasized religious influences embedded into culture. The protestant Ethic formed the earliest work in Weber’s broader project in the sociology of religion; he would go to examine the religion of China, India and ancient Judaism, with particular regard to the apparent non-development of capitalism and to differing forms of social stratification.



In another major work, politics as a career, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a “monopoly on the legitimate use of violence”. A definition that became pivotal to the study of modern western political science. His analysis of bureaucracy in his economy and society is still central to the modern study of organizations. Weber was the first to recognize several diverse aspects of social authority, which he respectively categorized according to their charismatic, traditional and legal forms. His analysis of bureaucracy, thus, noted that modern state institutions are based on a form of rational-legal authority. Weber’s thought regarding to the rationalizing and secularizing tendencies of modern Western society would come to facilitate critical theory, particularly in the work of thinkers. V. Karl Marx (1818-1883) Karl Marx was a German philosopher, political economist, historian, and political theorist, sociologist, communist and revolutionary, whose ideas are credited as the foundation of modern communism. Marx summarized his approach in the first line of chapter one of the communist manifestos published in 1848: “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle”. Marx argued that capitalism like previous socio- economic systems would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to destruction. Just as capitalism replaced feudalism, he believed socialism would in its turn replace capitalism. This would be stateless society called pure communism. Karl Marx argued that for a systemic understanding of socio-economic change. He argued that the structural contradictions within capitalism impose its end, giving away to socialism. “The development of modern industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable” (The communist Manifesto). Marx is typically cited with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern 11 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


social science. Karl Marx’s main contributions were in the areas of politics, economics and philosophy. His interests were sociology, history and class struggle. Notable contributions were surplus value, alienation and exploitation of the workers, the communist manifesto, Das Kapital and materialist conception of history. Karl Marx is considered to be the first theorist to form series of concepts within the break between modern and pre-modern theories. Karl Marx had lot contributions for the theory of conflict perspective. He believed in social change through class struggle. He is considered to be the father of conflict theory. IV. Others: Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 1406): Ibn Khaldun was born in North Africa, in present day, Tunisia. He was astronomer, economist, historian, Islamic theologian, and also he was considered a fore runner of several social scientific disciplines such as demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history and sociology. Khaldun was also considered as one of the forerunners of modern economics next to the earlier Indian scholar Chanaxya. Ibn Khaldun was considered by many to be the father of a number of these disciplines Centuries before they were founded in the West. His school of thought was Malikimadhab, Islamic economic Jurisprudence. His main interests were social sciences, sociology, history, cultural history demography etc. He developed theories of “Asabiyyah” and the rise and fall of Civilizations. Asabiyyah: “social cohesion”, group solidarity or tribalism” Concerning the discipline of sociology, he conceived a theory of social conflict. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a “generation” and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city. •Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) Harriet Martineau was born in England. She wrote more than 50 books and were significant to sociologists, today because of her argument that “when one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key 12 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


political, religious and social institutions”. She also believed an analysis of a society should be required to have an understanding of women’s lives. Harriet changed sociological opinions on issues that were ignored such as marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations. She believed that sociologists should not just simply observe, they should do things to benefit society. Harriet was known as the first women sociologist. •American sociologists (19th c.)  Lester Frank Ward: Social liberalist He was an American sociologist. He served as the first president of the American sociology Association.  L.F. Ward (1841 – 1913): Major works •

Neo-Darwinism, neo-Lamarckism

•

The psychic factors of civilization

•

Contemporary sociology ,etc

 W. Graham Sumner (1840 – 1910): −

Social Darwinist,

−

The causes of the farmers’ discontent of ,1873

−

Monetary development

−

Politics in America

−

Socialism, 1878 and Sociological fallacies, 1884 and

−

Evils of the Tariff system.

III. Major theoretical perspectives: 3.1. Functionalist perspectives 3.2. Conflict perspectives 3.3. Interactionist perspectives In addition to the above stated theories, the followings can be included: •

Post-structuralism

•

Post- modernism



•

Feminism

•

Rational choice and exchange theory

•

Phenomenology

•

Ethno- methodology

•

Social construction theory

3.4. An overview of Sociological research methods. (A) Some group of sociologists view the world basically as a stable and on going entity. So that, they are impressed with the endurance of the family, religion and other social institutions. (B) Another group of sociologists also view society as composed of many groups who are in conflict for scarce resources. (C) The third group of sociologists also view society as routine interactions among individuals. Therefore, in general:These different views of sociologists can be classified as:(i)

Functionalist perspective,

(ii)

Conflict perspective, and

(iii)

Interactionist perspective

(i) Functionalist perspective:Functionalist perspective is a sociological approach that focuses on the way that different parts of a society are structured to hold its stability and social order. Let us think of a society as living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. This sort of sociological view is called functionalist

perspective.

Functionalism

attempted

to

explain

social

institutions as a collective means to fill individual-biological needs earlier time. Nevertheless, gradually, it came to focus on that social institutions fill social needs, esp. social stability. Functionalism is most often associated with structures and workings of society. So, functionalists see society as made up of inter-dependent sections which they work together to fulfill the functions necessary for the survival of society as a whole.



Functionalists believe that behavior in a society is structural, which relates with various institutions and social ages of a society. The origins of functionalist perspectives can be traced to the work of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and recently Talcott Parsons. These leading functionalists see society as having a structure, with key institutions performing vital functions and roles directing people in how to behave. They identify the functions of each part of the structure. E.g. the family socializes the young and produces a shared culture. Other institutions are there to meet the basic needs of society e.g. producing food and shelter for people. Other institutions help society to run smoothly and integrate the different parts. When all parts of a society work together, balance is maintained and the overall order of the system is achieved. Hence, social structures in a society promote integration, stability, consensus and balance.  Prominent functionalists: (i) Herbert Spencer sees the social system as an organic, even as super organic body. Indeed, this is followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and disequilibrium or a state of adjustment and adaptation and finally, a stage of disintegration or dissolution. Spencer concluded that society was constantly facing pressure internal/external. He also recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given polity could make or break the ability to adapt. He also saw the effects of centralization of power as leading to stagnation and ultimately, pressure to decentralization. H.Spencer recognized functional needs such as – Regulation, Operation and Distribution. All societies need to solve problem of control and coordination of production of goods, services and ideas. Spencer was known by coining the term “survival of the fittest”. ii) Talcott parsons Parsons wanted to develop a grand theory of society. Hence, he began to examine the individuals and their actions. He stated that “The social system 15 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


is made up of the actions of individuals”. Parsons also developed the idea of “role” in to collectivities of roles that complemented each other in fulfilling functions for society. Some of the roles are bound up in institutions and social structures, such as economic, educational, legal and even gender structures. Parsons viewed equilibrium to be maintained, when socialization and social control are essentially practiced.  Socialization is important, because, it is a means for transferring the accepted norms and values of a society to the individuals within the system. Prefect socialization may occur when these norms and values are completely internalized, i.e. when they become part of the individuals’ personality: (iii) Robert Merton:R. Merton agreed with parson’s theory. However, he tended to emphasis middle-range theory rather than a grand theory. Robert Merton differentiated between manifest and latent functions. In this aspect, he believed that there is no functional unity. All modern and complex societies do not work for the functional unity of a society. Some structures and institutions may have other functions, while even be generally dysfunctional or be functional. Hence, all structures may not be functional for society as a whole. R. Merton introduced the concepts of power and coercion into functionalism and identifies the sites of tensions which may lead to struggle or conflict. Merton’s theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim’s idea of anomie. According to Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and accepted methods available for reaching them. In this regard, Merton believed that there are five situations facing an actor. These are:(A) Conformity (B) Innovation

(C) Ritualism (D) Retreatism E) Rebellion

Therefore, change can occur internally in a society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals



and negate the changes. However, innovation or rebellion builds momentum, so, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution. − Merton had contributed to differentiate between manifest and latent functions. (i) Manifest function: - This is intended and recognized consequences of social actions upon other social actors or institutions (conscious intentions of actors). (ii) Latent function: - This is unintended and unrecognized consequences of social action upon other social actors or institutions. These consequences can be either beneficial or not. Furthermore,  Manifest function is open, stated and conscious functions that involve into the intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of a society such as the university’s role in certifying an academic competence and excellence.  By contrast; Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions and may reflect hidden purposes of an institution. Both manifest and latent functions are to be considered as positive. Examples for manifest functions:− The manifest function of a school is to teach, − The manifest function of military institution is to defend, − The manifest function of economic institution is to produce and distribute goods.

Examples for latent function:− College students during their stay in the college may make good friends.



− During staying abroad for education, may purchase a new car and house hold furniture’s for home. During business interaction, if the two individuals make love affairs and get married. (iii) Dysfunctions: Those elements or processes of a society that may disrupt a social system or lead to decrease in stability. When social order breaks down in many cases, negative consequences may reveal. For example, over population and pollution etc. Note:Famous functionalists include:(A) Herbert Spencer

(C) Talcott Parsons

(B) Emile Durkheim

(D) Bronislaw Malinowski

(F) Robert K. Merton

(E) A.R. Radcliff – Brown

(ii) Conflict perspective: Conflict perspective is a sociological approach which assumes that social behavior is best understood in of conflict or tension between competing groups. Conflict theory strives to explain social facts in of different groups competing for controlling resources or advantages. This process occurs on macro level. It is expressed in of the conflict between class groups. In sociology, conflict theory states that the society or organization functions so as each individual participates and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as changes in politics and revolutions. This theory is mostly applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideology such as socialism and communism.  The discipline of sociology accepts conflict theory as one valid way to gain insight into a society.  Karl Marx is regarded as the father of conflict theory and the idea of human society. In this regard, key figures are K. Marx and F. Engles in which das kapital and the communist manifesto are included in their work. Besides,



 Machiavelli,

Thomas

Hobbes,

Karl

Marx

and

Max

Weber

had

contributed important parts to conflict theory. In brief, Marx stated about sociological conflict theory as follows:- (1) classes are formed through property divisions such as slaves and slave-owners, serfs and lords, capitalists and workers are the opposing agents in the struggle for political power in the line of underpinning their means of livelihood. (2) Material contributions determine the extent to which social classes can organize effectively to fight for their interests. This condition of mobilization is a set of intervening variables between class and political power. 1. Race and ethnicity conflict 2. Conflict of religion 3. Gender conflict 4. Regions conflict 5. Class conflict (3)

The

Marxist

conflict

approach

emphasizes

a

materialist

interpretation of history, a dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance towards existing social arrangements and a political program of revolution or at least, reform. 

K. Marx divided human history into several stages based on

economic structure of a society. The most important stages for Marx’s argument were Feudalism and Capitalism. 

For Marx’, the central institution of capitalist society is private

property, the system by which capital (money, machine, tools, factories and other material objects used in production) is controlled by small minority of the population. This arrangement leads to two opposed classes, the owners of capital which Marx called them “bourgeoisie”, and the workers which he called them “proletariat”, whose only property is their only labor time, which they have to sell to the capitalists. 

Owners of means of production are seen as making profits by

paying workers less than their work is worth and thus, exploiting them.





Contradictions do mean inherent conflict and instability that lead

to class struggle. As Marx said this class struggle will eventually culminate in a socialist revolution. (iii) Interactionist perspective: Interactionism concerns itself with social interaction in micro level settings, unlike conflict theory and functionalism assumes that person’s social behavior occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings that one may attach to social position:  Interactionism has long history. Since, Max Weber and George Herbert Mead put emphasizes on the subjective meaning of human behavior, the social process and pragmatism. Herbert Blumer was responsible for coining the term “symbolic interactionism”. Interactionists focus on the subjective aspects of social life, rather than an objective, macro-structural aspects of social system. One reason for their focus is that interactionists’ base their theoretical perspective on their image of humans, rather than on their image of society.  For interactionists, humans are pragmatic actors who continually must adjust their behavior to the actions of other actors. We can adjust to these actions only because we are able to interpret them, i.e. to denote them symbolically and treat the actions and those who perform them as symbolic objects. This process of adjustment is aided by our ability to imaginatively rehearse alternative lines of action before we act.  Interactionism sees humans as active, creative participant, who construct their social world, not as ive, that conforming objects of socialization.  Society consists of organized and patterned interactions among individuals. For interactionists, negotiation among of a society creates temporary, socially constructed relations which remain in constant flux, despite relative stability in the basic framework governing those relations.



Role-taking: It is a key mechanism of interaction which permits us to take the other’s perspective to see what our actions might mean to the other actors with whom we interact. Role-making: It is a key mechanism of interaction for all situations and roles are inherently ambiguous. Thus, requiring us to create those situations and roles to some extent before we can act. Interactionists

tend

to

study

social

interaction

through

participant

observation, rather than surveys and interviews. Interactionists view in general:(I)

Interactionism is a sociological framework for viewing human beings as living in a world of meaningful objects. The “objects” may include material things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols. George Herbert Mead: is widely regarded as the founder of the

(II)

interactionist perspectives. He focused on human interactions within one to one situations and small groups. Mead was interested in observing the most minute forms of communications such as smiles, frowns, nod dings etc. •

Frown = to show anger,

•

Nodding = to say “yes” or to show agreeness

Interactionist perspective is sometimes referred to as the symbolic

(III)

interactionist perspective. Because, interactionists see symbols as an especially important part of human communication. In general symbolic form of communication is labeled as “non-verbal communication” which includes many other gestures, facial expressions, and postures. Facial expressions:

Symbolic communication:

Smiling,

Distress

objects; artifacts,

Laughing,

etc.

Sounds,

Crying, Shame Emotions

images, and ,

tools, ornaments clothing’s, institution etc.



Summary views: P

C

I 1. Society view:

Stable, well integrated

2. Level of analysis:

3. Key concepts:

4. Individual view:

Tension and struggle b/n groups

Macro

Macro

People are socialized to perform social functions

5. View of social change: Predictable reinforcing

6. Example:

7. Proponents:

Small group Micro

−Inequality −Capitalism

− Manifest F. −Latent F.

Active and affecting everyday social interaction

− Symbols−Non verbal com.

People are shaped by power and authority

Change takes place all the time and may have positive consequences/Neg.

 Public punishments  Reinforce the

 Laws reinforce the positions of those in power

 E. Durkheim,  Talcott parsons, and

 K. Marx,  W.E.B. Dubois, and

Through symbols create their social worlds.

− Communication with others − Reflected in  People respect laws or disobey them based on their own past exp.

 G.H. Mead C.H. Coole



A brief introduction to Sociology; prepared & compiled by: Lule Belay

Discussion questions: 1) Draw significant distinctions between functionalist and interactionist theories:2) What are the main roles of institutions in social system? 3) What is the role of social structures in the society? 4) When H. Spencer coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”, what did he want to indicate? 5) How do societies maintain social “equilibrium”? In the light of functionalist point of view, identify the main conceptual discrepancies in of society between Talcott parsons and Robert Merton: 6) What is the difference between manifest and latent functions? 7) What is Dysfunctions? Give examples 8) Does conflict theory have always positive value to society? Yes or no with reasons/justifications 9) What is symbolic interactionist perspective? 10) List the most proponents of functionalist theory. 11) List a few personalities of interactionist theory.



Recommended references for further readings: 

Blumer,H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: perspective and method.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 

Coser, L. (1977). Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Historical

and Social Context, 2nd Ed., Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., pp. 140-143, accessed: http://www2.pfeifer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Durkheim/DURKW5.HTML 

Craib, I. (1992). Modern Social Theory: From Parsons to Habermas,

Harvester Wheatsheaf, London 

Cuff, E. & Payne, G., (eds) (1984). Perspectives in Sociology, Allen &

Unwin, London 

Davis, K. (1959). “The Myth of Functional Analysis as a Special Method

in Sociology and Anthropology”, American Sociological Review, 24(6), 757-772. 

Elster, J.,Modgil, C. & Modgil, S., (eds) Robert Merton: Consensus and

Controversy, Falmer Press, London, pp. 129-35 

Gingrich, P., (1999) “Functionalism and Parsons” in Sociology 250

Subject

Notes,

University

of

Regina,

accessed,

24/5/06,

rul:http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm 

Holmwood, J. (2005) “Functionalism and its Critics” in Harrington, A.,

(ed) Modern Social Theory: an introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 87-109. 

Humans, G. (1962). Sentiments and Activities. New York: The Free

Press of Glencoe. 

Hoult, T. (1969). Dictionary of Modern Sociology.



Lenski,

G.

(1966).

“Power

and

Privilege:

A

Theory

of

Social

Stratification. “New York: McGraw-Hill. 

Lenski, G. (2005). “Evolutionary-Ecological Theory.” Boulder, CO:

Paradigm.



An overview of Sociological research methods:

Sociological



research is systematic which gathers data,

organizes and analysis’s that informed by theory and it reaches to conclusions.

Effective

sociological

research

can

be

quite

thought

provoking. It may suggest many new questions about social interactions that require further study. In some cases, rather than raising additional questions, a study will simply confirm previous beliefs and findings. What is scientific research method?

 −

Scientific method is a systematic and organized series of

steps

that

ensures

maximum

objectivity

and

consistency

in

researching a problem. −

The scientific method requires precise preparations in

developing useful research. Other wise, the research data collected may prove to be unacceptable for purposes of sociological study. As it is noted that there are five basic steps in the scientific research method which sociologists and other researchers follow:-

Steps in Research process: 1.

Identification of the research problem/selecting a topic:

2. Reviewing the literature/evidence. 3. Making the research problem precise/formulate the hypothesis 4. Workings out the research design/choosing the research method. 5. Carrying out the research/collecting and analyzing the data.



- Survey

- Focus Group Discussion

- Experiment

- In depth- interview

- Field research

- Documentary research

6. Interpreting the results. 7. Sharing/Reporting the findings

Defining the Problem:−

Researcher must state clearly what it needs to be investigated?

−

What is the interest of the researcher in examing?

−

Needs to identify clearly the core problem of the study.

Reviewing literature:−

After defining the problem, the next essential step is to go

through relevant literature so as to lay down fundamental contextual concepts for further investigation of the problem. Formulating hypothesis/Research Questions: −

It is a speculative statement about the relationship between two

or more factors, known as variables. •

Independent variable:- To cause or influence another

•

Dependent variable: - When its action is depending on

others. −

Formulating hypothesis can also be written as research questions

or guide questions. Research design and collecting data:−

This part focuses on how to collect data and formulate essential

data collection techniques.



−

This is the research plan section which indicates research

techniques, discussions and others. It is the major part of the research: Developing summary, conclusions and recommendations −

After collecting and analyzing data, the researchers have to

come to the final steps in the scientific method. This final step is conclusions:-

4.2. Research designs and methods:

Research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining data

scientifically. Selection of a research design is a critical step for sociologists and requires creativity and ingenuity. This choice will directly influence both the cost of the project and the amount of time needed to collect the results of the research: 

Researchers (sociologists) usually implement the following major

steps in

research process:

Summary Chart Scientific Method

Defining the problem

Review the literature

Formulate the hypothesis

Select research design

Collect and analyze data    

Surveys Observations Experiments Existing

27 Develop the- conclusion 2014 Lectures Philipe Ojp Report Interpret the research your results findings


(1) Surveys: − A survey is a study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire that provides sociologists with information concerning how people think and act. A survey must be based on precise, representative sampling if it is to reflect genuinely abroad range of the population. − A representative sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population. There are many kinds of samples, but the one social scientists most frequently use is the random sample: − In random sample, every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. − The advantage of using specialized sampling techniques is that sociologists do not need to question everyone in a population. − An effective survey question must be simple and clear enough for people to understand it. It must also be specific enough so that there are no problems in interpreting the results. − There are two main forms of surveys. These are interview and questionnaire. Each of these has its own advantages. − Skillful interviewer can go beyond written questions and “probe” for a subject’s

underlying

feelings

and

reasons.

On

the

other

hand,

questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper, especially when large samples are used. (2) Observation: Investigators who collect information through direct participation in and/or observation of a group, tribe, or community under study are engaged in observation. This method allows sociologists to examine certain behaviors and communities that could not be investigated through other research techniques. In some cases, the sociologists actually “” a group for a period of time to gain an accurate sense of how it operates. This is called participant observation.



− The methodology of participant observation proved usefulness in solving practical problems. Experiments:  To study a cause and effect relationship, one may conduct an experiment. In the other hand, an experiment is an artificially created situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables. − In classic method of conducting an experiment, two groups of people are selected and matched for similar characteristics such as age or education. The researchers then assign the subjects to one of two groups, the experimental or the control group. − The experimental group is exposed to an independent variable, the control group is not. Thus, it scientists were testing a new type of antibiotic drug; they would ister that drug to an experimental group but not to control group. Use of existing sources:−

Sociologists do not necessarily have to collect new data in

order to conduct research and test hypotheses. −

The term secondary analysis refers to a variety of research

techniques that make use of publicly accessible information and data. Generally, in conducting secondary analysis, researchers utilize data in ways an intended by the initial collectors of information. −

Sociologists consider secondary analysis to be noncreative,

since it does not influence people’s behavior. For example, Emile Durkheim’s statistical analysis of suicide neither increased nor decreased human self-destruction.



4.3

Ethics of Research:

−

Researchers in general, sociologists in particular must

abide by a certain specific standards in conducting research code of ethics. American sociologist’s associations put forth the following basic principles (1997). 1.

Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.

2.

Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity.

3.

Protect subjects from personal harm.

4.

Preserve confidentiality.

5.

Seek informed consent when data are collected from research

participants or when behavior occurs in a private context. (Voluntary participation). 6.

Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.

7.

Disclose all sources of financial .

PAC = Privacy, Anonymity and Confidentiality 

Most sociological research uses people as sources of

information – as respondents to survey questions, subjects of observation, or participants in experiments. In all cases, sociologists need to be certain that they are not invading the privacy of their subjects. This is by assuring guaranteeing that personal information disclosed will remain confidential. 

The

scientific

method

or

methodology

provides

a

systematic, organized series of steps that insure maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. It provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis, and helps to promote reliability and validity (Consistency and Accuracy). Theory directs research and research informs theory (Reflexivity).





V. Culture: 5.1. Definition of Culture 5.2. Components of Culture 5.3. Traits of Culture 5.4. Ethnocentrism Vs Cultural Relativism 5.5. Socialization and its agents

5.1 Definition of Culture The concept of culture has been defined, investigated and explained by different scholars with various time frames and stages of development starting down to the records of history. The definitions of culture are raised to the extent of beyond 160, to be more specific 164 definitions of culture are recorded in different written materials. Nevertheless, the definition of culture was examined coherently and presented by British anthropologist Edward Teylor. He proposed that cultures, systems of human behavior and thought, obey natural laws and therefore can be studied scientifically. Teylor’s definition of culture is more comprehensive and is widely quoted. Tylor’s definition of culture: “…Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (1871/1958 p. 1)  values,

Culture can also be broadly defined as the learned norms, artifacts,

language

and

symbols

that

are

constantly

communicated among people who share a common ways of life. Culture includes

beliefs

about

what

is

important

in

life,

and

it

shapes

interpretations of what events mean. 

Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,

experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and



material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individuals and groups striving for. 

Culture is the system of knowledge shared by relatively

large groups of people. The sociology of culture shows that our hopes and fears, our likes and dislikes, our beliefs and habits are very much social creations, strongly influenced by the time and place in which we live. This does not mean that culture dictates thoughts and behavior. It leaves room for actions. Culture is something, people develop and use. On the other hand, in the process, there is also room for reshaping culture, for adapting it to meet new demands and situations. As a result culture is never static. It is constantly in the process of change. 

The particular content of culture varies from place to place,

but all human cultures have the same basic elements. These include knowledge, language, and symbols of all kinds, values, norms, and artifacts (the physical objects that people make). People use these as cultural “tool kit” both to maintain and to change their ways of life. 

Culture is the sum total of the learned behavior of a group

of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation. Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the of one group or category of people from another. 

Culture can be two aspects. Material culture and Non-

material culture. 

Material culture consists of all the physical objects or

artifacts that people make and attach meanings to them.

E.g. Books,

Schools, Missiles, Clothes, and Churches, etc. 

Natural objects are not part of material culture, but how

people see and use them is shaped by culture.



Non-material culture consists of human creations that are



not embodied in physical objects such as values, norms, knowledge, systems of government, language, we speak and so on.

5.2 Components of Culture;  Culture, as the whole way of life of the people is composed of widely four essential components. These are language, symbols, values, and sanctions. (i)

Language: It is a system of verbal symbols and in many cases written with rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex meanings,. Language is extremely important in the development, elaboration, and transmission of culture. Language often offers many clues to the meanings of social interactions.

−

Language enables people to store meanings and experiences

and to on this heritage to new generations. Through language, we are able to learn about and from the experiences of others. Language enables us to transcend the here and now, preserving the past and imagining the future. It also makes possible the formulation of complex plans and ideas. Language has a role in social action, focusing on how people use language to coordinate their activities, to create and confirm social understandings. Language is culturally universal, striking differences in the use of language are evident around the world. For example: “I will ring you up”, this means “I will call on the telephone”. Similarly, the meanings of non-verbal gestures vary from one culture to another. Language does more than simply describe reality; it also serves to shape the reality of a culture. The English language distinguishes between yellow and orange, but some other languages do not. Language can also transmit stereo types related to race. Example “black” in U.S. dictionary which it means dismal, gloomy, for binding, destitute of moral etc. Language can be seen in the form of non-verbal communication such as



gestures and facial expressions to communicate such as, smiling, laughing, crying, shaming, emotions, and distress etc. Like any other form of language, non verbal communication is not the same in all cultures. Functionalists emphasize the important role of language in unifying of a society. In contrast, conflict theorists focus on the use of language to perpetuate divisions between group and

societies

i.e.

gender

and

racism

expressed

in

communication.

Interactionists study how people rely on shared definitions of phrases and expressions in both formal speech and everyday conversations. Language can shape how we see, taste, smell, fell and hear. It also influences the way we think about the people, ideas, and objects around us. Culture’s most important norms, values, and sanctions are communicated to people through language. (ii)

Symbols: Something, verbal or non verbal that arbitrarily and by convention stands for something else, with which it has no necessary or natural connection.

Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning. Symbols are objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something other than themselves. Depending upon symbols culture consists of tools, implements, utensils, clothes, ornaments, customs, institutions, beliefs, rituals, games, works of art, language etc. A symbol is something verbal or non-verbal within a particular language or culture that comes to stand for something else. There is no obvious, natural or necessary connection between the symbols and what it symbolizes. Symbols are usually linguistic. But there are also non-verbal symbols such as flags, cross, holy water, etc. For hundreds of thousands of years, humans have shared the abilities on which culture rests. These abilities are to learn, to think symbolically, to manipulate language and to use tools and other cultural products in organizing their lives and coping with their environments. Every



contemporary human population has the ability to use symbols and thus to create and maintain culture. (iii)

Values: These are general ideas that people share about what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Society typically share a number

of

values,

among

them,

achievement

and

success,

practicality, progress, material comfort, democracy, and individuality, etc. When values are in conflict, people tend to apply them selectively. Values indicate what people in culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right or wrong. Values may be specific such as honoring one’s parents and owning a home or they may be more general such as health, love, and democracy. Values influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. There is often a direct relationship among the values, norms and sanctions of a culture. The value of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable during any one person’s life time. Socially shared, intensely felt values are fundamentally part of our lives. Sociologist Robin Williams (1970) has attempted to offer a list of these basic values. These are: - Achievements, - Efficiency, - Equality,

- Material comfort,

- Nationalism, - Supremacy of science etc Sanction:

Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. Not that the concept of reward is included in this definition. Conformity to a norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back. Negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment and stores of contempt. Sanctions can be seen as positive such as salary, bonus, testimonial dinner, granting medal and Diploma. These are formal norms of 36 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


communications. Sanctions also can be exercised in negative norms such as demotion, firing from a job, jail sentence and expulsion. These are mainly formal communications. There are also informal sanctions such as smile, compliment, and cheers as positive ones. Frown, humiliation, belittling as informal negative sanctions:



Summary note:

Positiv e Formal Sanctio ns

Negativ e

Inform al

Positiv e − Smile, − Complime nt, − Cheers, and − Pat on the

− Pay raise − Grant medal − Word of gratitude, − Salary bonus, − Testimonial dinner, and − Diploma, medal(s) − Fines, threats, − Imprisonment, − Stores of contempt − Demotion − Firing from a job, and − Exclusion etc.

Negati ve − Frown; − Humiliation, − Belittling, and − Inconvenience creations

5.3. Traits of Culture: Culture can be acquired; one can easily acquire or learn a culture where he/she raised. If you are conceived in one culture but born and raised in another i.e. culture is transferred at birth. In this regard, you acquired the culture of the second, not the first one.

(I) Culture and personalities’ views: Culture:

“A learned meaning system that consists of patterns of

traditions, beliefs, values, norms, meanings and symbols that are ed on from one generation to the next and are shared to varying degrees by interacting of a community”. (GingToomey and Chung)



Culture:

“A deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,

actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving”. (Samovar and Porter) Culture: “An integrated systems of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of the of any given society” (Osterwal) Culture: “A learned set of shared perceptions about beliefs, values, norms which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people” (Lusting and Koester) Culture:

What gives people “a sense of whom they are, of belonging, of how they should behave, and of what they should be doing?” (Moran, Harris and Moran)

(II) Traits: Seven Major Traits of Culture 2.1. Learned: Note innate but something acquired because of where one is raised. If you are conceived in one culture but born and raised in another (i.e. transferred at birth) – you acquired the culture of the second, not the first one. Learned

through interaction, observation, and imitation

Conscious – being told, reading Unconscious – most culture is learned unconsciously – i.e. through language for example: Learned from a variety of sources such as: Proverbs ,Folk tales and folklore − High Culture: poetry, art, music − Mass media (especially TV ) 2.2. Transmitted: Each generation (older) es it on to the younger – and constantly reinforces it. If not transmitted, a culture dies. 2.3. Based on Symbols: Language (verbal and nonverbal) is key element/ but also from images, icons. 39 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


2.4. Changeable: No culture is static. The culture of your grandparents or parents is not identical with our own (a major cause of the so-called generation gap). Changes occur from: 

Innovation (discovery) e.g. television, computer, women’s

movement Diffusion (borrowing) e.g. McDonalds worldwide, 

Acculturation - long-term with another culture.

2.5. Integrated: One dimension affects other dimensions. Consider how the civil rights movement in the US (initially concerned with voting rights) spread to encom multiple parts of the USA. 2.6. Ethnocentric: A trait found in every culture – the belief that one’s culture is superior and more worthy than another. While it is important to have a positive view of one’s self, ethnocentrism can be a major hindrance to intercultural communication – can shut others out, lead to derogatory view points. 2.7. Adaptive: In order to survive, culture must adapt. Example – roles of women in USA after WWII. Culture is the total way of life of the people of a society including their customs, institutions, beliefs and values. Culture functions as a binding force, holding people together by common attitudes, beliefs and traditions. Culture is learned behavior, transmitted through communications, largely in the form of language. Culture is a vehicle for man’s survival, it is also a trap of habit and custom from which he cannot fully escape. Culture develops values, traditions and heroes.

5.4. Ethnocentrism Vs Cultural Relativism:  What is ethnocentrism? o

The tendency to view one’s own culture as best and to judge the

behavior and beliefs of culturally different people by one’s own standards.



What is cultural relativism?

 •

The position that the values and standards of

cultures differ and deserve respect. Extreme relativism argues that cultures should be judged solely by their own standards. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own culture as superior and to apply one’s own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures. Ethno centrism is a culturally universal. It contributes to social solidarity, a sense of value and community, among people who share a cultural tradition. People everywhere think that their familiar explanations, opinions, and customs are true, right, proper, and moral. They regard different behavior as strange, immoral or savage. The tribal names that appear in anthropology books often come from the native word for people. Opposing ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, the argument that behavior in one culture should not be judged by the standards of another culture. At its most extreme, cultural relativism argues that there is no superior, international, or universal morality, that the moral and ethical rules of all cultures deserve equal respect. In the extreme relativism view, Nazi would be evaluated as non judgmentally as Athenian Greece. In today’s world, human rights advocate challenges of many of the tenets of cultural relativism. For example, several cultures in Africa and the Middle East have traditions of female genital modification. This tradition is practiced in several societies. Female genital mutilation has been opposed by human rights’ group of women.

5.5. Socialization and its Agents: 

Socialization is the process of instilling fundamental elements of culture in a society’s . It is one of the basic forces that shape human social behavior.





Socialization is particularly important during early childhood. Without it in the first few years of life, people would not become social beings. However, socialization is certainly not confined to childhood. It continues throughout life and is especially important during major life transitions, such as starting a new job or getting divorced.



Socialization is the process by which people acquire the beliefs, attitudes, values and customs of their culture. (A) Agents of socialization: - During Childhood, (i) Family, (ii) Peers, (iii) The mass media, and (iv) Schools (B) Agents of socialization: - During Adulthood (i) Colleges/ Universities, and (ii) All Tertiary levels of learning institutions.



During the stage of socialization process, desocialization and resocialization would take place: •

Desocialization: - The process of shedding one’s self image

and values usually followed by resocialization to a different set of values and view of one self. •

Resocialization: - The internalization of a new set of norms and

values that are very different from those held in the past. •

Occupational socialization: - The process of aligning the

norms, values, and beliefs of a new worker with those of the organization or occupation in which he or she is employed. •

Socialization to a job: - This means specific job-related skills,

set of values, and ethics that apply to a person’s work, the unofficial rules of the work place that the person is entering. For example, in an army camp, large sales training programme etc.



•

Peer

relations

and

informal

group

norms

become

very

important for making/creating socialization. •

People try to prepare themselves for socialization to new work

role. For example, New University graduate may start to talk and ask experience and other related matters at the work place. 

All these changes are collectively called anticipatory socialization. This means, the process of starting to adjust one’s belief, norms, and values in anticipation of new socialization one is about to undergo. •

Desocialization and resocialization occur in organizations

that deliberately close themselves from the outside world. These organizations are called total institutions. •

Total institutions: - organizations that deliberately close

themselves off from the outside world and lead a highly insular life that is formally organized and tightly controlled. E.g. Prisons, mental hospitals, and military camps. •

Socialization

may

take

place

mainly

through

language,

interaction and affection. − Values and views can be conveyed through language. − Interaction can be revealed through social, emotional sense, participation in a society. − Affection can be seen through cooperation’s, love affairs etc.

Note (Summary): (1) Socialization is the process through which you learn a culture and it continues through out life. (2) Primary socialization is the first phase, often taking place in the family. (3) Secondary socialization takes place in the peer groups (similar age and status), educational systems and occupational places. (4) Socialization is essential for participation in human society. 43 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


Discussion Questions: 1) What is “Ethnocentric” in culture? 2) What is “Cultural relativism”? 3) Can

you

identify

any

specific

difference(s)

between

“cultural

relativism” and “Ethical relativism”? 4) How do we presence values and assets of culture for future generation? 5) What is social role? Explain diffusionism and acculturation?

References for further readings •

Jary, David, Jary, Julia (1991). The Harpert Collins Dictionary of

Sociology, New York, Harper Collins, ISBN 0064610365 •

Poore, S. Over view of social control theories. The Hewett School.

Retrieved (2007). •

_____________ 2007, culture and identity, Livesay, Chris.

•

B.J. Biddle (1986). Recent development in role theory. Vol. 12 pp 67-

92. •

Goldhegen,

Daniel

Jonah,

Hitler’s

willing

executioners:

ordinary

Germans and the Holocaust vintage books, New York (1996). •

Nagle, Brendan D. ‘The ancient world’. A social and cultural history 6 th

ed. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (2006). •

Merton, Robert K. British Journal of Sociology Eighth Edition (1957).



VI. Social Structure and Interactions: 6.1. Groups, Institutions and Society 6.2. Social Values, Norms and Social Control 6.3. Statuses and Social Roles 6.4. Social Interaction in Everyday Life

6.1. Groups, Institutions and Society: (A) Croup Before we proceed to the discussions of groups, social institutions and society, let us have brief insights about social structure and interactions:  What is social structure?

What are the components?

 The term social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. − The concepts of social interaction and social structure, which are closely linked to each other, are central to sociological study. Sociologists observe patterns of behaviour closely to understand and accurately describe the social interactions of a community or society and the social structure in which they take place. − There are five basic elements or components of social structure.  These are Groups, institutions, social roles and statuses, social net works. Groups Social networks ∙ Social structure

Institutions Social roles Statuses

 What is/are group (s)? −

Predictable social relationships in of five elements such as

statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, and social institutions.



 In sociological , a group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who regularly and consciously interact each other.  Every society is composed of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place. We seek out groups to establish friendships, to accomplish certain goals, and to fulfill social roles that we have acquired.  Groups play a vital part in a society’s social structure. Much of our social interaction takes place within groups and is influenced by their norms and sanctions of a group.  The study of groups has become an important part of sociological investigation, because they play such as a key role in the transmission of culture. As we interact with others, we on our ways of thinking and acting from language and values to ways of dressing and leisure activities. • −

Types of groups: Sociologists have made a number of useful distinctions between

types of groups: primary and secondary groups, in-groups and out-groups and reference groups. •

Primary and Secondary groups:



Charles Horton Cooley coined the term primary group that

refers to small groups characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. Some examples for these definitions are street gang, of family, sister in a college. 

Primary groups play a pivotal role both in the

socialization process, development of roles, and statuses. Indeed, primary groups can be instrumentals in a person’s day-to-day existence. −

Secondary group refers to a formal, impersonal

group in which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding. The difference between primary and secondary groups is not always clear cut.



Some social clubsfunctions may become so large and impersonal that they no The main of social institutions: longer function as primary groups. −

Secondary group often emerge in the work

place among those who share special understandings about their occupation: −

There is a new understanding of secondary

group. These are: 

An in-group can be defined as any group of category to

which people feel they belong. Simply, everyone who is regarded as “we” or “us”. The in-group may be as narrow as one’s family or as broad as an entire society. The very existence of an in-group implies that there is an out-group viewed as “they” or “them” more formally. 

An out-group is a group or category to which people

feel they do not belong. 

Reference group: - set and enforce standards of

conduct and perform a comparison function for people’s evaluations of themselves and others. 

Small

group:

There

are

distinct

and

predictable

processes at work in the functioning of small groups. The simplest group is a dyad, composed of two . 

Triads and larger groups increase ways of interacting

and allow for conditions to form. (B) Social institutions: −

Institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and

behavior centered on basic social needs, such as replacing personnel (the family) and preserving order (the government). −

When we study institutions, then we may have good

insights to the structure of society.



−

Social institutions have the following brief essential

functions. These are: Family

replacing personnel,

Education Economy

teaching new recruits, producing

and

distributing

goods

and

services, Politics

preserving order, and

Religion

providing and maintaining a sense of

purpose.  Replacing personnel (Family) −

Any group or society must replace personnel when they die,

leave or became incapacitated. This is accomplished through such means as immigration, annexation of neighboring groups of people’s acquisition of slaves or normal sexual reproduction of .

 −

Teaching new recruits (Education) No group can survive if many of its reject the

established behavior and responsibilities of the group. Thus, finding or producing new is not sufficient. The group must encourage recruits to learn and accept its values and customs. This learning can take place formally within schools or informally through interaction and negotiation in peer groups. 

Producing and distributing goods and services (Economy)

−

Any relatively permanent group or society must provide and

distribute desired goods and services for its . Each society establishes a set of rules for the allocation of financial and other resources. The group must satisfy the needs of most at least to



some extent or it will risk the possibility of discontent and ultimately disorder.  Preserving order (Political Sociology) −

Critical function of every group or society preserving order and

protecting itself from attack. 

Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose (Religion)

−

People must feel and motivated to continue as of a

society in order to fulfill the previous four requirements. The behavior of United States prisoners of war, while in confinement during the war in Vietnam is a testament to the importance of maintaining a sense of purpose. (C) Society Society is an organized group of individuals living together in a territory for long period of time. Society must hold the following essential elements. (1)living together for long period of time, (2)possessing common values and interests, (3)Sharing common cultures, traditions and psychological makeup.

Pre- industrial societies are: a) Hunting

and

gathering

society,

Horticultural

society

and

Agrarian society. 

Hunting and gathering society is the first type of human

society in which the people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available. Technology in such societies is minimal. People are organized in groups and are constantly on the move in search of food. There is little division of labour in to specialized tasks. Hunting and gathering societies are composed of small, widely dispersed groups. Each group consists almost entirely of people related to one another.



As the result, kinship ties are the source of authority and influence and the social institution of the family takes on a particularly important role.  Horticultural society: It is people who plant seeds and crops rather than subsist merely on available foods, emerged about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. −

of horticultural society are much less nomadic than

hunters and gatherers. They place greater emphasis on the production of tools and household objects. Yet technology within horticultural societies remains limited. They cultivate crops with the aid of digging sticks or hoes. 

Agrarian society: This is the last stage of pre-industrial

stage of society, which emerged about 5000 years ago. of agrarian society primarily engaged in the production of food. However, the introduction of new technological innovations such as the plow allows farmers to dramatically increase their crop yield. They can cultivate the same fields over generations, thereby allowing the emergence of still larger settlements. The social structure of the agrarian society continues to rely on the physical power of humans and animals. Nevertheless, the social structure has more carefully defined roles than in horticultural societies. Individuals focus on specialized tasks, such as repair of fishing nets or work as a block smith. As human settlements become more established and stable, social institutions become more elaborate and property rights take on greater importance. The comparative permanence and greater surpluses of agrarian society make it more feasible to create artifacts such as statues, public monuments, and art objects and to them on from one generation to the next one.  As the industrial revolution proceeded in Europe, a new form of social structure emerged. This new form of society is called industrial society.



Industrial society is a society that depends on mechanization to produce its goods and services. Industrial societies relied on new inventions that facilitated agricultural and industrial production and on new sources of energy such as steam. −

The

process

of

industrialization

had

distinctive

social

consequences. Families and communities could not continue to faction as self-sufficient units. Individuals, villages, and regions began to exchange goods and services and become interdependent. As people came to rely on the labour of of other communities, the family lost its unique position as the source of power and authority. The need for specialized knowledge led to more formalized education, and education emerged as a social institution distinct from the family. Post industrial society as society whose economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information. The main output of post industrial society is services rather than manufactured goods. Large numbers of people become involved in occupations devoted to the teaching, generations or dissemination of ideas. More recently, sociologists have gone beyond discussions of post industrial societies to the ideal type of “post modern society”.  A postmodern society is a technologically sophisticated society that is pre occupied with consumer goods and media images. Such societies, consume goods and information on mass scale.

6.2. Norms and Social Control (A) Norms



A brief introduction to Sociology; prepared & compiled by: Lule Belay  All societies have ways of encouraging and enforcing what they view as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what they consider to be improper behavior.  Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society:  In order for a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and understood. Sociologists distinguish between norms into two ways. These norms are classified as either formal or informal. Formal norm: This is generally has been written down and specify strict rules for punishment of violators. In some countries, they often formalize norms into laws, which must be very precise in defining proper and improper behavior. −

Laws are one example of formal norms, although not the only

type. −

By contrast, informal norms generally are understood but are not

precisely recorded. Standards of proper dress are a common example of informal norms. Society has no specific punishment or sanction for a person who comes to school, say, wearing “a monkey suit”. −

Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society.

When classified in this way, they are known as ‘mores’ and ‘folkways’. •

Mores are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a

society, often because they embody the most cherished principles of a people. Each society demands obedience to its mores violation can lead to severe penalties. Thus, the U.S.A has strong mores against murder, treason, and child abuse that have been institutionalized into formal norms. •

Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior.

•

Folkways play an important role in shaping the daily behavior of

of a culture.



−

Society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores and

their violation raises comparatively little concern. −

In many societies around the world, folkways serve to

reinforce patterns of male dominance (pp. 57) Various folkways reveal men’s hierarchical position above women within the traditional areas of South East Asia. People do not follow norms, whether mores or folkways in all situations. Example, teenagers are illegal to drink alcoholic beverages, yet drinking by minors is common through out the nation. (In fact, “teenage alcoholism” is one of our country’s most serious social problems). Norms are violated in some instances because one norm conflicts with another e.g. beating wife or undesirable behavior in your neighbor. Acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic and social conditions of a culture are transformed. For example; under traditional norms, woman is expected to marry, rear children and remain home, if husband the family sufficiently. These norms are now changed due to many reasons and circumstances: (B) Social Control: How does a society bring about acceptance of basic norms? The term social control refers to the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society. Social control occurs on all levels of society. In the family, we are socialized to obey our parents simply because they are our parents. Peer groups introduce us to informal norms such as dress codes; that govern the behavior of . Colleges establish standards they expect of their students. In bureaucratic organizations, workers encounter a formal system of rules and regulations. Finally, the government of every society legislates and enforces social norms including norms regarding “proper” and “improper” expressions of sexual intimacy. Most of us respect and accept basic social norms and assume that others will do the same. 53 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


We are all aware that individuals, groups and institutions expect us to act “properly”. If we fail to do so, we may face punishment through informal sanctions such as fear and ridicule or formal sanctions such jail sentences or fines. There are many techniques and strategies to control social and legal values. These are some of the major ones: Conformity and Obedience a)

Conformity:

Going

along

with

one’s

peers,

individuals of a person’s own status, who have no special right to direct that person’s behavior. b)

Obedience: Compliance with higher authorities in a

hierarchical structure. Informal and formal social control: 

The sanctions used to encourage conformity

and obedience and to discourage violation of social norms are carried out through informal and formal social control. As the term implies, people use informal social control casually to enforce norms. Examples of informal social control include similes, laughter, raising of an eyebrow, and ridicule. 

There

are

also

controversial

examples

of

informal social control is parental use of corporal punishment. Adults often view spanking, slapping or kicking children as a proper and necessary means of maintaining authority. Child development specialists counter that corporal punishment is in appropriate because it teaches children to solve problems through violence, they warn that slapping and spanking can escalate into more serious forms of abuse. Sometimes informal methods of social control are not adequate to enforce conforming or obedient behavior. In those cases, formal social control is carried out by authorized agents such as police officers, physicians, schools s, employers, military officers, and managers. It can serve as a last resort when socialization and informal sanctions do not bring about desired behavior. 54 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


As increasingly significant means of formal social control is to jail people. Societies vary in deciding which behaviors will be subjected to formal social control and how severe the sanctions will be. Another controversial example of formal social control is the use of surveillance techniques.

6.3. Statuses and Roles Statuses: Social structure contains at least five elements. These are statuses, social roles, groups, social networks and social institutions. These elements make up social structure as a foundation. We normally think of a person’s “status” as having to do with influence, wealth, and fame. However, sociologists use status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society – form the lowest to the highest position. A person may hold more than one status simultaneously. [at a time) According to sociologists’ view, statuses are divided into two main parts: These are ascribed and achieved. Ascribed status It is a status which is “assigned” to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Generally, this assignment takes place at birth, thus a person’s racial background, gender, and age are all considered ascribed statuses. These characteristics a re biological in origin but are significant mainly because of the social meanings they have in culture. An ascribed status does not have necessarily the same social meaning in every society: E.g. “Old man” in some societies “Respect” in some “insulting”. Achieved status: Achieved status comes to us largely through our own efforts. Example, Bank president, prison guard etc.  One must do something to acquire an achieved status.



 One must go to school, learn a skill, establish a friendship or invent a new product:  Achieved status usually is heavily influenced by our ascribed status.  A master status: - It is a status that dominates others and thereby determines a person’s general position within society. Our society gives such importance to race and gender that they often dominate our lives. Indeed, such ascribed statuses often influence achieved status. In the United States, ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses that have an important impact on one’s potential to achieve a desired professional and social status. Social Roles: Throughout our lives, we are acquiring what sociologists call social roles.  A social role is a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. The actual performance varies from individual to individual.

One

secretary

may

assume

extensive

istrative

responsibilities, while another may focus on clerical duties.  Roles are a significant component of social structure. It is viewed from a functionalist perspective. Roles contribute to a society’s stability by enabling to anticipate the behavior of others and to pattern their own actions accordingly. Yet social roles can also be dysfunctional by restricting people’s interactions and relationships. If we view a person only as a “police officer” or as “supervisor” it will be difficult to elate to this person as a friend or neighbor.  Role can be divided or seen in different forms. These are: -Role conflict, Role exit and Role strain. 1.

What is role conflict?

It occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person. Fulfillment of the roles associated with one status may directly violate the roles linked to a second status. In the example above, the newly promoted supervisor will experience a serious



conflict between certain social and occupational roles. Role conflicts call for important ethical choices. 2.

What is role strain?

It is to describe difficulties that result from the differing demands and expectations associated with same social position. 3.

What is role exit?

It is to describe the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self-identity and reestablishment of an identity in a new role.



VII.

Social Inequality and Social Processes: 7.1. Social Stratification 7.2. Social Mobility 7.3. Social Movements and Change

7.1. Systems of Stratification: There are three systems of stratification: These are slavery, castes and social classes. Any stratification system may include elements of more than one type. (A) Slavery: The most extreme form of legalized social inequality for individuals or groups is slavery. What distinguishes this oppressive system of stratification is that enslaved individuals are owned by other people. They treat these human beings as property, just as if they were household pets or appliances. Slavery, an ascribed status, has varied in the way it has been practiced. In ancient Greece, the main source of slaves consisted of captives of war and piracy. A person’s status might change depending on which city-state happened to triumph in a military conflict. (B) Castes: Caste are hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated that tend to be fixed and immobile. The caste system is generally associated with Hinduism in India and other countries. For example, in India, there are four major castes called varnas. A fifth category of out castes referred to as untouchables is considered to be slowly and un clean as to have no place within this system of stratification. There are also many minor castes. Caste hip is an ascribed status. Each caste is quite sharply defined, and are expected to marry within that caste. Caste hip generally determines one’s occupation or role as a religious functionary. An example of lower caste in India is the Dons, whose main work is the undesirable job of cremating bodies. The caste system



promotes a remarkable degree of differentiation. Thus, the single caste of chauffeurs has been split into two separate sub-castes: drivers of luxury cars have a higher status than drivers of economy cars. (C) Social Classes:A class system is a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence mobility. In contrast to slavery and caste systems, the boundaries between classes are imprecisely defined, and one can move from one stratum, or level, of society to another. Yet class systems maintain stable stratification hierarchies and patterns of class divisions, and they too are marked by unequal distribution of wealth and power. Income inequality is a basic characteristic of a class system. Sociologist Daniel Rossides (1997) has conceptualized the class system of the United Sates using a five class model: The upper class, the upper-middle class, the lower middle class, the working-class and the lower class. Sandwiched between the upper and lower classes in Rossides’s model are the upper-middle class, the lower-middle class, and the working class. In many cases, the upper middle class is composed of professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in politics and exercise leadership roles in voluntary associations. The lower-middle class, which s for approximately 30 to 35 percent of the population, includes less affluent professionals such as elementary school teachers, and nurses, owners of small business, and sizable number of clerical workers.

7.2

Social Mobility:-

The term social mobility refers to movement of individuals or groups from one position of a society’s stratification system to another. But how significant, how frequent, how dramatic, is mobility in a class society. There are two ways or systems of social mobility: These are open and closed systems.



•

Open system: - It implies that the position of each individual is

influenced by the person’s achieved status. An open class system encourages competition between of society. •

Closed system: - It is little or no possibility of moving up. The slavery

and caste systems of stratification are examples of closed systems. In such societies, social placement is based on ascribed statuses, such as race or family background, which can not be changed. Types of Social Mobility:There are different types of social mobility. These are: (1)

Horizontal mobility;

(2)

Vertical mobility;

(3)

Intergenerational mobility;

(4)

Intragenerational mobility;

(1)Horizontal mobility: - The movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank. (2)Vertical mobility: - The movement of a person from one social position to another of different rank. (3)Intragenerational mobility: - Changes in person’s social position within his or her adult life. (4)Intergenerational mobility: - changes in the social system/position of children relative to their parents. There are different factors that have significant impacts on social mobility. These are occupational structure, education, gender, etc.

7.3

Social Change: -

Social change is significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and culture, including norms and values. Before, it needs to discuss about social change, preferably essential to go through about social movements. So, what are social movements?

7.4

Social Movements:



Factors such as physical environment, population, technology and social inequality serve as sources of change, but it is the collective effort of individuals organized in social movements that ultimately leads to social change. Sociologists use the term “social movements” to refer to organized collective activities to bring about or resist fundamental change in an existing group or society. Herbert Blumer recognized the special importance of social movements when he defined them as collective enterprises to establish a new order of life. In many nations, including the big countries, social movements have had a dramatic impact on the course of history and the evaluation of social structure. Social movements imply the existence of conflict, but we can also analyse their activities from a functionalist perspectives. Even when unsuccessful, social movements contribute to the formation of public opinion. Initially, the ideas of Margaret Sanger and other early advocators of birth control wee viewed as “radical”, yet contraceptives are now widely available in the U.S. moreover, functionalists view social movements as training grounds for leaders of the political establishment. How and why do social movements emerge? People are often discontented with the way things are. In this regard sociologists identified the main causes of social movements from two main approaches: (A) Relative-Deprivation: The term relative-deprivation is defined as the conscious feeling of a negative

discrepancy

between

legitimate

expectations

and

present

actualities (J. Wilson, 1973). In other words, things are not as good as you hoped they would be such a state may be characterized by scarcity rather than complete lack of necessities. A relatively deprived person is dissatisfied because he or she feels down trodden relative to some appropriate reference group. Thus, blue-collar workers who live in two-family houses with little lawn 61 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


space – though hardly at the bottom of the economic ladder – may nevertheless feel deprived in comparison with corporate managers and professionals who live in lavish and exclusive suburbs. (B) Resource Mobilization: The term resource mobilization refers to the ways in which a social movement utilizes such resources. The success of a movement for change will depend in good part on how effectively it mobilizes its resources. Sociologists argued that to sustain social protest or resistance, there must be an “organizational base and continuity of leadership”. As people become part of a social movement, norms develop to guide their behavior. of the movement may be expected to attend regular meetings of organizations, pay dues, recruit new adherents, and boy cott “enemy” products or speakers. The emergence of a new social movement can be evident from the rise of special language or new words for familiar . Social movements have been responsible for such new of selfreference as Blacks and African Americans, senior citizens and people with disabilities.

7.4

Social Change:

Social change is significant alternation overtime in behavior patterns and culture including norms and values. To have better understandings about social charge, one needs to review three theoretical approaches to change. These are: o

Evolutionary

o

Functionalist

o

Conflict Theory

(I) Social Change and Evolutionary Theory: Charles Darwin’s (1809 – 1882) pioneering work in biological evolution contributed to 19th c. theories of social change. According to his approach, there has been a continuing progression of successive life forms. For example, since human beings came at a later stage of evolution than 62 2014 Lectures - Philipe Ojp


reptiles, we represent a “higher” form of life. Thus, evolutionary theory views society as moving in a definite direction. It was agreed that society was inevitably progressing to a higher state. Early evolutionary theorists concluded in ethno-centric fashion that their own behavior and culture were more advanced than those of earlier civilizations. In this regard, let us trace some of the ideas of early sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer.

Auguste

1.

Comte

(1798

–

1857)

was

an

evolutionary theorist of change. He saw human societies as moving forward in their thinking from my theology to the scientific method. Emile Durkheim (1933, 1893) in his edition

2.

maintained that society progressed from simple to more complex forms of social organization. The ideas and writings of the above stated theorists are examples of unilinear evolutionary theory. This approach contends that all societies through the same successive stages of evolution and inevitably reach the same end. Later on also English sociologist, Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) discussed that society is moving forward with inter related parts to common destiny. The most contemporary evolutionary theorist views social change with the relation of multilinear perspectives: Multilineary evolutionary theory holds that change can occur in several ways and that it does not inevitably lead in the same direction.  Multilinear theorists recognize that human culture has evolved along a number of lines. E.g. demographic change, cultural changes etc. (II) Social Change and Functionalist Theory Functionalist sociologists focus on what maintains a system, not on what changes it. Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979) viewed society as naturally being in a state of equilibrium. By “equilibrium”, he meant that society tends



toward a state of stability or balance. Parsons would view even prolonged labor strikes or civilian riots as temporary disruptions in the status quo rather than a significant alternation in social structure. Therefore, according to his equilibrium model, as changes occur in one part of society, there must be adjustments in other parts. If this does not take place, the society’s equilibrium will be threatened and strains will occur. Reflecting an evolutionary approach, parsons (1966) maintained that four processes of social change are inevitable. There are: differentiation, adaptive, inclusion and value generalization. −

Differentiation: refers to the increasing complexity of social

organization. −

Adaptive upgrading: refers to whereby social institutions

become more specialized in their purposes. −

Inclusion:

to

include

groups

into

society those were

previously excluded because of such factors as gender, race, and social background. −

Value generalization: the development of new values that

tolerate and legitimate a greater range of activities. (III) Social Change and Conflict Theory: The functionalist perspective minimizes change. It sees change as a means of maintaining the equilibrium or balance of a society. By contrast, conflict theorists contend that social institutions and practices continue because powerful groups have the ability to maintain the status quo. Change has crucial significance, since it is needed to correct social injustices and in equalities. Karl Marx accepted the evolutionary argument that societies develop along a particular path. However, unlike Comte and Spencer, he did not view each successive stage as an inevitable improvement over the previous one.



According to Marx’s views; Ancient society exploited slaves, the estate system of feudalism exploited serfs, modern capitalist society exploits the working class.

Marx further said that ultimately, through a socialist

revolution led by the proletariat, human society will move toward the final stage of development, a classless communist society or community of free individuals (Das Kapital: 1867; 250) −

The Marxist view of social change is appealing because it does

not restrict people to a ive role in responding to inevitable cycles or changes in material culture. −

Marxist theory offers a tool for those who wish to seize control of

the historical process and gain their freedom from injustice. Marx argues that conflict is a normal and desirable aspect of social change. Indeed, change must be encouraged as a means of dominating social inequality (1982). −

One conflict sociologist, Ralf Dahrendorf has noted that the

contrast between the functionalist perspective’s focus on stability, where as conflict perspective emphasis on change reflects the contradictory nature of society. −

Human societies are stable and long-lasting, yet they also

experience serious conflict. Indeed parsons spoke of new functions that result from social change, and Marx recognized the need for change so that societies could function more equitably. Functionalist and conflict approaches are ultimately compatible despite their many areas of disagreement. Discussion Questions I: 1)

Workout a research design

2)

How do you define research problem?

3)

Mention some of the techniques of conventional method.

4)

What is “Triangulation “in a research work?



5)

Please, state the correct steps of research work: Conventional approach

6)

What does documentary research mean?

Discussion Questions II: 1)

Discuss the impacts of global social change in of social movements and changes.

2)

What are the main resistances to social change?

3)

Draw significant distinctions between functionalist perceptions to social change and conflict one.

4)

Discuss in details about the main process of social change of Talcott parsons:

5)

Identify the main causes of social movements:

6)

What are the social and economic factors for stratification in the society? Explain either in line of functionalism or conflict theory.

7)

Does social inequality inevitable societal phenomenon? If yes/no, why? Explain in of relevant theories.

Discussion questions III: 1)

What is ‘value’ within the context of culture?

2)

Why does society need to have social control?

3)

Sate some of the main techniques of social control

4)

Describe and identify formal and informal techniques of social control

5)

What are the main elements of social structure?

6)

What is “status” in sociology? Explain the two main parts of ‘status’

7)

What is social role? Explain different forms of role

8)

What are the major models of role theory?

References for further readings:−

Giddens, Anthony, (1989). Sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge pp.

659 – 89



−

Bernard, H. Russell (1994). Research Methods in Anthropology:

Qualitative

and

Quantitative

Approaches,

Second

Edition,

SAGE

Publications, London. −

Mikkelsen, Britha (1995). Methods for Development Work and

Research: A Guide for Practioners, SAGE Publications, New Delhi. −

Durkin, Diane Bennett, 1987; Writing in the Disciplines, Random

House, New York. (Chapter 2, 4 and 9) −

Richard T. Schaefer (2000). Sociology, A brief Introduction 3rd Ed.

U.S.A. McGraw-Hill Companies.


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