1.0 Introduction Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychology is a many-sided study and comprises many subfields of education such areas as human progress, sports, health, medicine-based, social behavior and thinking-related processes. The first effort to define psychology was made on the basis of its technological origin. The word "psychology" comes from the Greek words "psyche" which means the soul and "logos" which means to study or know about (Baldwin, 1913). Therefore, psychology was well-defined as the study of the soul. Psychology can also be defined as the “scientific study of behavior and mental processes”. It embraces three key such as science, behavior and mental developments. The term "behavior" denotes to activities and responses that monitored directly. Since behavior is so multifaceted, the technical study causes many special encounters. The term “mental processes” refer to internal states and processes such as thoughts and feelings that cannot be seen directly and inferred from observable, measurable responses (Ballantyne, 2008). Although thoughts, feelings, motives, memory and private experiences are not visible and observed directly, they are very real. All of these build part of mental processes and the mind. In mental studies, the method used to comprehend behaviors and mental processes are the same scientific technique. Therefore, psychology is a science. The rules of psychology are widespread. The scope of modern psychology springs from the borders of medicine and the biological sciences to those of the social sciences. Psychology has a long past but a short history. It has a long past since the root of psychology is to comprehend ourselves and understand fellowmen. Nevertheless, psychology has a short history because it emerged as a systematized body of scientific inquiry only in the last hundred odd years. History can be separated into the prescientific phase and the scientific phase, (in which/during which/in what way/in what) the prescientific time in history refers to very old Greek (people who think a lot about how people think) and to the period of Islam. The purpose of this assignment is to enhance the knowledge about Edward B. Titchener’s and Wilhelm Wundt’s contributions to psychology.

2.0 Edward B. Titchener’s contributions to psychology. Edward Bradford Titchener was a British educated person and student of Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, , before becoming a professor of psychology and founding the first psychology laboratory in the United States at Cornell University. Titchener designed the "structural psychology" and "functional psychology". Structural psychologists reviewed human experiences through self-examination, breaking mental activity down into "basic elements" or "building blocks." Although his hypothetical models were not accepted by others, his defending of psychology as a science, using the scientific method of laboratory experiments to gather data, made a strong separation between experimental psychology and other trends such as psychoanalysis. However, the understanding of human nature cannot be accomplished only through science, although the honors or statements of differences drawn by Titchener were valuable in its early development. Edward Bradford Titchener was born in southern England to a family of old ancestry. He entered Oxford University in 1885 on a studentship to study philosophy, and he became interested in Wilhelm Wundt's writings, interpreting the third edition of the Principles of Physiological Psychology. However, the way of thinking of Wundt was not received at Oxford, so Titchener decided to go to Leipzig and work with Wundt. There, Titchener took his (college degree of doctor) finishing a long speech or story on effects of monocular stimulation. After unsuccessfully probing for a place in England, Titchener accepted a professorship at Cornell University, which had opened up when Frank Angell, another American student of Wundt, went to the newly found Stanford University. For thirty-five years, Titchener lined over psychology at Cornell, where he was an institution unto himself, in a bold, obnoxious way lecturing in his robes and tolerating no dissent. Titchener often quarreled with his American colleagues and found his own association to rival the fledgling American Psychological Association because of the argument with of the latter group. Titchener became the American editor of Mind in 1894 and associate editor of the American Journal of Psychology in 1895. Later, he is acknowledged with honorary degrees from Harvard, Clark, and Wisconsin. Although Titchener supervised a large number of students in early twentieth-century American psychology, his system died with him in 1927. Figure 1 below shows the detail about Edward Bradford Titchener.

Figure 1: Details about Edward Bradford Titchener, Cherry (2014) In the end of the nineteenth century, Edward B. Titchener carried the simple thoughts of Wilhelm Wundt to the United States. Titchener called Wundt's ideas structuralism and tried to unserdtand the structure of mental life or consciousness. His structural psychology has a threefold aim. Those are as listed below: 

To describe the components of consciousness in of basic elements,



To describe the combinations of basic elements,



To explain the connections of the elements of connections of the elements of consciousness to the nervous system.

Consciousness is well-defined as "immediate experience," experience as it is being experienced. Mediate experience is categorized by contents already in the mind, such as previous associations and the emotional and motivational levels of an individual. Structural psychology, in general, attempted to defend the integrity of psychology by contrasting it with physics (Henle, 1971).

Edward Titchener put his own spin on Wundt's psychology of consciousness. He endeavored to categorize the structures of the mind, not unlike the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their constituent parts water into hydrogen and oxygen, for instance. Thus, for Titchener, just as hydrogen and oxygen were structures, so were feelings and thoughts. He considered of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and feelings and thoughts as structures of the mind. This tactic is known as "structuralism. The experimental method employed by structuralists was self-examination. This method of self-report is the ageless approach which best outlines self-experience. Introspection depended on the nature of consciousness observed, the purpose of the test, and the commands given by the experimenters. Introspection was considered usable only if done by exceptionally well-trained scientists, not naive observers. The most common mistake made by inexperienced introspectionists was labeled the "stimulus error" describing the object observed rather than the conscious content. Stimulus error, conferring to Titchener, resulted not in psychological data but in physical explanations. Under this natural science approach, psychology was defined as the experimental study of the data of immediate experience through the method of introspection. The goal of psychology was to lessen the contents of consciousness to constituent elements of sensory origin. In the 1890s, Wilhelm Wundt developed a three-dimensional theory of feeling. Essentially, Wundt thought that feelings differ along three dimensions: Pleasant-unpleasant, strain-relaxation, excitement-calm. Titchener agreed with and accepted only the pleasantunpleasant dimension. This approach led him to downgrade sentiments to organic instinctual reactions. In additional, Edward Titchener planned a theory of meaning signifying that the context in which a feeling occurs in consciousness determines to mean. Accordingly, simple feeling has no meaning by itself, but it obtains meaning by association with other feelings or images. In that way, Titchener labeled the mind in of formal elements with "attributes" of their own, linked and combined by the mechanism of associations. As a structural psychologist, Titchener, in his effort to adhere strictly to a natural science model, sacrificed psychological processes and actions that did not fit into his methodological framework (Evans, 1972). In addition, the over-reliance on the questionable, strict methodology of introspection led Titchener and other structural psychologists into a sterile dead end. In a sense, structuralism was caught between the "empiricism of the British tradition" and "nativism

of the German tradition." Titchener and other structuralists expressed a view of the mind as determined by the elements of sensation; at the same time they documented mental activity and tried to deal with activity through such concepts as "apperception." Coupled with the inadequacies of introspection, structuralism botched to lodge contradictory philosophical expectations about the nature of the mind. Structural psychology holds a exclusive place in the progress of the natural science model for psychology in . Specifically, the texts of Edward B. Titchener, as well as those of Wilhelm Wundt establish an organized attempt to start a intelligible science, encoming all that they considered being psychological. As such, structural psychology was a scheme of psychology. However, other scientists in , contemporary with Wundt and Titchener, replied to the same powers of Zeitgeist and wrote on psychology (Pillsbury, 1928). They wrote as individuals, though, not as system manufacturers. Within the restrictions of natural science approach to psychology, the extremism of Wundt () and Titchener (the United States) was disallowed, both in the of the substance and the methodology of structuralism. These scientists were experimentalists in the sense that they were guided in their progress not by the outline of a fixed system, as were Wundt and Titchener, but somewhat by the results and inferences of their laboratory studies. Titchener did not prosper in splitting the applied from the scientific in psychology, even though he spoke with ion and conviction on this topic. He was adequately active in such performances that Sigmund Freud considered Titchener "the adversary" following his speech at Clark University in 1909 when psychoanalysts were first presented into America. Equally, Titchener's theoretical model of mental processes botched to for the rich variety of the activities and products of the human mind (Woodworth, 1906). Nevertheless, Titchener's work resolutely set the stage for psychology to be preserved as a scientific enterprise, using the scientific technique of laboratory experiments to acquire data. Although best known for his structuralism, Titchener's contributions to experimental psychology can still be found in psychology training today. Many of his psychological philosophies varied from his mentor, Wilhelm Wundt, but one area they totally agreed on

was experimental psychology, the scientific study of psychological processes. Prior to the introduction of experimental psychology, most of the world reflected psychology to be pure philosophy, or in other words, unverified theories. To be accepted as a science, Titchener knew it was vital that psychology theories be testable and the results measurable. He trusted heavily on introspection, the process of examining one's own thoughts, as his main tool for determining outcomes. He trained his subjects to report the elements or sensations of thoughts, rather than name the object itself. For Titchener, simply calling the object an 'apple' was a grievous mistake and he referred to this as stimulus error. Table 1 outlines three of Edward B. Titchener’s contributions.

No

Contributions

1.

He experimented on sensations, images, and feelings. It led to important findings like attention. It was interpreted as an increase in the vividness of a sensation (or image). He gave the core-context theory of meaning.

2.

Titchener personally directed 56 students into getting doctoral degrees in

3.

experimental psychology. Table 1: Titchener’s Contribution to Psychology

Publications by Titchener: Books: 

Titchener, E.B. 2005 (original 1896). An Outline of Psychology. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1402177461



Titchener, E.B. 1903 (original 1898). A Primer of Psychology. Macmillan & Co.



Titchener, E.B. 1901. Experimental Psychology.



Titchener, E.B. 1973 (original 1908). Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention. Ayer Co Pub. ISBN 0405051662

Articles: 

Titchener, E.B. 1898. "The postulate of structural psychology" in Philosophical Review. No.7, 449-465.



Titchener, E.B. 1899. "Structural and functional psychology" in Philosophical Review. No.8, 290-299.



Titchener, E.B. 1925. "Experimental psychology: A Retrospect" in American Journal of Psychology. No.36, 313-323.

3.0 Wilhelm Wundt’s contributions to psychology. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (August 16, 1832 – August 31, 1920) was a German physiologist, philosopher, and psychologist. Wundt was born on August 16, 1832, in Neckarau, in Baden, . He was the fourth child in the family. His father was Maximilian Wundt, who was a Lutheran pastor, and his mother was Marie Frederike. Many ancestors on both sides of Wilhelm Wundt’s family were philosophers, scientists, professors, physicians, and government officials. Wundt’s scientific psychology and its fortune deliver a valued lesson for both history and psychology. Creatively uniting philosophy and physiology, Wundt formed a new division of science, psychology, which was a research field of physiology lecturing questions of philosophy. Wundt is typically credited as the founder of experimental psychology and of structuralism in psychology. His system is considered to be dualistic, atomistic, associationistic, and thoughtful. Wundt.

Figure 2 below shows details about Wilhelm Maximilian

Figure 2: Details about Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. (Patel & Mehta, 2014) During his childhood and adolescence, Wundt was permitted only a firm routine of learning, with little time for play or idleness. This kind of background made a rather determined person, totally committed to intellectual activities of a systematic and creative nature. At the age of thirteen, Wundt began his formal education at a Catholic Gymnasium. The German gymnasium of the nineteenth century was a college preparatory high school, and the entrance was limited to the sons of middle-class intellectuals. The German university system also was highly distinctive. One had to get the typical doctorate and then a second, higher level doctorate before one could teach. For Wundt, psychology was the technical study of instant experience, and thus the study of human consciousness, or the mind, as long as the mind is understood as the entirety of conscious experience at a given moment. Wundt t philosophical introspection with techniques and laboratory apparatus brought over from his physiological studies with Helmholtz,

as well as many of his own projects. This experimental introspection was in dissimilarity to what had been called psychology until then, a division of philosophy where people introspected themselves. Wundt’s comments on myth and custom are unexceptional. He observed history as going over a series of phases from primeval communities to an age of heroes, and then to the development of nation-states, concluding in a world state based on the concept of humanity as a whole. In fact, Wundt proposed an introspective psychology (Anderson, 1975). According to Wundt, it is needless to assume a special inner sense to observe one’s consciousness. One simply has experiences and can define them; one does not have to witness the involvements happening. Wilhelm Wundt considered the development of mind a significant topic, which could be lectured moderately by child and psychology, but above all by the study of the historical growth of the human species. “Life is short, so our own experience is limited, but we can draw on the historical experience of humanity as written and preserved in existing cultures at different levels of development” (McLeod, 2008). This collective experience allows studying the inner retreats of consciousness, those well detached from sensory-motor responses and hence not agreeable, in Wundt’s view, to experimental study. He called this his Völkerpsychologie (ethnic or folk psychology), embracing especially the study of language, myth, and custom. Wundt separated language into two aspects: outer phenomena, consisting of actually produced or perceived utterances, and inner phenomena, the cognitive processes that motivate the outer string of words. Sentence production, according to Wundt, begins with a united idea which one wishes to express, the Gesamtvorstellung (whole mental configuration). The analytic purpose of apperception prepares the united idea for speech, as far as it must be examined into component parts and a structure that holds the relationship between the parts and the whole. Publications by Wundt: 

Die Lehre von der Muskelbewegung (1858)

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Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (1862)

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Vorlesungen über die Menschen- und Tierseele (1863), English translation, Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology



Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen (1865)



Die physikalischen Aœiome und ihre Beziehung zum Kausalprincip (1866)



System der Philosophie (1889)



Hypnotismus und Suggestion (1892)

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Vorlesungen über die Menschen und Thierseele, Leipzig, (1893)



Völkerpsychologie, eine Untersuchung der Entwicklungsgesetze *von Sprache, Mythus, und Sitte 10 volumues, (1900-1920)



Einleitung in die Philosophie (1901)

CONCLUSION

The structural psychology of Wundt and Titchener had threefold aims which are to describe the components of consciousness in of basic elements; to describe the combinations of basic elements, and to explain the connections of the elements of consciousness to the nervous system. The experimental method proposed to secure appropriate analysis of the mental contents via introspection. Wundt is known for founding the first laboratory and establishing experimental psychology as a discipline while Titchener experiments on sensations, images and feelings led to important findings. Being one of the few founding fathers in the field of Psychology of Consciousness, Wilhelm Wundt has contributed significantly to the development of psychology. Similar to Wundt, Titchener has also significantly contributed to the development of modern psychology.

REFERENCES

 Anderson, S.J. (1975). The untranslated content of Wundt’s Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie: Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 10, 381386.  Baldwin, J. M. (1913). History of psychology: A sketch and an interpretation. New York, NY: G.P. PutnamÊs Sons.  Ballantyne, P. F. (2008). History and theory of psychology: An early 21st century student's perspective. Retrieved from http://www.cyberus.ca/~pballan/Engel, M. Jr. (n.d.). Epistemic luck.  Boring, E.G. (1927). "Edward Bradfors Titchener" in American Journal of Psychology. No.38, 489-506.  Bringmann, W.G., W. D. G. Balance & R.B. Evans. (1975). Wilhelm Wundt 18321920: A brief biographical sketch. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 11, 287-297.  Cherry,

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http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesmz/p/edward-titchener.htm  Evans, R.B. (1972). Titchener and his lost system: Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8, 168-180.  Henle, M. (1971). "Did Titchener commit the stimuli error? The problem of meaning in structural psychology": Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 7, 279-282.  McLeod,

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 Woodworth, R.S. (1906). "Imageless thought." In The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods. No.3, 701-708.