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Society & Environment: Short Notes Sociology It was in 1839 that Auguste Comte the French philosopher and sociologist had coined the term ‘Sociology’ & defined the subject matter and the methods of its study. Comte is thus considered to be the father of the Science of Sociology. It was in (427-347B.C), the ancient Greek philosopher made an analysis of the city community in all its aspects. Plato’s republic is an evidence of this. His disciple Aristotle (384-322BC) made systematic study of society and the state. Thus the subject of sociology is not new subject. Sociology is the scientific study of the human behavior all through the recorded history of man. Sociology is the study of the way in which social experience function in developing, maturing and repressing human beings through inter-personal simulation. The word sociology has derived or composed from two latin words. Firstly the socius which means the society or Association and secondly from the word Logos means the science or study. We can say that sociology is simply the study of societies. The definitions of “sociology’ according to auguste Compte called father of sociology stated as “ The branch of social science which deals with the study of social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which means the subject of investigation is called “Sociology”. According to Harry.M.Jhonson is The branch of social science which deals with the study of social groups is known as sociology. According to sociologist Orburn. The subject of social science which deals with the study of social life of man and its relation to the concerning cultural natural environment is termed as “Sociology”. According to Morris ginsberg. The branch of social science, which deals with the study of human interactions and inter-relations their conditions and consequences is known as sociology. From the above explanations of the different definitions by different sociologist their opinions differ somewhat. But on the whole we can say that “sociology is mainly concerned with the study of human behavior his social relations, conditions and consequences with society. Scope of Sociology Every subject has its own areas of study and field in this universe. Similarly sociology has its own place and scope. With the help of sociology we keep good relations with human beings, Economic condition of the

country can be improved, complex problems of the society can be solved. Also the personality of man can be maintained with the knowledge of sociology in the society. With the help of this subject the national integrity can be promoted Sociology is of great help in the mankind which keeps us up-to-date modern social institutions and developments. The subject of sociology makes us to become more alert towards the changes and developments that takes place around us and as a result we can understand about changed roles and responsibilities and expectations. Sociology is the youngest social sciences. It is mainly concerned with the study of society which is generally known as science of societies. But if we are to understand the entire scope of sociology it is necessary to have different sociologist. Some sociologist say that sociology has limited scope, but most of the sociologist have mentioned that the sociology has very wide scope because prof. Giddings has finally mentioned and pointed out the sociology tell us how to become what we want to be. The more scope of sociology can be cleared after studying various points regarding Importance/Value/Utility of sociology.

Importance / Value / Utility of sociology. The following points, which will further strengthen the scope of sociology. 1) The study of sociology helps us in understanding different societies in a systematic & scientific way. It helps us to keep good relations between top leaders of different national and other human beings in general. 2) The subject of sociology throws more light on the social nature of man since it tells us why man is a social animal and lives in groups’ communities and societies. It also tells us to the relationship between individual, society, and the impact of society on man and other matters in general. 3) The sociology is of great need for the under-developed countries since with its help, the economic conditions of the country can be improved to a greater extent. 4) The study of sociology is necessary for understanding and planning of society since it acts as a vehicle of social reform and social reorganizations. It also plays an important role in the

reconstruction of society. 5) The study of sociology has helped several governments to promote the welfare pf tribal people in order to treat at pat with the civilized people. 6) Sociology helps us in locating complex problems of the society thus finding the magnitude solutions of various problems. 7) The subject of sociology helps in studying the role played by various institutions in the development of mans personality living in the society. 8) The subject of sociology helps the professionals to develop better human relations in government and private sectors. 9) The sociology helps us in changing the attitude towards the criminals. 10) The sociology helps us to face new problems and to produce good citizens 11) The subject of helps us to reduce the tensions and social frictions of the society. 12) Sociology helps us to find out the magnitude to our customs, traditions, way of living, dressing and behaviors with other living beings. 13) The sociology helps us in promoting national integrity. 14) The subject sociology helps us in establishing the relationship of democracy with the social institutions like caste, class and family. Impact of technology on society or Relationship of sociology and technology. In the present age of science and technology, the relation of the employees of industrial concerns, commercial houses and technical institutions are not cordial on of one or the other reasons. Thus it is very essential to maintain the relation between the society and technology which will be cleared after knowing the following facts. i. it helps social institutions by bringing people close to each other. The rigidity of caste system is given up and above all many superstitions have gone out of society. ii. It helps in developing the scientific approach to every problem of the modern society.

iii. It has changed the family system from t to single because it is very difficult to live on the income of single man due to fast changing trends of the society. iv. It helps increasing the living standard of the people which changes the production and distribution pattern. v. It helps in bringing the industrial revolution. vi. It helps in developing new avenues for employment. vii. It helps in improving the economy of the country. viii. It helps in shifting the people from rural areas to urban areas. ix. It helps in creating healthy environment essentially required for living. x. It helps in minimizing the significance of religion. xi. It helps in making the woman of the society self-sufficient.

Basic Factors in the Social Life of a Man The basic factors in the social life of a man are as follows 1) Heredity 2) Natural environment 3) Social heritage 4) Social group Heredity: The quality of transmission of tradition (character) to the next of following generation is called Heredity (Inheritance). Man is always eager to learn and has lot of capacity for this purpose. Man is acquired supreme position in the animal kingdom. He is capacity to learn, to solve complex problems, to build engineering structures. Design various parts of machines to do istration. Mrs. Kelogg studied a case of a man and monkey in order to find out whether monkey is inability to speak due to heredity. Natural environment: It includes earth, sky, air, water, plants, trees and so many other animals of

different kinds. Man also shares all these with other animals Social Heritage: It means culture, which is the outcome of man’s hands and mind. Social heritage includes material culture, social organization, artistic attainment, religion and philosophy. Social group: It teaches culture. It transmits social heritage. The impact of culture on the individual is made mainly through the medium of social group. It may be a family, neighborhood, playmates, college, school, social gathering etc. It shapes the personality and also on the other hand rewards or punishes the individual. Society The largest group of persons which is formed by a population, organization, time, place and interests is called a society, Population includes both sexes of all ages. A social life is organized as a division of labour in a common place and permanently in time. In society, generally common interests are shared among the . Study of sociology by social workers Our culture is changing rapidly. It clearly shows that our present generation and the future generation will be under new conditions. The object of sociology is discover knowledge. It includes modern social problems and their analysis. Sociology helps in understanding the social problems as it is the basic aspect of social life. Social workers are mainly concerned with social problems which result from; i) Maladjustments between different parts of culture, due to the fact that sudden changes develop in one part w.r.t another part i.e. business losses which cause depressions unemployment in youth which causes mental torture and frustration etc. other example includes ii) Widows in Hindu society not respected iii) Bride and bridegroom price iv) Labor problems lack of social checks v) Age of marriage.

vi) Difficulties in the adjustment of the problems of sex and crime. Social workers play a vital role in dealing with solving the following problems: i. How they develop a change in culture? ii. How various groups operate? iii. How the change in culture affects the personality? Sociology, therefore, helps to predict and plan. It helps to grow sympathetic appreciation.

Sociology and Economics Sociology and Economics both study industry but they do so differently. Economics study economic institutions such as factories, trade, bank and transportation exclusively. They are not concerned with the church, the family or the courts. In a subject of economics, one may hear, the effect of bank rate of interest on factory production but in a subject of sociology, one may not hear so. Social life is very complex in modern times that division of labour is needed to study it. We have economics concerned with economic institutions; political science specializing in government education studying the schools and the law devoted to the courts. Sociology, History & Anthropology Sociology is general subject. It studies many widely different social institutions. The concern of sociology with economic institutions may be with the social aspects of economic activities, e.g. the effect of factory production on cities or the effect of business prosperity upon the number of marriages. Therefore Sociology is particularly interested in the relationship of economic activities to other social institutions. It also deals, with characteristics that are common to all groups and societies. Therefore, it includes much study of social classes, of social prestige, of rank and discrimination and power. Such phenomena are found widely distributed. There are social classes e.g. in a factor, in schools, in churches, in governments, in temples and gurudwaras and in the army. Therefore, social status can be studied in a better way by the general science of sociology than by economics alone or by education,

political science or military science. Another science like sociology is anthropology. It deals with widely distributed phenomena such as customs and also treats several different institutions such as religion, the family and the tribe. But generally authropologists have restricted themselves to study of primitive preliterate peoples e.g. the Eskomo or the Bantu. History differs from sociology. It is concerned with describing unique events such as industrialization of England. On other hand, sociology does not deal so much with happenings. More over names like Elsenhower and Churchill do not turn up very often in sociology books. In sociology, a common question always arises why? In sociology stress is land on causes and explanations. Sociology-Scientific study of social life Generally all sociologists study the social life of human beings. But on the other side, there is animal’s sociology. It deals with the social life of lower animals like chimpanzees or insects whose social activity has a truly remarkable organization. Social life is the interaction of individuals when such interaction occurs between two or more persons more than just once. It may be repeated million of times over a period of time. We use same salute to greet each other. Parents fallow a uniform pattern in teaching their children to walk. Ladies prepare food after men bring it home. These repetitions become manners, social institutions such as the family or communities, all of which we call social organization. Therefore in nutshell it can be said that sociology studies social organization. Every new child needs not to create such interactions because they are in existence, in practice, when babies are born. They learn manners and institutional ways of doing things instead of learning them. This means that old traditions i.e. culture becomes very important for the social life of any group. People act through such social organizations for meeting their livelihood. Through such organizations they create a variety of things such as music, words, morals, buildings, vehicles, wealth etc. The study of

product is the subject matter of special disciplines such as education, religion, and technology. Sociologists are the result of social life and conditions of social living.

Society and community Sl. No. Society Community 1. It tries to be self-sufficient It cannot become self-sufficient on of limited range of activity. 2. For its formation, in additions to population, should have feeling of oneness. For its formation, population is essentially required. 3. The must have social relation It is not essential for the to maintain social relations. 4. There must be both like and unlike minded peoples There must be like minded people 5. Every is developed on the other Every member is not dependent on the other. 6. Society can embrace many communities There cannot be many communities in community 7. Common aims are closely coordinated Common aims are loosely coordinated. 8. Chances of personal development are very less. Chances of personal development are more.

Society and association Sl. No. Society Association 1. It never gets dissolved It may be dissolved after the goal is achieved 2. It may or may not be organized. It must be organized. 3. The man is a social anima and therefore can’t think of living without society It is not binding on a person. It may or may not an association. 4. Society come into existence from the day the man appeared on earth Association come into existence only after the man developed the habit of organizing himself for achieving some goal. 5. It has no specific purpose of formation It has specific purpose of formation. Association & institution Sl. No. Association Institution 1. It is well organized It deals with the procedure of work. 2. It is concrete It is not in concrete but abstract in nature and character. 3. The can violate the laws The laws cannot be violated 4. It can be created at any time It cannot exist suddenly.

5. The laws of an association are more of rational character. The laws are not of rational character. 6. It fulfils secondary needs of the people It fulfils the important and specific need of the society.

Public & Crowd Characteristics of Institutions and Special Interests Characteristic institutions Special Interests College Lecture, exam, system, graduation Learning vocation preparation Family Marriage, Home Sex, Percentage, home Temple Forms of worship, creed Religious faith State Constitution, legal code, forms of government General regulations of the social order Business Book-Keeping system & share capital Profits Institution and Community Sl. No. Institution Community 1. It does not possess a definite beginning It possesses a definite beginning. 2. It requires manners. It does not require specific manners. 3. It deals with specific aspects of human life It concerns with the social life style of a human being. 4. It can be imagined. It is concrete.

5. Every member is supposed to fallow certain rules and regulations, which cannot be violated. In a community, it is not essential to follow rules & regulations 6. It fulfils the important and specific needs of the society It fulfils, common needs of group people Society The largest group to which any individual belongs is called Society. It is made up of a population, organization, time, place and interests. Social life is organized in systematic way. Many common interests are shared and tend to make social life self sufficient among the . Animal societies resemble human societies. Human societies are based on shared beliefs. They are controlled by a system of moral rules that is mutually binding on each individual. Sl. No. Public Crowd 1. It is well organized It is not well organized 2. It is of larger size than crowd It is of smaller size 3. It lives in a peaceful way It cannot live in a peaceful way 4. In this case, views are expressed in a peaceful way In this case, views are expressed in violent way

5. It is not emotional It is emotional 6. It is not violet It is violet. 7. The interest of society are properly taken and looked after. The interest of few persons are looked after 8. Presence of every individual is not essential Presence of every individual is essential

Community A group small or large, which lives together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of a common life, is called community. One cannot live in a business organization or in a religious place. One can live with in a tribe or a city. The basic criteria of community are that all of ones social relationships are found within it. Some of the communities are inclusive and independent of others. The major characteristic of modern communities is economic and political interdependence. We may live in metropolitan cities and yet to be of a very small community because our interests are circumscribed within narrow area. We may live in a village and yet belong to a community as wide as the whole area of our civilization; communities exist within greater communities such as town with in a religion, region within a nation and the nation within the world community. A Community, therefore, is an area of social livings marked by some degree of social co-herence and bases are locality and community sentiments. Association A group of human beings, which is organized to watch the interest of an individual or group, is called an association. There are three ways by which human beings fulfils their desires

1. By acting independently 2. By conflict with one another. Conflict is ever-present part of social life. 3. By pursuing their ends in company on some co-operative basis. The last one may be spontaneous such as the offering of a helping hand to a stranger but it may be casual and can be determined by the customs of community. The former assist their neighbors at the harvest time. A group, on the other side, may organize itself expressly for the purpose of pursuing some of its interest together and when this happens, an association is born hence association is a group organized for the pursuit of the interest of an individual or group form common interest. Institution When associations are created by men, they must also create rules and procedures for the transmission if common business and for the regulation of the to one another. Such forms are referred as institutions. Every association has w.r.t. its particular interest, its characteristic institutions e.g. the religious place, a temple or a guruwara, has its sacraments, its modes of worship and its rituals. The family has marriage i.e. the institutions of making relationship. The state has its own specific institutions. Institution denotes a mode or means of service, college is an institution when regarded as an educational system but on other hand, it is considered as an association when considered as a body of teachers and students. Institutions help in controlling human activities, give guidance and give right directions. They help the people in working collectively for the promotion of social culture. They play a vital role in transferring social knowledge, technology and ideas social knowledge, technology and ideas from one generation to another. Social Group A collection of individual interacting on each other under a recognizable structure is called Social Group. It may be a political party or a Cricket club. It is made up of a number of people having certain

common characteristics. Individuals of same business, of a particular race, persons having 8 of 21 a similar income etc., appertain to as many potential groups as for as they have no union or any organization but once they become organized, they form a social group. This type of formation may easily happen when they’re common interests are threatened of their class, race consciousness or any other bond of union becomes intensified. Social groups are classified depending upon the nature o their interests, the degree of organization, the extent of their performance, the kind of among the and their likes. The groups of which we are govern much of our behavior and experience. Much determined by the individual himself. Moreover the individual so far as he is interested works under his own power and on his own initiative for his groups and also collaborates with the other in evolving and carrying out collective policies and programs. A group may be primary or secondary. A primary group is form of association in which a small number of persons meet ‘face-to-face’ for communication, mutual aid, common discussion or some common policy. The secondary group rests on indirect s. People may not be knowing each other personally e.g. political parties, trade unions, large crowd etc. Custom The social accredited ways of acting is called custom. In institutions and associations, there exists a mode of behavior. There are accepted procedures of eating, conversing, meeting folks, training the young caring for the aged etc., Custom & Institution The difference is essentially one of degree. Institution indicates a more definite recognition. We may call the marriage feast on institution but various courtship practices are better called Customs. Marriage is an institution and not a custom. Institutions have marks of public recognition which custom do not require. When we talk of customs , we think of the accepted ways in which people do

things together in personal s but when talk of institutions, we then think rather of the system of controls which extends beyond personal relations. The system is bond between the past and the present and between the future and the present thus linking men to their ancestors, their gods as well as their descendents. Therefore, we are not disturbed seriously with the changing customs but are disturbed by what way appear to be threats to property or marriage the institution which are organizations of political, economic and religious life. Folkways The recognized or accepted ways of behaving in society and as such include conventions, forms of etiquette is called folkways. They vary from society to society and also from time to time. Wearing a necktie is a folkway of our society. They have positive role in a group and less deeply rooted in society. The number of folkways is infinite. They change with changing social conditions. Mores. The folkways considered regulators of behavior are called Mores. They indicate a value judgment about the folkways a group sense what is fitting, right and conductive to well being. When the folkways have added to them conceptions of group welfare, standards of right and wrong, them they are concerted into mores. The wearing of cloths of certain style e.g. represents uniformity with folkways while the wearing of cloths themselves is enforced by the mores. As per W.G.Summer “When the folkways take on a a philosophy of right living and life policy of welfare, then they becomes mores.” These ed to include well defined ways as customs and institutions, fashions and ceremonial and also referred as public opinion, national spirit etc. The mores are always considered ‘right’ by the group. Which shares them, one of the important reasons is that a wide range of experience mostly forgotten experience. The more are the 9 of 21

agents of conservatism. They change from age to age as you will find by comparing the range of approve activities of women of three generations ago with that of today. Functions of MORES in Social Life The functions of general nature are as fallows 1. These tend to determine much of our individual behavior. 2. These identify the individual with the group. 3. These behave as guardians of solidarity. Every social togetherness has its own mores; i.e. mores of each sex, for all ages, for all classes from the family to the nation behind. The mores function to maintain the solidarity. The force of the mores diminishes in those societies where diverse groups are brought together. They are more integrated and more integrating in the rural communities than in the urban communities. With change in society, the mores become more specialized. As such as they appear as a series of social codes, custom and fashion and law. They also appear as codes of various religious, social and culture groups. Audience and mob A number of persons physically present in the same place at the same time, all of whom are subjected to dome stimulus like Cinema theatre or foot ball match is called audience. Intensity of interaction is low as the people are usually conscious that others are viewing them also and accordingly they indicated a change in their behavior. In case of mob, interaction is there but only on one occasion. Although it is of short duration yet it is of great interest. A bob also fallow the direction given by their leader who motivates the mob for achieving a particular target. Taboos are the mores in their forbidding function. The mores represent the living character of a group, operative in conscious or unconscious control over its . They compel behavior and forbid it. In their forbidding action, we know them as taboos. They are at once, the expressions and limitation

of group life or community life. Advantages of Fashions i. Fashion help in bringing social change. ii. Fashion help the society to accept the changes willingly and in a fast manner. iii. Fashion help in maintaining discipline. iv. Fashion provide psychological satisfaction. v. Fashion increase the prestige and status of rich people who initiate new designs in these fields. vi. Fashions improves the behavior and talking of every individual. Social Stratification The division of society in permanent groups or categories linked with each other by the relationships of superiority and subordination is called Social Stratification. Men are essentially equal but still differ from one another in many ways which belongs to the physical moral or intellectual orders. RAM & Ashok Ex. Are both men still differing in skin colour, stature, moral convictions and practical abilities? They differ in many non essential or accidental 10 of 21 qualities. In the life of a man equality in essentials is a common as inequality in accidentals. But such differences do not pose any serious social problem unless there are common interests & loyalties. Stability in the groups so formed is another requirement for the social stratification. Stability is necessary but not sufficient. A permanent division of society based e.g. on sex or occupation would find out the existence of various groups or categories of men & women quite different from each other. Advantages of Social Stratification i. Individuals work hard achieving higher status in society. ii. Sense of responsibility is developed between each individual.

iii. Rules and regulations are formed for the benefit of the society. iv. Individual status is identified in the society. v. Efficient people are honored and recognized. Characteristics of Social Stratification i. it ensures that every individual remains with within its limited scope. ii. It divides the labour according to the status and effort put in by each individual. iii. It couples each class or caste to improve certain restriction on its such as in regard to dress, food, occupation etc. iv. It varies from one society to another. v. It plays vital role in evaluating the social structure. vi. It considerably influenced by the developing trends in technology e.g. urbanization & industrialization. vii. It tends to motivate the lower classes to work hard so that they can improve their living standards, social and political conditions likely to be resisted by upper class people. Social Class Social classes are more or less spontaneous formations expressive of social attitudes. Communities are socially stratified in number of ways. The sex division is always of major sociological importance and division into age groups in also a predominant characteristic of the internal structure of the community. They are not like political classes or like associations. The people in the past were not class conscious. They used to live and hard together for uplifting their families. But trends changed when the people on one side were poor and needy. Slowly and slowly this distinction increased. Very rich, lesser rich and poor transformed into classes. Development of Social Classes 1. Slave system

2. Feudal System. 3. Multiplicity of classes 4. Bourgeoisie system 5. Capitalists 6. middle class and its sub-division 7. educated and uneducated classes 11 of 21 Criteria for dividing the society into classes ? Birth Criteria: Babies born in rich families were always placed in higher class against those babies who were in the lower caste e.g. slaves, serfs etc. because in the past there was no division of classes depending upon ability, education and talent of the individual. ? Status: The various occupations make up vertical divisions of the community but on the other side the divisions that reflect the principal of social class are horizontal strata. Social class exists where there is distinction between higher and lower. Therefore, social class is the horizontal strata. Social class is any portion of the community marked off from the rest by social status. ? Economic Criteria: this approach is presented by the Marxian school and others. According to writes, class is always a manifestation of economic differentiation. This factor is commonly associated with the status distinction. In some cases class differences do not correspond to economic differences. In Hindu religion member of respectable caste may be the employees or servants of a lower classes ? Education Criteria: Class distinction is also made on the basis of education. Those people who have obtained their education from foreign countries or well educated are considered better by the society as compared to those who are illiterate. Illiterate person do not enjoy respect from society although their number is much more than that of educated persons.

Limitation of Occupational Prestige Limitations of occupational prestige are as follows 1. It is limited with power. Persons possessing higher powers form a group. They would not like to be in the company persons possessing less power. 2. It is linked with society. Certain persons having good qualifications may not enjoy much respect from literate society then illiterate society. 3. It also linked with the intensions of society. 4. It is also linked with the availability factors i.e. Engineers, Doctors are more respected than any other profession they are in short supply. a. he has not dealt middle class at all b. he did not give any weightage to co-operation c. He has neglected the conflict between different classes on one pretext or the other. Caste System Caste system is a special type of social stratification and found in ancient India but elements of it are found throughout the world. The word caste is derived from the Spanish Casta meaning breed, strain or a complex of hereditary qualities and it was applied by the Portuguese to the particular Indian Institution known as by the name of jati. A Person born in caste remains in it for life dies in it and his children except in extra-ordinary cases of mixed marriages. According to Coolay, when a class is some what strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste. This system is always safe guarded by social laws and sanctified by religion. Taboos Another element of caste by which the superior castes try to preserve their ceremonial purity and all in general endeavour to avoid or neutralize the potentialities for evil, believed to exist in every person is called Taboos.

12 of 21 ? The most of the current taboos are ? The Food taboo: this prescribes the persons who may eat. ? The Cooking taboo: This defines the persons who may cook food. ? The Eating taboo: this lays down the manners and rituals to be followed at meals. ? The drinking taboo: this deals with the person with whom one may drink or smoke. Characteristics of Caste System Characteristics of caste system are as fallows ? Inter caste marriages are discouraged. A Kashmiri boy would like to marry a Kashmiri girl and so on. ? Higher class people imposed restrictions on themselves as well as a lower class people. ? Restriction on occupation is imposed on the family . ? Castes are further divided into sub-caste who develops their own rules and regulations. ? Privileges are given to high caste people only. ? Society is divided into number of sections. People of particular caste care more for their caste than the community as a whole while sitting in group discussions. ? Restrictions are imposed on interaction. Advantages of Caste system ? It preserves Culture. ? It maintains purity of blood. ? It results in higher efficiency. ? It helps in the division of work in the community. ? It helps in the growth of panchayath system. ? It develops the spirit of co-ordination. ? It tends to raise the living standards of the people

? It tends to produce good citizens. ? It tends to maintain discipline. Demerits of Caste System i. It encourages the changes in religion ii. It encourages the creation of idle class. iii. It tends to create a false sense of prestige among higher caste people. iv. It is opposed to national unity. v. It is against the democratic spirit which believes in human equality vi. It encourages the higher class people to ill-treat the lower class. vii. It does not provide wisdom to all which is essentially required for maintaining social relation as well as for the benefit of the nation. How Urbanization and Industrialization influence caste system? i. The harijans are working hard in cities and even employ the high caste people. ii. The children of all caste study together and play together. iii. Mixing of high caste people and low caste people is common meetings in which the views of all are to be weighed equally. iv. Due to urbanization, people of all caste travel together, eat together and work together. v. Lower caste people hold superior positions in istration and high caste people work under them. Supermacy because of the caste can not be shown. vi. Low caste people and high caste people live together in residential accommodation provided by the owner of the factory. 13 of 21 Risley’s theory in the origin of caste Risley’s theory in the origin of caste, is known as fact and fiction. Risley’s say that there are two elements, basis of facts and a super structure of fiction, in growth of caste sentiment. When ever, in

the world, one person has subdued another, the conquerors have taken the woman of the country as wives but on the other side, have given their daughter in marriage only among themselves. When the two people are of the same race, the evolution runs on a different line. The tendency is then towards the formation of a class of half-breeds i.e. the result of irregular unions between men of higher class and women of lower class. This has been found in various parts of the world. When it came to India, it was extended to all ranks of the society by the fiction that the people who speak a different language live in separate district/state, worship different gods, take different food, follow different customs etc. Sl. No. Class Caste 1. The restriction are not many The restrictions are more. 2. It does not posses a narrow area It possesses narrow thiniking 3. It has secular origin It has no secular origin 4. It is possible to arrange inter-class marriage It is not at all possible to arrange inter-caste marriage 5. It is not difficult to leave class It is difficult to leave caste. 6. The status can be changed by knowledge ability. The status cannot change whatever knowledge, a person may possess. 7. It allows the to adopt any profession of their choice. It does not allow any change. Member will have to adopt profession of their ancestors. 8. It is Flexible system. It is rigid system.

Classification on the basis of the differential 1. hip: It may be held by virtue of birth and on the other side; it may also be by another criteria as in the case of marriages by personal choice in our society. 2. Personal Qualities: Personal qualities are any of these features of an individual which differentiate him from another for ex. Sex, age, strength, intelligence, personal beauty. 3. Achievements: These are the valued results of the actions of individuals. 4. Authority : It is an institutionally recognized right to influence the action of others 5. Power: Persons who have power secure a certain kind of direct reorganization. Occupation An activity which engages each member of a society for meeting their daily needs. It has social approval and is respected by the society is called occupation. When occupation has no social utility and the society does not accept the methods used for earning money, then such occupation is condemned by the society and the persons involved do not enjoy respect, position and social prestige. Categories of Occupation 1. Professional and high s 2. Managerial and executives. 3. Supervisory offices. 4. Low supervisory officers. 5. Skilled manual labor. 6. Semi-skilled manual labor. 7. Unskilled manual labor. 14 of 21 Factors Responsible for bringing Prestige to an Occupation 1. Expertness in solving a problem

2. Social acceptance. 3. Nature of Society. 4. Service conditions. 5. Type of people 6. job Security 7. Social benefits. 8. Reward and remuneration. 1. Service conditions: It means that when the work is of permanent nature or of the temporary nature. 2. Job Security: The prestige to an occupation is also brought by the security of service as it involves right of expression and participation in the running of istration and management affairs. The people having job security will be more respected by the society. 3. Social Benefits: The occupations which derive no of benefits from society are respected e.g. engineering profession and medical profession enjoys more prestige due to social utilities. 4. Expertness in solving a problem: The prestige of an occupation also depends on personal knowledge in solving a problem. A person having put in 20 years of service will be much more knowledge in solving problems may be istration or managerial or any other than a new comer. Under such circumstances, such people and hence occupation became prestigious. Mobility The primary characteristics of life-be it man or animal is called mobility. Social mobility is the manifestation of vitality in human beings. It examples are formation, alteration, and dissolution of family structure. It takes place in two ways i. Vertical mobility ii. Horizontal mobility The former is the class and caste metabolism within the social structure. This term is associated with the

class structure and it refer to the change of work or residence without a status change Causes of Involuntary Migration 1. Lack of sufficient funds. 2. Lack of paper leader. 3. Lack of bargaining capacity. 4. Lack of proper discipline in the union. 5. Lack of for ever. 6. Lack of rigidity in the minds of workers. Advantages of Corporate Business Organizations i. These develop a feeling of co-operation. ii. These tend to save time and energy. iii. These are helped in establishing big business enterprises. iv. These tend to minimize the cost of handling commodities. v. These tend to increase the production. vi. These help in increasing the technical knowledge. 15 of 21 Social Institutions The organization of several folkways and more into a unit which servers a number of social functions is called Social Institutions. It is defined as certain enduring and accepting forms of procedure governing the relations between the individuals and groups. Social institutions make use of buildings and it also equally true that each institution depends upon its agents; many of them specialize in the performance of institutional function. Role of Education, Family & Religion for social institutions Education develops the techniques, beliefs and status acceptances that are essential in the division of

labor, classes, castes etc. It also transmits proper respect. The family and religion are always integrated closely. Religious beliefs the family. The God is always viewed as bestowing approval upon it. Conceptions of the supernatural reflect the family. Why Institutions are called ‘The great Conservative Forces of History? The various elements of culture change in time and institution are no exception. Institutions are organized units of simpler and lesser elements of culture. Therefore institution can preserve much of their essential character while some of the particular folkways and mores are changing radically. It is due to this reason that institutions are also known as the great conservative forces in history. Family Institution The family and marriage are the ancient institutions around them have grown up powerful sentiments and tradition, the creations of God rather than the products of man and such they are absolute, final and unalterable. Most of the people go to the opposite extreme and declare that marriage is an outworn, absolute custom. But most of the people still believe that they are as indispensable today as they have been past. The words marriage and family are commonly linked. They are not one and the same marriage means a union between persons of the opposite sex which is generally accepted and sanctioned by society. The term family means the group comprising a husband and wife and their dependent children or A Group of closely related individuals. In the family institution, there are adjustments in beliefs, attitude, traditions etc. the family institutions, varies widely from place to place. The family is the first of all social institutions and not a more association. The family is the most of basic social group and of primary importance. The family whose are bound together by institutionalized social relationships with them. It is most intimate group to which man belongs and most effective agent in the transmission of the social heritage.

Functions of Family i. It preserves the past traditions which reflect the culture. ii. It satisfies the sex requirements. iii. It provides the desire of children. iv. It prepares the children to face the society boldly. v. It checks anti-social activities of its . vi. It provides shelter to its from social evils. vii. It fulfils the basic needs. viii. It provides educational facilities to its . ix. It preserves the religious traditions. 16 of 21 Marriage A formal and durable sexual union of one or more men with one or more women with in a set of designated rights and duties of social institutions is called marriage. The relationship of the man and wife is matter of public control. A marriage, however, is universally dissolved, its rights and duties cease with the death of either partner. No where diverse of approved in principle but on of certain stated causes, some provision is made for dissolution of union during the lifetime of the partners. It is always and every where ed in public ceremonial or marriage rite. Rite is usually an elaborate affair, fallowed by a public celebration but in some cases it very simple. Arranged Marriage The marriage arranged by the parents of the boy and girl is called arranged marriage. Marriage is a serious affair because the union of two human beings brings the family which is one of most important social institution. Probationary marriage

The girl and the boy are allowed to socially mix with each other before actual marriage is called probationary marriage. By mixing, they try to understand the view point of each other. Marriage takes place only if both of them approve otherwise not. Characteristics of marriage system i. It is based on exogamy. ii. It is complete only when certain formalities as per the traditions of social institutions or society are completed. iii. It does not permit inter caste marriage. iv. It is a costly affair in India as marriage. v. It encourages the dowry system. vi. It is with consent of parents. vii. It is considered to be the union of two families. viii. It does not permit the love marriage. ix. It is a permanent bond. Polygamy The plural mating i.e. both male and female can marry more or one female or male husband or wife is called polygamy. It’s again divided into a) Polyandry: The marriage of one woman with two or more men is called Polyandry. It is found no where in the higher civilization. It is very rare among preliterate people. b) Polygyny: Marriage of one man with two or more women, which is much more common than polyandry, is called Polygyny. On of male’s universal dominance and the lack of a mating season the human male has a natural tendency to collect as many females as he can. 17 of 21

Monogamy Union of one man and one woman is called Monogamy. Monogamy is almost everywhere, the most frequent form of marriage. Most of such unions are owing to custom, poverty or non availability of of opposite sex. In this system maximum love, care, affection and sympathy develop along with sense of unity and oneness. Close union between husband and wife develops much faster than the other systems. New trends Regarding Attitude towards Marriage i) Monogamy system of marriage is preferred in India due to the understanding that harmonious relations will develop in the family along with love and affection. ii) Wife is not regarded as a child producing machine. Family welfare schemes have enlightened both the wife and husband who prefer not to have more than two or three children. iii) Woman, in society are now being respected more than that of the past. iv) A new feeling has developed among Indian women. A Hindu wife can diverse her husband under certain specified rules. v) Single family replacing the t family system due to enormous changes in cultural, economic, political and industrial fields. Hindu Marriage Act ? The Hindu marriage act was ed in 1955. It provides that marriage age for girls not be less then 15 years and for the boy should not be less then 18 years. ? The parties i.e. the families of boy and girl are not within degree of prohibited relationship. ? No two persons can marry if their tracings have common blood relations either through their father or mother. ? According to this act the women were given right to break marriage with their husband and vice-versa under certain specified rules and regulations.

? Wife can also seek divorce if the husband has another living wife or guilty of rape or has deserted the wife for the last two years of has treated his wife cruelly or is of unsound mind. Religion An organized effort to make virtue of our ultimate necessities is called religion. The universality of religious is not to be found in the forms of religious beliefs and practice because there is an endless diversity of such forms. Some worship their ancestors. Some religious facts promise a life after death. In some religious god is one and are many in another. From sociological point of view, a religion is defined as ‘A System of belief and symbolic practices and objects, governed by faith rather than by knowledge which relates man to an unseen supernatural realm beyond the known and beyond the controllable. ??? 18 of 21 Historical Perspectives Science and technology play a vital role in the development of any country. Science and technology promotes research in new emerging frontline areas of science and engineering in consultation with other organizations and help in development of construction technology, use of coal ash for power generation and upgrading technology etc. these development largely help in bringing social changes, in raising the standards of community in every field. All available resources in a country are used and to the maximum possible extent. Historical Perspectives The knowledge of past events regarding the origin and development of the nation or world is referred as the historical perspectives of various fields. The historical perspectives are of great importance of the concerned departments as the further progress or development of the country can be made after seeing previous historical perspectives or records. The

historical perspectives can be in the field of i. various societies which comes under heading of sociology. ii. Industrial & agriculture growth. iii. Science and technology iv. Defence atomic and space research. v. Medical Research. Scientists and technologists work for the uplift of the country through inventions and innovations. They always try to expand knowledge. Scientist explore the nature and find out the truth whereas as engineer studies the truth and design accordingly various items which are helpful it the society in number of ways. Technological advancement brings social changes in the society. Scientific policy of 1958/ Role of Science & Technology / Strategy of Jawaharlal Lal Nehru to promote Science & Technology. The policy adopted by govt. of India in 1958 regarding scientific missions to give maximum benefits and scientific knowledge to people and hence the country is referred as the scientific policy 1958. The main aim of this scientific policy was to use the maximum applications of science and technology in the field of; 1. Agriculture 2. Industrial research, growth & promotion. 3. Atomic Energy 4. Space Science & Technology. 5. General Science & Technology etc. To execute the important major projects, Govt. has provided a large number of organizations, departments, and councils to complete the work in a smooth way. Some of the important councils, departments and organizations are listed below. ? Indian Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR)

? Indian Council of medical Research (ICAR) ? Indian council of medical Research (ICMR) ? Department of science & technology(DST) ? Department of atomic energy (DAE) ? Department of Biotechnology (DOB) ? Department of Environment (DOEN) ? Defense Research & Development organization (DRDO) During the period, under Export and Import policy, India came under several crises for foreign exchange. Keeping in view this fact, the Govt. changed the different policies from time to time for further growth of the country. Main Objectives of Science Policy Resolution of 1958/ Importance of Science & Technology The Govt. of India followed the resolution in 1958 regarding science to achieve special missions for the growth of country. The main objectives under this policy are as fallows. 1. To promote and sustain growth of science & scientific research. 19 of 21 2. To encourage creative talents of the individual of the society. 3. To provide and secure the benefit of science and technology for the community as a whole. 4. To encourage programmes of training in the field of research and science. 5. To help the individual for acquiring scientific Knowledge. 6. To meets country’s requirements. 7. To effectively utilize the human and material resources the rough industrialization. 8. To make up for the deficiency of raw material, by providing substitutes. 9. To bridge the gap between the developed and developing countries. Institutional Developments/ Role of Science & Technology in Development The developments made by different institutions in the welfare of the country in an organized manner

are called Institutional Development. (An organization or society established for the purpose of education, cultural activities, research etc. is known as an institution.) The institutional developments are generally organized by the Govt. departments in under to implement the new policies required from time to time develop the nation internally and externally. After independence, various development schemes were started in the field of education, science, agriculture, technology for the generating trained man power at all levels. Various technical institutions at Diploma and Degree levels, medical institutions for the health studies etc. were opened for generating professional manpower in the field of Engineering and Technology. Govt. of India with the recent help of World Bank is improving and upgrading the system of Technical Education in the country by uplifting. i. About 600 Polytechnics and 400 Engineering Colleges to be more effective. ii. 5 Indian institutes of technology (IIT) and 17 Regional Engineering colleges to promote education at higher level. iii. 4 Technical Teacher Training Institutes (TTTI) are functioning to give new methods of teachings and research in different branches of science & technology up to under graduate levels. A part from this, sandwich classes/courses are going on in most of the above mentioned technical institutes in collaboration with industries to have more practical knowledge. National level institutes have also been opened to provide assistance to private and public sector enterprises. Assistance is also provided in solving management problems, in conducting programmes for research and Ph.D degrees. Institutions have also been opened which full time/part time as well as correspondence courses in general and also in functional areas of management. Research facilities have also been setup. In another way, we can that National policy of Education has played a very important role in improving

the quality of teacher. Various schools, colleges, Universities are scheduling their programmes for the benefit of faculty, Society and nation. Both organizational and infrastructure was very weak in 1947 and now the same as been considerably consolidated. We now do not see towards other countries. Our country has all kind of experts for scientific and technical fields. National science and technology council was set up in 1990 to provide policy and direction for harnessing science and technology, for national development. Number of committees has set up in various ministries. Expenditure up to eighty five percent shared by the central Government or science & technology. Research and development bodies are atomic energy and space research. ICAR and ISIR are research and development performing bodies still lot of efforts are required to be done for putting the available resources for carrying out research work in science & technology. Results of Planning The outcome of the planning is known the result of planning. It is very important to see that results off various planning’s in order to go further in any filed for the development of counting. 20 of 21 In planning, lot of funds are kept for carrying out the developments in the filed of science and technology. Planning commission was set up in 1950 to prepare a blue print for planning. Development in science and technology is responsible for social progress but also responsible for social problems. Positive Results i. Most of the villages have supplied with the electricity. ii. Revolution in industry came after second 5 –year plan, iii. Educational institutions have been opened for imparting education may be general, technical or medical. iv. Numbers of hospitals have been opened in villages. v. Dams have been connected to generate electricity & supply of water for irrigation

purposes. vi. Developments have taken in the field of communication. vii. New equipments have been developed to meet the agricultural as well as industrial requirements. viii. Country as attained self sufficiency in most of the basic needs of the society. Negative Results i. Funds are not used judiciously. There is mis-management in this regard. ii. Dept. On non-conventional energy source has shown any result. iii. Govt. Dept. lack of efficiency. iv. Planners do not have any idea about the basic needs of people. v. Professional frustration exits. vi. No fallow up action is taken on the project reports. vii. Human resources property has not been developed. Technology policy Statement 1983 The policy was announced in January 1983 by government of India the aim was i. Modernize the equipment ii. To modernize the approach of technology. iii. To improve conservation of energy iv. To ensure maximum benefits for the society with minimum capital. v. To attain self-sufficient. vi. To attain technological competence. vii. To use the human resources most effectively. viii. To develop country economically. It has been proposed to set up a science and technology advisory committee(STAC) in each economic ministry.

Information from manpower development India is a vast country with vast power. Man power plays a very important role in development of community. The object of man power development is to ensure proper linkage of economic planning with man power is also connected with educational planning. This connection is essentially required so that to that manpower may be properly trained. Lack of man power resulted serious problems. The basic needs of the people not filled, vast majority is living below poverty line. Development activities have not been taking by many countries only because they have not got sufficient man power. Employment exchanges have been provided to assist all skilled as well as semi skilled employment seekers through placement against jobs notified by employees. Highly educated people are willing to work at low positions. Their energy should be used for developmental work. Man power in India is trained in professional colleges at heavy costs. They leave the country and settled down abroad for meeting their livelihood. 21 of 21 Principles of Ecosystem Management (1) Sustainability. Ecosystem Management does not focus primarily on "deliverables" but rather regards intergenerational sustainability as a precondition. (2) Goals. Ecosystem Management establishes measurable goals that specify future processes and outcomes necessary for sustainability. (3) Sound ecological models and understanding. Ecosystem Management relies on research performed at all levels of ecological organization. (4) Complexity and connectedness. Ecosystem Management recognizes that biological diversity and structural complexity strengthen ecosystems against disturbance and supply the genetic resources necessary to adapt to long-term change. (5) The dynamic character of ecosystems. Recognizing that change and evolution are inherent

inEcosystem sustainability, Ecosystem Management avoids attempts to "freeze" ecosystems in a particular state or configuration. (6) Context and scale. Ecosystem processes operate over a wide-range of spatial and temporal scales, and their behavior at any given location is greatly affected by surrounding systems. Thus, there is no single appropriate scale or timeframe for management. (7) Humans as ecosystem components. Ecosystem Management values the active role of humans in achieving sustainable management goals. (8) Adaptability and ability. Ecosystem Management acknowledges that current knowledge and paradigms of ecosystem function are provisional, incomplete, and subject to change. Management approaches must be viewed as hypotheses to be tested by research and monitoring programs.