Introduction To Philosophy Study Guide 116o4e

Introduction to Philosophy Exam Study Guide : 1. Name the two forms of ignorance and explain their characteristics? Double Ignorance: Believing you know when you do not, acting on conceit. · Simple Ignorance: Recognizing your ignorance but doing nothing about it. · Virtuous Ignorance: Recognizing your ignorance and coupling it with unique works (philosophy/asking questions). 2. What does metaphysics study? Give examples of some of the basic problems in metaphysics. Metaphysics: concerned with the ultimate structure of reality. What is the origin of the universe? Does god exist? What can we say exists? Mind-Body Problem: How are mental processes related to physical states? The Question of Universals (Abstract Objects) Do general attributes exist independently of particular examples? Metaphysics is the study of existence. Metaphysics is further broken down into four subcategories of study; Cosmology, Teleology, Theology and Ontology. Cosmology, which is the study of the Universe, questions how the Universe came to be. So far an eternal go, is the most justifiable answer because the god has always existed, therefore eliminating the question of “What started it all?” Theology, which is based on Cosmology, is the study of God/religion. Another category, Teleology, studies evidences of design in nature or that human’s act toward some end. The last branch Ontology is the study of existence and most popularly asks “what exists”. The problems with Metaphysics are in arguments about the separation of mind and body and in the use of Universals. Is your mind more than just matter? What makes you you, your thoughts or your body? Universals deal with abstract objects. The example used in class was about desks. Universal attributes of objects are labeled as their “Essence”, “Appearance” and “Accidents”. For a desk its Essence is its flat top, this is required for it to be a desk. Its appearance is just that, how it looks. Accidents are simply the desks properties that can be taken away and it would still be a desk. 3. What does epistemology study? Give examples of some of the basic problems in epistemology. Epistemology: concerned with nature of knowledge. How is knowledge justified? What are the different sources of knowledge? What different kinds of knowledge are there? How can we know anything at all? Propositional Knowledge vs know-how or knowledge by Acquaintance, Apriori (independent of experience) and a posteriori (through experience) Analytic (true by virtue of meaning). Synthetic (distinct subjects and predicates)

Practical man- searches for tangible things in life, looks for the good life but doesn’t ask about it. Epistemology means to know words, what is the natural source of knowledge. When answering questions like; what are the sources of knowledge, what kinds of knowledge are there, how do we know anything, it is important to understand the types of knowledge. Apriori knowledge is knowing something without it being connected to an experience, where a Posteriori is knowledge through an experience. The Gettier Problem address that you could still not have knowledge if you believed, justified and new the truth about something. How do we obtain our knowledge; through correspondence, coherence, consensus, authority (teacher, mom, dad, the law), through intuition/foundationalism (born gift or talent), through majority rules (what most think), and Pragmatisms, it is true because it works. These views are basically divided into three categories; rationalism, skepticism and probalism. Rationalism is pure reason is the most reliable source of knowledge. Skepticism is doubt in various fashions. Probalism is when we cannot know for sure but seems more likely than the rest. To know words is to understand ethics; objective?, when are we responsible for our actions?, treat others equally? From a Relativism point, moral person, Protagoras asked, “Man is the measure” of right and wrong? In Nihilism there is no order, right or wrong. There are definite divisions between Absolutism and Relativism/Nihilism, Freewill vs Determinism, Consequentialism, Intentionalism vs Deontological and applied ethics. When applying ethics to politics we need to figure out how the human being structures himself with everyone else in the world. This will discussed upon in a later lecture. Aesthetics raises many questions about art for example, what is it, what are we judging when we look at art, is the art supposed to do anything, what is its’ relationship to beauty, to truth, does the artists’ intent matter, etc. The final brach of philosophy is logic. Logic is the abstract principles of reasoning. There are two types of logic, deductive and induction; deductive uses general principles and induction uses particular premises in order to draw a conclusion. One has to make a hypothesis in order to be argue/prove his philosophical view. 4. What does logic study? • Abstract principles of reasoning. An argument is a connected series of statements intended to establish a definite proposition. An argument is an intellectual process… contradiction is just the automatic gainsaying of anything the other person says.

5. What is a deductive argument? Be sure to be able to spot one as I may ask you to figure out if a given argument is deductive or inductive. Deductive • Assumes certain general principles in order to draw a conclusion • Example: House would say, “All people lie. His patient is a person, thus this person is lying.

• Sherlock Holmes seeing paint on your fingers and assuming you're an artist. 6. What is an inductive argument? Induction: • Draws a general conclusion from particular premises. Argument is not abuse. 7. What is the difference between an a priori argument and an a posteriori argument? Be sure to be able to spot one as I may ask you to figure out if a given argument is a priori or a posteriori. 8. What is ethics concerned with? Give examples of some of the basic problems in ethics. Ethical codes of conduct vs. My own Morality Typical Questions include: • Are there objective rules for moral conduct? • On what grounds can we say an action is wrong? • Do we have free will? • To what extent are we responsible for our actions? • Should we treat all people equally or should we behave differently with people close to us? Divide between Absolutism (universal moral standards) and Relativism- Each person is their own measure of truth, age, relationships, etc. Values exist but are relative to the different situations. Nihilism- Value must not exist, we decide for ourselves. Freewill vs. Determinism • If everything in the universe obeys unchanging physical laws, how can humans have free will? • And without free will, how can we be morally responsible for our actions? (the Twinkie defense)? Consequentialism: Utilitarianism- actions are right if they promote happiness in society and wrong if they produce unhappiness Pragmatism- something is right or wrong is determined by practical effects. People should test opposing moral positions to see which creates the most desirable results. Does it work? Ethical Egoism- an act is right if it produces my own happiness. 9. What is an argument? Arguments can come in two forms: the formal argument, and the informal or familiar argument. Premises are statements that one argues from, i.e. 1) All men are mortal. 2)

Socrates is a man. Conclusions are assertions that you are arguing to, Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. The premises must be interwoven and inevitably must lead to the conclusion. An argument is a process of reasoning that intends to establish the truth of a conclusion and is valid if the conclusion follows the premises. An argument is invalid if the conclusion does not follow the premises. 10. What is a valid argument? Can you have a valid argument with a false conclusion? Be able to analyze an argument for its premises and conclusions in order to evaluate an argument? 11. Know your conclusion and premise indicators and be able to spot them in sentences like The Lord of the Rings is an awful book, because is it written poorly. Thus no one should read it. “conclusion indicators” that include, but are not limited to: thus, so, therefore, hint, consequently, so we see that, and we may conclude. 12. Know your fallacies and be able to discover them. The following is an example of what fallacy: a. We can safely conclude that there is intelligent life elsewhere in the galaxy, because thus far no one has been able to prove that there is not. b. There is no reason to listen to the arguments of those who oppose school prayer, for they are the arguments of atheists! c. Gee, Mom and Dad, how can you tell me not to do drugs when you both smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol? d. Abortion is murder, since killing a baby is an act of murder. e. If the Supreme Court allows abortion, next thing you know they'll allow euthanasia, and it won't be long before society disposes of all those persons whom it deems unwanted or undesirable. Longer Essay Questions 13. What is philosophy? What are some of the values of philosophy? · Philosophy takes a definitive answer and creates a new science. Ex: What are stars? The corresponding science would be astrology.· The “goal” of philosophy is to discover new questions to ask.· Philosophy enlarges self/subject. It bridges the gap between the discussed object and the subject. What Is Philosophy? · It’s a reflective question, meaning it returns to it self. · The definition of philosophy is a philosophical problem. · Attitude – ionate Searching · Source (there’s something rather than nothing) – Wonder, Awe, Amazement

· Aim- Truth, Wisdom. · Philosophy is a play between knowing and not knowing. · Wonder (drive) vs. Perplexity (problem) à ask why · There is practicality in philosophy 14. What is the most important discipline in philosophy, e.g. epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, logic and why? Friday April 29, 2011 Ancient Greek and Medieval Philosophy Short Essay Questions 1. What is cosmology? The origins of the universe. The malagians has cosmology., have material arches, the matter the original stuff of the universe. The search for the origin. The dominate cosmology today is atoms and void. Big bang theory. Theoles says all is water we say big bang. Cosmology, which is the study of the Universe, questions how the Universe came to be. So far an eternal go, is the most justifiable answer because the god has always existed, therefore eliminating the question of “What started it all?” 2. What is an arche? Arche means leading principle. like architect- leading skill- leading principle. What is your arche? what is your principle of the world. Nizche said that arche- was will to power (double check) We went over the term arche, and related it to architect or original craftsman. This is what makes up all things in the universe. we studied different philosophers’ arches, or what they thought to be the origin or first building block of the universe. Thales was an epistemological optimist and believed the arche of the universe was water. He found unity in all things by relating them to water. He believed this because all things need water to live, it makes up most of the world, it makes up most of us as people, it has different states (gaseous, solid and liquid), it is naturally malleable and you cannot destroy it. I believed that the mind and soul flowed like water, and if you truly know yourself, you know all things. What was Thales’, Anaximander’s, Anaximenes’ and Pythagoras’ arche respectively? Thales-water (source of all life, water runs through all things, it can take the shape of everything. It can take shapes without damaging itself. Mind and soul like water, can take on the from of water. When you think of your family it can take on the object of your family. Psychologically. Epyspiclogical optimist. Anaximander- all is indefinite. We cant have all knowledge

Anaxinmeses- all things are air- optimist, we can know things with certainty because, the standard of knowledge measurable based that we can measure rarefaction and condensation.. importance of exact knowledge- can we see air? but it is what allows for all things to be seen? it is space. can really refute that it is the space and not tangible, be touched Puythagoras’- All is number- mathematical complexity- numbers is not tangible, can not be destroyed. Everything is oneness- 3 can be one- all number is unity. Universe is unity and is one. Something that can never be created or destroyed. Thales was an epistemological optimist and believed the arche of the universe was water. He found unity in all things by relating them to water. He believed this because all things need water to live, it makes up most of the world, it makes up most of us as people, it has different states (gaseous, solid and liquid), it is naturally malleable and you cannot destroy it. I believed that the mind and soul flowed like water, and if you truly know yourself, you know all things.Anaximander is an epistemological pessimist. He believes that the arche is infinite and cannot be defined or articulated. He believes when you describe someone you are doing them a disservice, because people are constantly changing their identity and all that they are could never be put into words. Like the arche, people are infinite, and indefinable. “My identity does not precede me, for I am constantly creating it”. He appreciates mystery in people and relationships. Anaximenes is an epistemological optimist. He believed the arche is air, and he believed in measurable certainty, and not relying on just “wisdom” to state facts. Pythagoras is an epistemological optimist. He believes the arche is numbers. He did not feel that there is a material arche but an abstract one. Knowledge is mathematical certainty and all things can be understood (even the workings of the human brain through waves) mathematical formulas. He finds unity in numbers. 3. What kind of religious worldview does Xenophanes ? Xenophales- s idea of monotheism- donkey had looked like god they would have asses for heads- mono theism only one god, logos or Xenophanes believe there are no anthropomorphic gods. They believe that god has nothing to do with anything that we think he does. Monotheists believe that god things as a whole, sees as a whole, and hears as a whole. We cannot have complete knowledge, because that is only for God. 4. What is the difference between Heraclitus and Parmenides? Please relate your answer to their respective ontologies. -hericalitus- arches becoming, arche with the idea of fire and radical flux, both step into river, but not step into the same river- what is permanent is nothing stays the same parmend- arches- being,---- permendes father of being- thinking and being are sameknowledge is reason, static, is no movement, can not be limited. 5. What is sophistry? he movement- in classical greece- is no good or unity, no universal standard, all there is is my measure- procaturus- man is measure of all things- your truth is truth, then refutes

that there is truth just opinions. no sense to be made. can be pro life and pro choice at exact same time- most progressive form of arguing today- antagonistic critical form of arguing with no end or purpose. good at rhetoric's to win public debate- get 6. What main argument did Socrates advance in the Phaedo? Be sure to be able to discuss one of his proofs for this argument. Soul is immortal. steps- theory of recollection- have to have some knowledge. knowledge of absolute universals, courage, love, ect.. this is why we have universal want for happiness. recognize that what someone is doing is bad because have prenate view of bad and good. Because soul participates with internal ideas. body can be destroyed soul lives on forever. dualism between mind and body. infinity argument, i can know internal things because I am like internal thing imparashiple. Monday, we talked about how “All men's souls are immortal, but the souls of the righteous are immortal and divine.” In Plato’s Phaedo, Socrates states that all souls are immortal, and we should welcome death. Plato provided four arguments to his idea on the immortality of the soul. As I read them I started questioning the validity of his arguments. Socrates states that a human’s soul carries priori knowledge, which is given to us when it enters our bodies at birth. I believe this is a false statement. People do not have this unknown knowledge when they are born. Socrates also talks about the nature of opposites. Socrates is trying to convince his readers that “living” and “dying” have the same relationship as “larger” and “smaller.” This is a dilemma because one cannot compare reversible things like “larger” and “smaller” with irreversible things such as “living” and “dying.” 7. What are the two worlds of Plato? Why does this make him an idealist? two world of plato8. What are the three conditions for an acceptable definition of virtue for Socrates? 9. What is the universal desire for Socrates? 10. What are Aristotle’s four causes and explain them? Be sure to be able to discern the difference in various examples i.e. what kind of cause is the architect of a house? 4 causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) mean. -Aristotle’s Physics or Metaphysics consisted of substance, which is the combination of matter (potential) and form (actual). The potency of substance means the capability of receiving form. Actuality is the fulfillment of its potency. Aristotle said that it is impossible to separate matter and form; therefore you can’t know the potential until you see it in its actuality. 4 causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) mean. 11. What is the Mean in Aristotle’s ethics?

12. What is the goal of philosophy for the Epicureans?

. Epicurus demands that we see every moment as a gift, because how we came to be was by atoms creating the universe and pure chance. He also believes that there is no afterlife,and so once you realize that there is no life after death you will learn to cherish the moment. -Epicureanism were atomists, which was the idea that everything is atoms and void. They believed everything was a plurality. The Stoics thought everything was a unity or monism. This effects there theological world view; theology being “the end”. For Epicureanism there is no end and everything is subject to chance. It is a accident that the world is were it is and we see what we see. For the Stoics everything is rational, that something happens from the effect of something else changing or happening. There are rational reasons for everything. We then went on to discuss the difference between their ethics. For Epicureanism all human beings are motivated by pleasure and for the Stoics it is adherence to the good or duty. Epicurus Garden was a retreat from civic life. The philosophy was for peace of mind, it is suppose relieve suffering of everyday life. Epicurus believed the greatest pain that we received was from mental disturbances caused by false beliefs. Examples are, the nature of things, god, the soul of destiny, and moral intent. Once we realize that the world is atoms and void it will release us from suffering. Once we realize that all humans are motivated by pleasure it should release your guilt. There are different kinds of pleasure for Epicurus, kinetic vs. static. Kinetic pleasure is the pleasure in process or movement, for example; eating. Static pleasure is the pleasure of fullness. Static is the highest pleasure, which is the absence of pain. Once you eliminate pain in your life you are experiencing pleasure. “Human beings are plagued by worries and pain produced by unsatisfied desire, thus we must discipline ourselves to know what one should be desired.” The three desires are, natural and necessary, natural but unnecessary, and unnatural and unnecessary. A example for a natural and necessary desire would be food, shelter, clothing. A example for natural but unnecessary, would be sex; because you do not need this for survival. And a example of unnatural and unnecessary, could be drugs, power, and luxury items. For Epicurus we are more concerned for hollow desires, meaning morning the past or hope for the future. If we are expecting to be happy in the future, or if we mourn about being happy in the past, you will always be looking towards the future, or back at the past; and when will you truly be happy? The future has nothing to do with us, we need to focus on what is going on right now. If you are going to think about the past or future, think only of the pleasure of the past but experience pleasure now. “The life of the foolish man is fearful and unpleasant; it is swept away into the future” Once you feel pleasure in the moment it is infinite, because there is no duration for pleasure, there is just right now. Epicurus demands that we see every moment as a gift, because how we came to be was by atoms creating the universe and pure chance. He also believes that there is no afterlife,and so once you realize that there is no life after death you will learn to cherish the moment. 13. What are the two kinds of pleasure for the Epicureans and which is the best kind? kinetic and static

Kinetic- The in process or movement (eating) Static Pleasure- The pleasure of fullness (absence of pain) -Static is the highest pleasure, which is the absence of pain. Once you eliminate pain in your life you are experiencing pleasure. “Human beings are plagued by worries and pain produced by unsatisfied desire, thus we must discipline ourselves to know what one should be desired.” 14. What is the tripartite division of desire for the Epicureans and which desires should we pursue and which should we avoid? natural + necessary- pursue natural but unnecessary, unnatural + Unnecessary- not pursue -The three desires are, natural and necessary, natural but unnecessary, and unnatural and unnecessary. - A example for a natural and necessary desire would be food, shelter, clothing. - A example for natural but unnecessary, would be sex; because you do not need this for survival. - a example of unnatural and unnecessary, could be drugs, power, immortality and luxury items. For Epicurus we are more concerned for hollow desires, meaning morning the past or hope for the future. 15. What is the only thing that is good for the Stoics? -Value judgements are the only thing that are good or bad, you can either accent or decent, this will is the only thing up to us all other thing are indifferent and are not up to us For the Hestoics present moment, it is not feeling pleasure, but it is attention to the present moment in accordance with nature. Everything is rational and your good is connected to nature. Everything depends on causes that are not up to us. We have luxury items, beauty, health, wealth, because of fait. We have no control over evils, (for example hurricanes) this is all fait. 16. What is the value of the present moment for the Stoics and Epicureans? -Epicurus demands that we see every moment as a gift, because how we came to be was by atoms creating the universe and pure chance. They also believes that there is no afterlife,and so once you realize that there is no life after death you will learn to cherish the moment. -Hestoics believe that the past and future is indifferent, the only thing that is in are power is right now. Leave the past behind you, leave the future to fait, and live right now. The Epicureans enjoy the present moments like the gods vs. the stoics that will the present moment.