Development Of Geography 37356q

Content Introduction

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Geography in pre-historic period

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Geography in ancient Greek period

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Geography in ancient Roman period

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Geography in ancient China

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Geography in ancient Arabia

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Geography in 18th century

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Geography in 19th century

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Geography in 20th century

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Geography in present world

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Uses of geographical development

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Future of geographical science

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Introduction

The history of geography includes various histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. “Geography” derives from the word Greek-geographia, a literal translation of which would be “to describe or write about the earth”. The first person to use the word “geography” was Eratosthenes(276-194B.C). How ever there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography, such as cartography (or map making) prior to the use of the term geography. In Eratosthenes day, people already were exploration land and water areas of the middle east and playing trade on the Mediterranean sea as well as across vast expenses of desert knowledge of how to get to some place and ultimately to return home was crucial to the salary or trader. While travelers were concern with practical matters of location, scholars involved themselves in loftier goals of measurement of earth's size, calculation of distance, and creation of a geometric system for accurately defining location. Eratosthenes is given credit for making the first accurate determination of the size of earth. Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The main purpose of these early investigation was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian and Phoenician civilization were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside their home lands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that date back to 2300 B.C These scientists and social scientists may spend month or years in foreign countries to understand how regional, social, economic and other factors influence various group of people, including indigenous peoples, minorities, woman, children or other poor. Globalization, independence among countries, and unequal development are becoming vital issues in todays world of rapid changes.

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Geography in Pre-historic period

Geography the father of the all sciences is consisted of knowledge which cover a wide area in physical and social environment. This knowledge is very essential for our day-to-day lives. Some times we use geographical science without knowing that is an area of geography. In summery we use geographical knowledge in the case of fulfilling our needs. When we consider the man's evolution during 12,000 years ago, it is possible to understand there was no a huge differences between the needs of today and the past human. Even in the pre-historic man who lived before 12,000 years ago got try to fulfill his basic needs such as food, water, shelter, wife/husband, cloths etc. In that case they used to use some knowledge which we study today under name of geographical science. But on that time they never used that name, but they used that knowledge. As an example, pre-historic man used to draw some rough drawing on their cave walls which shows the places around his abode where the necessary resources are available for him. And even today there are some survived drawings which used to show mountains, rivers and so many other geographical changes in the environment that he lived. That is the origin of modern maps that coming under modern geography. Pre-Historic cave drawings

Not only that but also, he studied the changes of climate because it affected to his life cycle. Pre-historic man generated his own theories to predict the situation of climate that can become in the future. Today these kind of studies identify under climatology in geographical science. Further more, they keep on attention on the behaviors of animals to hunt them or survive from them. They knew various animals behaviors under various environmental condition. And also they tried to understand the features of flora and fauna. That knowledge was compulsory for them to provide food and medicine for their needs. That is how they practice environmental geography with their day to day lives. Pre-historic cave drawings So we can understand, there is a long history for geographical knowledge which originated at the beginning of human evolution. Now it is developed and developing further more.

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Geography in ancient Greece

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientists were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human physical feature found on the earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus. Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and the physical geography of the various regions of the Persian empire. The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size and geometric of the earth. Aristotle hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observation of lunar eclipses. Herodotus Lunar eclipses occur when the earth cast its circular shadow onto the moon's surface. The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes. Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,223km using geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurement of the earth using modern satellite technology have computed the Calculate the circumference of circumference to be 40,072km. earth The ancient Greeks gave the western world its first formal knowledge of the structure, size and general nature of the earth. During the 2nd century A.D., the Greek astronomer Ptolemy compiled most Greek and Roman geographical knowledge known up to that time. He also proposed new methods of cartography. His maps showed that he understood the problems involved in projecting or representing a spherical earth on flat surface. The ancient Greeks saw the poet Homer as the founder of geography. His works the Ilid and the Odyssey are works of literature, but both contain a great deal of geographical information. Homer describes a circular world ringed by a single massive ocean.

Homer

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Geography in ancient Roman

Strabo's 17th volume work of geography is a most important source of information on classical geography. None of Strabo's maps survives. But his detailed descriptions give a clear picture of the stars of geographical knowledge of time. After Strabo's, Ptolemy launched a similar undertaking by this time the roman empire had spend through much of Europe and British isles had been explored. The silk road was also in operation. Ptolemy's geography are opens with a theoretical discussion about the nature and techniques of geographical inquiry. Ptolemy listed number of cities, tribes and sites and places that in the world. It is uncertain because of names correspond to in the modern world. Ptolemy Pliny the elders natural history also has sections on geography. There is little evidence that maps or charts were used for navigation in ancient Greek history. Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were ed onto Romans. Roman military commanders and s used this information to guide the expansion of their empire. Strabo wrote a 17th volume series called “Geographia”. Strabo describes the cultural geographies of various societies of people such as Britain to India, south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. In Strabo's definition suggests that the aim of geography was to “describe the known parts of the inhabited world........to write the assessment of the countries of the world ….....to treat the differences between countries.”

Ptolemy world map

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Geography in ancient China

The geographical writing history goes back to 5 th century B.C, during the period 481B.C221 B.C. According to the book called ”Classic of history”, there were nine provinces in China. The geographical conditions of each province such as soil, lakes, rivers caused for the economy, food production, and the agriculture. Earlier days the works of the geographers were simpler than in modern China. They were spread ed along the northern part of modern Shanxi province. In the ancient China the geographical researchers had been based on Yu gong's methodological figures . Parallel to those researches magic, fantasy, folklore were created. Chinese geographical activities not such high quality in Herodotus and Strabo era but it found rather complex since 3rd century. Map of the Tracks of Yu The earlier maps of archaeological facts in China were made in the Gong kingdom of Qin in 4th century B.C. But the correctly scaled maps had been created later on by pei-Xiu . But there were huge descriptions on historical texts about geographical facts dynastties taxable products since 1 st century A.D. Later on Ban-Gu chinese historian initiated to make gnezeteers of geographical facts. Later on quality maps were created for geographical studies. According to 4th chapter of the book called “Master of huainan(handinasty)”(202B.C-202A.D)Chinese geographical records got lot more firm details with less legendary elements. The chapter says further with the efforts of Lin Ann and Zuo Wu the topographies turned out to be useful aids to study maps. The book called “Historical geography of Sze chuan” describes about various tribes and trade routs apart from rivers. Apart from that various maps and records showed the water resources. According to water ways classic(3 rd century) 137 rivers were found through out China. The “water ways” were modified later on by 40 Han Dynasty (202 BC times. Geographical literature got lot more quality in later period (Song– 9 AD) silk map and Ming Dynasties). During this period lot of records and treatises were created regarding geographical literature based on these topics; • Agricultural and economic products in south China. • Written records of geography and hypothesis of land formation. • Archaeological topography around northern area of yellow river. • Geographical and topographical treatise comprised with lot of geographical features. Chinese not only bound inside there home. They got firm details of the geography of foreign regions such as Middle east, India, Central Asia. since traveller Zhang Qian (2nd century B.C) . China has a lot of geographical facts in abroad based on: • Wealth and geographical information of Central India • Illustrated records on Persian gulf culture. • s of a voyage around Korea. • The geography of medieval Colombia. 6

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Geography in ancient Arabia

✔ In the middle east, Muslim geographers such as al-Idrisi, al-Yaqubi, al-Masudi, ibn Khurdhbih, Ibn al-Faqih, al-Istakhri, Iban Battuta, Iban Khaaldum etc. maintain the Greek and roman techniques and developed new ones. ✔ There were some representative of the west that produced geographical works of quality. But this played in comparison to the virtual mountain of work published by Islamic writers in the middle age. ✔ During the Muslim conquests of the 7 th and early centuries, Arab armies established the Islamic Arabic empire reaching from central Asia to the Iberian peninsula. ✔ sciences.

In the 19th century, Alkindus was the first to introduce experimentation into the earth

✔ An early from globalization began emerging during the Islamic golden age, when the knowledge, trade & economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating due to s with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders and travelers. ✔ Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was a polymath who is considered a pioneer in anthropology, geodesy and geology. ✔ ✔ In mathematical geography, Abu Rayhan al Biruni, around 1025, was the first to describe a polar equip-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.

Abū Rayhān alBīrūnī

✔ He was also regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the middle east and western Indian subcontinent. ✔

He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of

the earth. ✔ He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the earth's surface is habitable by humans and also argued that the shores of the Asia and Europe were “seperated by a vast sea, too dark and dense to navigate and too risky to try” in reference to the Atlantic and Pacific ocean. ✔ Important contribution to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation. He found the radius the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the west until the 16th century.

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✔ The Arabic geographer AlIdrisi's Mappa mundi incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian ocean and far east gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create one of the most accurate maps of the world to date. The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi

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Early modern period.

Journey of Marco Polo made geography more interesting around the Europe. In circa 1400 Ptolemy and his associates' records helped to make link in geographical facts. Great voyages of exploration always hailed the accurate geographical details. Geographia generalized by Bernhardus Varenius and Geradus Mercator's world maps are turned a new era in scientific geography. The Mongols had a sound knowledge of European geography because they ruled those areas and used for their military operations. Portrait of Marco Polo

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18th Century By the 18th century geography was turned out to be a university curriculum in Europe, around especially in Paris and Berlin.

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19th Century

Kosmos a great work with brief details of universe by Alexander von Humboldt, which published in 1845 which caused for the creation of “Physical geography” by dr. Mary somerville. A physioography published by Thomas Henry Huxly in university angle based on natural environment. This publication opened a new era of geography which caused the micro level and macro level applications of geographical studies. This creation hails practical data instead of theories. Though Halford John Mackinder in 1887 tried in same way for his investigation the integration of the natural environment was soon traken over by Davisian geomorphology. The knowledge and and ways have been improved over the ancient time. Geography is linked with sciences of geology. Botany and some social sciences. The royal geographical Society started in 1830 in England. Halford John Makinder was the real knowledgeable person for geography in UK during that time. The national geographic society was established in 1888 which initiated to publish the national geographic magazine. It turned out to be a popular source for geographical sources. Halford John Makinder

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20th century

After 1900's geographers extended their ideas on the studies which started at the 18 th century. They used descriptive methods to test research questions and there was a shift in methodology. In this century there was a quantitative revolution which affected to various areas. Geography also was affected by it. Most of geographers used quantitative techniques for their studies to improve the scientific quality of those studies. Simultaneously there was a development in computer and software technology was a great to the ease of usage of quantitative techniques. As to the article of journal of geography by William Pattison in 1964 suggested geography was now composed of four academic tradition. • • • •

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Spatial tradition Area studies tradition Human land tradition Earth science tradition

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Geography in present world

As we studied, the science of geography has been developing for thousands of years. Man firstly used those knowledge when he was at the first step in his evolution. Then era by era man made and collected knowledge under this subject. Today, the geography is a science which has a wide scope. As a result of geographers enthusiasm in subject, number of difference areas have been included under the study of geography. Today geography is mainly study under two branches human geography and the physical geography. Now geography is classified as a social science As a result of development of this subject, definition of geography also changed in time to time. Recently science of geography is defined as a study of spatial variation on earth's surface. The geographers deal with and searches for relationships among variables over space. Briefly, in present, geography is included every physical and social process that affect to the peoples' lives. A very special point to note that, today geography has called “The world discipline.” As “the bridge between human and physical sciences.” ➔

Branches of Physical geography

Biogeography

Climatology and paleoclimatol ogy

Physical Geography

Landscape ecology

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Env. geog. & management

Hydrology & Hydrography

Geodesy

Oceanography

Coastal geography

Geomorphology

Glaciology Quaternary science

Pedology

Palaeogeogra phy

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Branches of Human geography

Cultural geography

Economic geography

Tourism geography Development geography

Health geography

Human Geography Religion geography

Social geography

Transportatio n geography

Political geog. & Geopolitics

Urban geography

Pop. geog. or Demography

Historical & Time geog.

Modern technologies that use for Geography ●

Cartography Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other sub disciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.

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Geographic information systems Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other sub disciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.

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Remote sensing Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as satellite imagery, aerial photography and data obtained from hand-held sensors.

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Quantitative methods

Geo statistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geo statistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.

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Qualitative methods

Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographic; research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.

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Uses of geographical science with its development

In this chapter, we study on the increase of the usage of geographical science with its development during 12,000 years. When you study this chapter, you can clearly understand how this science developed time to time; because this knowledge was always used by people to solve the problems that occurred era by era. Knowledge of geography enables people to develop an understanding of the relationship between people, places and environment. Based on that characteristic of geographical science, geographical knowledge was able to increase its usages for human in time to time. Pre-historical age man used mapping knowledge under geography to the locations of resources that around his living area. And also they drew the changes on earth surface as rivers, mountains and forests. Not only that but also they studied the behavior of plants and animals. Those drawings and studies helped them to find their needs like food, water and shelter. They also survived from risks by using the knowledge that they gathered from those geographical studies. Advantages of the geographical studies was around the basic needs of the human. After thousands of years when the human brain developed to a critical point, some people tried to find reasons for some happenings in the environment. So they used to find the shape of the earth, its size and many more things. In this time geographical knowledge not only around basic needs, but also around human curiosity. Then human needed to spread his power into a wider area. Rulers of many nations tried to fight with other rulers and undertake areas. In this case people made maps to use in wars. And also geographical knowledge was used for political aspects. During this period geography was used for people's need of power additional to the basic needs and curiosity. As a result of changing of the thinking pattern of man, man tried to be economically strong. So they need to spread their business activities not only locally but also internationally. Then they traveled to other countries not only through land but also through oceans. In this case they made maps and found new lands by using geographical knowledge. Economical aspects also connected with geography addition to the basic needs, curiosity, need of power. As results of many changes, during hundreds of years, many problems are arising in both physical and social environments. Environment pollution is there in world and geographical knowledge is the main source which use to understand and evaluate the situation. Addition to that geography knowledge is used to efficiently manage natural and human made resources in world. As a result of busy and complex life style of human, many social problems have being arisen. As a side of social geography, geographers are trying to understand about various social facts that can be useful for develop the relationship among people. It is crystal clear that many stages of human thinking pattern made ” wants ” for people and it was the reason for the development of this geographical science.

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Future of the geographical science

As we studied, geography has being used by people since the basic stages of their evolution. Time to time, the range of this subject was increased with the changes of human mind. Era by era new knowledge was taken under to this science and increased ability to describe any spatial variation which occurred in any period. Even in the present, same thing is happening. New areas are included to this subject by geographer and try to analyze variation of space which happens in the present world. When we consider the past, most of times geographers studied only about physical variations on earth. But today study of social variations also coming up as social geography which identify as one of main side in geography. In future there will be deep changes in human mind. Technology will develop in speedy manner. Addition to that environment pollution, population pressure, economical depression, ase of inequality and ethical crashes will increase in future. So, the possibility to see a huge spatial variation in social environment is not less than the physical spatial variation. In future, geographers studies may very essential for world to analyze and find the solutions for the problems that is going to occur. According to the way that the world is going, there will be remarkable improvements in following subtopics under geography. • • • • • • • • • • •

Biogeography Climatology and paleoclimatology Environment geography and management Pedology Oceanography Cultural geography Development geography Social geography Religion geography Demography Urban geography

Additional to those improvements many new branches can be arise in future according to new problems that man can be face within the space. With the development of software and computer science, analysis part of geographical information will improve in a greater speed. There will be new physical and methodological innovations which can make easy the study of geography. Value of geographical science is increasing more and more in future than today. Universities will pay a great attention on providing more skilled geographers to fulfill the needs of a more complex world that we will be offered in future.

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Group Group No:3 Madugalle E.R.My.D.B Nanayakkra N.H.L.M.D Ranasinghe R.M.I.S Rathnayake S.N Rubasinghe R.T.T Senadheera S.P.T.P Seneviratne S.M.U.C Sonali U.G.R.S Thilakaratne D.M.M Wickramasinghe W.A.Y.I Yapa D.T.D.K Zimara N.M

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UWU/IIT/10/0027 UWU/IIT/10/0029 UWU/IIT/10/0032 UWU/IIT/10/0033 UWU/IIT/10/0035 UWU/IIT/10/0037 UWU/IIT/10/0038 UWU/IIT/10/0041 UWU/IIT/10/0043 UWU/IIT/10/0046 UWU/IIT/10/0048 UWU/IIT/10/0049